Saka 176861 223296748 2008-07-03T13:13:32Z TheSuave 7326735 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/Aathrey|Aathrey]]; Unsourced information. Please cite references.. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) {{for|the Athenian tragic poet|Acestor Sakas}} {{for|the Indian era|Saka Era}} {{Infobox Ethnic group |group={{Tnavbar-header|Sakas|Scythians}} |image=[[Image:Scythia-Parthia 100 BC.png|300px]]<br>Approximate extent of [[East Iranian languages]] the 1st century BCE is shown in orange. |poptime=Unknown |popplace=Eastern Europe<br>Central Asia<br>Northern India |langs=[[Scythian language]] |rels=[[Animism]] |related= *[[Sarmatians]] *[[Dahae]] *[[Sakas]] *[[Indo-Scythians]] *[[Massagetes]] }} The '''Sakas''' ([[English language|English]] form of [[Old Iranian]] '''Sakā''', [[nominative]] plural masculine [[Grammatical case|case]]; [[ancient Greek]] '''Σάκαι''', Sakai; [[Sanskrit]] '''{{IAST|Śaka}}''') were a population of [[Iranian]]<ref>Andrew Dalby, Dictionary of Languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages, Columbia University Press, 2004, pg 278</ref><ref>Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press, 2004. pg 197</ref><ref>Edward A Allworth,''Central Asia: A Historical Overview'',Duke University Press, 1994. pp 86.</ref> nomadic tribesmen residing in and migrating over the plains of [[Eurasia]] from [[Eastern Europe]] to [[Xinjiang]] Province, [[China]], from the [[Old Persian]] Period to the [[Middle Persian]] Period when they were displaced by or integrated with [[Turkic language]] speakers during the [[Turkic migration]]. In the [[Achaemenid Empire]] much of their range was made a [[satrapy]], '''Saka''' (Old Iranian nominative singular masculine case), named after them. They also resided in other provinces of ancient Iran.<ref name=OPG209>For the names and forms as well as occurrences in Old Persian inscriptions see {{cite book|first=Roland G.|last=Kent|title=American Oriental Series: Volume 33: Old Persian|publisher=American Oriental Society|city=New Haven|date=1953|pages=page 209}} However, almost any Old Persian textbook or lexicon will do. The Latin and Greek can be found in any Latin dictionary and Greek lexicon.</ref> The ancient Greeks called the Sakas the [[Scythians]] but recognized that in the language of the [[Persian Empire]] they were called more nearly Sakai. To them the name Sakai in addition to meaning all the Scyths meant explicitly also the ones of [[Central Asia]] and the [[Far East]]. These latter lived in what is now [[Kazakhstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], parts of [[India]], parts of [[Iran]], the [[Altay Mountains]], [[Siberia]] in [[Russia]], and [[Xinjiang]] Province of [[China]] in the centuries before 300 AD, the start of the Middle Persian period. Hence the Romans recognized both '''Sacae''' and '''Scythae'''. The Scythians were recognized in ancient languages at either end of their range. They were known to the [[China|Chinese]] as the '''Sai''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: '''塞''', [[Old Chinese|Old Sinitic]] ''*sək''). On the west they were among the first Iranians to enter the [[Middle East]]. The [[Assyrians]] of the time of [[Esarhaddon]] record campaigning against a people they called in the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] the '''Ashkuza''' or '''Ishhuza'''. <ref name=west506>{{cite book|first=Claus|last=Westermann|coauthors=John J. Scullion, Translator|title=Genesis 1-11: A Continental Commentary|date=1984|city=Minneapolis|id-ISBN 080069500|pages=page 506}}</ref> [[Hugo Winckler]] was the first to associate them with the Scyths and the identification remains without serious question. They were closely associated with the ''Gimirrai'',<ref name=west506/> who were the [[Cimmerians]] known to the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]]. These Scythians were mainly interested in settling in the kingdom of [[Urartu]], which later became [[Armenia]]. The district of Shacusen, Uti Province, reflects their name.<ref>{{cite book|first=Vahan M.|last=Kurkjian|title=A History of Armenia|publisher=Armenian General Benevolent Union of America|date=1964|city=New York|pages=page 23}}</ref> In ancient [[Hebrew]] texts, the '''Ashkuz''' ('''[[Ashkenaz]]''') are even considered to be a direct offshoot from the Gimirri (Gomer).<ref>Genesis 10:3. "The sons of Gomer were Ashkenaz, Riphath,[a] and Togarmah." See also the entry for Ashkenaz in {{cite book|first=Robert|last=Young|title=Analytical Concordance to the Bible|publisher=Mac Donald Publishing Company|city=McLean, Virginia|id=ISBN 0917006291}}</ref> The Scythians also extended into the [[Ukraine]] south of [[Kiev]] and into [[Thrace]] and [[Macedon]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Renate|last=Rolle|title=The World of the Scythians|coauthors=F.G. Walls (Translator)|publisher=University of California Press|city=Berkeley and Los Angeles|date=1980|id=ISBN 0520068645|pages=pages 12-13}}</ref> In recognition of the fact that these latter were different enough to merit a distinct name the Achaemenids created a separate satrapy for them, '''Skudrā''', though who used the term first, the Greeks or the Persians, remains unknown. The name appears in [[Elamitic]] as '''iš-ku-ud-ra''' and in Akkadian as '''is-ku-du-ru'''.<ref>Kent (1953) page 210.</ref> Not all the Iranians living in the north were called Scythians, although they may have been considered that. The [[Issedones]] and [[Massagetae]] were generally north of the [[Black Sea]] somewhere. There is no proof that in the Old Iranian period the Scythians spoke anything other than Old Iranian, despite the fact that they were assigned regional names. The linguistic picture is quite different in the [[Middle Iranian]] period, however. The only remnants of the [[Saka language]] come from [[Xinjiang]], China, but the language there is widely divergent from the rest of Iranian and accordingly is called eastern or northeastern Iranian. It also is divided into two divergent dialects.<ref>{{cite book|first=Andrew|last=Dalby|title=Dictionary of Languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages|publisher=Columbia University Press|date=2004|pages=page 278}}</ref><!--<ref>Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press, 2004. pg 197</ref><ref>Edward A Allworth,''Central Asia: A Historical Overview'',Duke University Press, 1994. pp 86.</ref>--> By the time of the Middle Iranian period, the Scyths had either dissimilated into peoples of other names, such as the [[Sarmatians]], [[Alans]] and [[Roxolani]], or had been displaced by or assimilated to the [[Huns]]. ==Scythians and Sakas in classical sources== [[Image:Issyk Golden Cataphract Warrior.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A [[cataphract]]-style parade armour of a Saka royal from the [[Issyk kurgan]], [[Kazakhstan]].]] Modern historical accounts of the Indo-Scythian wars often assume that the ''[[Scythian]]'' protagonists were a single tribe called the Saka (''Sakai'' or ''Sakas''). But earlier [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] texts suggest that the term Scythians referred to a much more widespread grouping of Central Asian peoples. To [[Herodotus]] (484-425 BC), the Sakai were the 'Amurgioi Skuthai' (i.e. ''Scythians from Ammyurgia'').<ref>History, VII, 64</ref> [[Strabo]] (''Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo'', 63 BC-AD 24 circa) suggests that the term ''Skuthais'' (Scythians) referred to the Sakai and several other [[tribe]]s.<ref>Strabo, XI, 8, 2</ref> [[Arrian]] (''Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' '', c92-175 AD), refers to the Sakai as Skuthon (''a Scythian people'') or the Skuthai (''the Scythians'') who inhabit [[Asia]].<ref>Ambaseos Alexandrou, III, 8, 3</ref> It is clear that the Greek and Latin scholars cited here believed, ''all Sakai were Scythians'', but ''not all Scythians were Sakai''.<ref>Dr B. N. Mukerjee, Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 690-91.</ref> It seems likely that modern confusion about the identity of the Scythians is partly due to the [[Persians]]. According to Herodotus, the Persians called all Scythians by the name Sakas.<ref> Herodotus Book VII, 64</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] (''Gaius Plinius Secundus'', 23–79 AD) provides a more detailed explanation, stating that the Persians gave the name Sakai to the Scythian tribes: "nearest to them".<ref>Naturalis Historia, VI, 19, 50</ref> This likely explains why the Scythians began to be called Sakai. Another clue to the true identity of the Scythians is the widespread area in which classical scholars thought they lived. The ancient [[Greeks]] wrote that the homelands of the Scythian peoples included [[Central Asia]] east of the [[Caspian Sea]], north of [[Hindukush]]/[[Karakoram]] and west of [[China]] extending as far as [[Siberia]]. This suggests Scythia was a generic term that was loosely applied to a vast area of Central Asia spanning numerous groups and diverse ethnicities. [[Strabo]] defined all the [[Central Asia]]n clans inhabiting the area east of the [[Caspian Sea]] as Scythian in culture.<ref>See: Lib.xi, p 254; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod</ref> [[Diodorus]] (''Diodorus Siculus'', c90–30 BC) said that ''Mt Hemodos'' was the dividing line between Scythia and India,<ref>See: Indika, Fragment 1, Diodorus II.35; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod.</ref> ancient Greek sources used a variety of names for this mountain, including ''Himaos'', ''Imaos'' and ''Paropamisos'' but generally place it in the Himalayas.<ref>Qv: Nonnos Dionysiaca 40.260; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; See also: India as Known to Panini, p 70, Dr V. S. Aggarwala etc. </ref> [[Ptolemy]] (''Claudius Ptolemaeus'', c90-168) writes that Skuthia was not only "within the Imaos" (the Himalayas) and "beyond the Imaos" (north of the Himalayas), but also speaks of a separate "land of the Sakais" within Scythia.<ref>Geography VI, 12, 1f; VI, 13; 1f, VI, 15, 1f</ref> Both [[Solinus]] and Pliny report that the [[Ganges]] was one of the greatest rivers of [[India]] and ''has its source in the Scythian mountains''.<ref>Megasthenes, Indika, FRAGM.XX.B.; FRAGM. LVI.; FRAGM. LVI. B., J. W. McCrindle's; Pliny. Hist. Nat. V1. 21.9-22. 1.; Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8-23. 11.; Solinnus. 52. 6-17. '''See''': [http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm]</ref> When ancient texts refer to the Sakai living in the Mt. Hemodos area or the [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] region, they are also talking about a much wider area than the modern Himalayas. Greek texts refer to Mt. Hemodos as ''Kaukasos'', the [[Caucasus]], which is the Greek word for the entire [[Hindukush]] region.<ref>Qv: Fragment IV, Strabo XV.i. II, p 689</ref> In the ancient [[Sanskrit]]/[[Pāli|Pali]] texts, the Himalayas spanned the eastern and western oceans and so included the Hindukush and [[Karakoram]] ranges.<ref>Ref: Sumangavilasini, I.1; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 65</ref> Ptolemy meanwhile says that the Scythian tribes living in the Hindukush ranges were only at the ''southern fringe of the Scythian world''. By this definition, the [[Parama Kambojas]] tribe who lived in the far off [[Transoxiana]] territory as distant as the [[Fargana]] and [[Zeravshan]] valleys were also Scythians. With Scythia covering such a wide area, it is no wonder classical scholars like [[Strabo]] and the ''Historiae Philippcae'' writings of 1st century BC Roman historian [[Pompeius Trogus]] (''Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus''), classified any ''[[Asii|Asio]]/[[Asii]] or [[Asiani]]'' and Kambojan [[clan]]s connected with ''horse culture'' as [[Scythians|Scythic races]]. ===Strabo’s evidence=== According to the [[Greeks|Greek]] chronicler [[Strabo]],<ref>XI.8.2.</ref> [[Bactria]]na was taken by [[nomad]]s like ''[[Asii]]/[[Asio]], Pasianoi, [[Tokharoi]] and Sakaraukoi'' who had originally come from country on the other side of the Jaxartes River or [[Syr Darya]] (''Central Asia'').<ref>History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 11, Ed Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 692,717, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee</ref> The prologus XLI of ''Historiae Philippcae'' also refers to the Scythian invasion of the Greek kingdom of [[Bactria]] and [[Sogdiana]]---the invaders are described as ''Saraucae'' and ''Asiani''.<ref>'''Aseni, Osii'''(=Asii) and '''Asoi''' clans are also referenced by [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] (Pliny: Hist Nat., VI.21.8-23.11, ''List of Indian races'') and he locates them all in southern side of [[Hindukush]]. [[Bucephala]] was the capital of ''Aseni'' which stood on Hydaspes ([[Jhelum River|Jhelum]]) (See: Alexander the Great, Sources and Studies, p 236, Dr W. W. Tarn; Political History of Indian People, 1996, p 232, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee). Alexander had named this city after his horse Becephalus when it had died sometime in June of 326 BC after being fatally wounded at the [[Battle of Hydaspes]] with king [[Porus]] (Paurava) of [[Punjab region|Punjab]] </ref> The Saraucae are Sacarauli and Asiani are [[Asii]] or Asio of Strabo.<ref>History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 111; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692.</ref> These references conceal the information that after being turned out from [[Issyk-Kul]] lake and in their movements to [[Bactria]] via Sogdiana and Fargana, under pressure from Ta Yue-chih, the Issyk-kul Sakas (''Sakaraulois'') had been joined on the way by sections of other Scythian [[tribe]]s of the intervening regions during their southerly or south-westerly movements to [[Bactria]]. The term ''Asio'' (or ''Asii'') obviously refers to ''horse People''<ref>For [[Asii]] = Aswa = Horse-people, see: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, reprint (2002), pp 53-54, 64 fn 1 etc</ref>and undoubtedly refers to the [[Kambojas]] of the [[Parama Kamboja]] domain whose ''Aswas'' or ''horses'' too have been glorified by [[Mahabharata]]<ref> MBH 8.38.13-14, 10.13.1-2; 7.23.42-43 etc.</ref> as being of excellent quality. In fact, Asio, Asi/Asii, Asva/Aswa, Ari-aspi, Aspasios, Aspasii (or ''Hippasii'') are variant names the Classical writers have given to the horse-clans of the Kambojas of [[Scythian]] domain.<ref>For [[Asii]]/Aswa/Assaceni/Aspasio connection with horse, refer to Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), James Tod. E.g: "In Aswa, we have ancient [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]] peopled on both sides of [[Indus]] and probable [[etymon]] of [[Asia]]. The [[Assaceni]], the Ari-aspii, the [[Aspasians]] and (the [[Asii]]) whom [[Strabo]] describes as [[Scythian|Scythic]] race have same origin. Hence ''Asi-gurh'' (Hasi/Hansi) and Asii-gard, the first settlements of Scythic Asii in [[Scandinavia]]" (See: ''Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), Vol I, p 64 fn 1. Also see: pp 51-54, 87, 95; Vol-2, P 2, James Tod.'' For nomenclature Aspasii, Hipasii, see: [[Olaf Caroe]], ''The Pathans'', 1958, pp 37, 55-56. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] also refers to horse clans like ''Aseni, Osii, Asoi'' living in north-west of India (which were none-else than the [[Ashvayana]] and [[Ashvakas|Ashvakayana]] Kambojas of Indian texts). See: Hist. Nat. VI 21.8-23.11; See Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian, Trans. and edited by Dr J. W. McCrindle, Calcutta and Bombay,: Thacker, Spink, 1877, 30-174.</ref> These terms are most likely derived from the Old-Persian words for horse, "asa" and "aspa." <ref>Encyclopedia Iranica Article on Asb [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v2f7/v2f7a048.html]</ref> The Tokharios are assumed by some scholars to be [[Rishikas]]. But the Rishikas were a closely affiliated to the [[Parama-Kambojas]] as per Mahabharata evidence.<ref>''Lohan. ParamaKambojan.Rishikan.uttaranapi'':MBH 2.27.25; '' '''Kambojarishika''' ye cha'' MBH 5.5.15 etc.</ref> Similarly, the ''Pasianois'' were another Scythian [[tribe]] from [[Central Asia]]. ''Saraucae'' or ''Sakarauloi'' obviously refers to the ''Saka proper'' from ''Issyk-kul Lake''. Some scholars tend to link the [[Rishikas]] with [[Tukharas]] and later with the ''Ta Yue-chis'' themselves. If one accepts this connection, then the Tukharas (==> Rishikas ==> Yue-chihs) had controlled the eastern parts of Bactria country (''Ta-hia'') while the combined forces of the ''Sakarauloi'', 'Asio' (''horse people = Parama Kambojas'') and the 'Pasinoi' of [[Strabo]] etc had occupied its western parts after being displaced from the original home in Fargana/Alai valley by the Ta-Yuechis. As stated earlier, Ta-hia is taken to mean Tukhara/Tokhara which also included [[Badakshan]], [[Chitral]], [[Kafirstan]] and [[Wakhan]] which are said to have formed eastern parts of [[Bactria]]<ref> Political History of Ancient India, 19996, Commentary, p 719, Dr B. N. Mukerjee. Cf: "It appears likely that like the Yue-chis, the Scythians had also occupied a part of Transoxiana before conquering Bactria. If the Tokhario, who were the same as or affiliated with Yue-chihs, and who were mistaken as [[Scythian]] people, particiapated in the same series of invasions of Bactria of the Greeks, then it may be inferred that eastern Bactria was conquered by Yue-chis and the western by other [[nomadic]] people in about the same period. In other words, the [[Greeks|Greek]] rule in [[Bactria]] was put to end in c 130/29 BC due to invasion by the Great Yue-chis and the Scythians Sakas nomads (Commentary: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692-93, Dr B.N. Mukerjee). It is notable that before its occupation by Tukhara Yue-chis, Badakashan formed a part of ancient Kamboja i.e. Parama Kamboja country. But after its occupation by the Tukharas in second century BC, it became a part of [[Tukharistan]]. Around 4th-5th century, when the fortunes of the Tukharas finally died down, the original population of Kambojas re-asserted itself and the region again started to be called by its ancient name Kamboja (See: Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha, p 534, Dr J.C. Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 129, 300 Dr J.L. Kamboj; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 159, S Kirpal Singh). There are several later-time references to this Kamboja of Pamirs/Badakshan. [[Raghuvamsha]], a 5th c [[Sanskrit]] play by [[Kalidasa]], attests their presence on river Vamkshu ([[Oxus]]) as neighbors to the [[Hunas]] (4.68-70). They have also been attested as ''Kiumito'' by 7th c [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] [[pilgrim]] [[Hiun Tsang]]. Eighth century king of [[Kashmir]], king Lalitadiya had invaded the Oxian Kambojas as is attested by [[Rajatarangini]] of [[Kalhana]] (See: Rajatarangini 4.163-65). Here they are mentined as living in the eastern parts of the [[Oxus]] valley as neighbors to the Tukharas who were living in western parts of Oxus valley (See: The Land of the Kambojas, Purana, Vol V, No, July 1962, p 250, Dr D. C. Sircar). These Kambojas apparently were descendants of that section of the Kambojas who, instead of leaving their ancestral land during second c BC under assault from Ta Yue-chi, had compromised with the invaders and had decided to stay put in their ancestral land instead of moving to Helmond valley or to the Kabol valley. There are other references which equate Kamboja= Tokhara. A [[Buddhist]] [[Sanskrit]] Vinaya text (Dr N. Dutt, Gilgit Manuscripts, III, 3, 136, quoted in B.S.O.A.S XIII, 404) has the expression ''satam Kambojikanam kanayanam'' i.e a hunderd maidens from Kamboja. This has been rendered in [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] as ''Tho-gar yul-gyi bu-mo brgya'' and in [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] as ''Togar ulus-un yagun ükin''. Thus ''Kamboja'' has been rendered as ''Tho-gar'' or Togar. And Tho-gar/Togar is Tibetan/Mongolian names for Tokhar/Tukhar. See refs: Irano-Indica III, [[H. W. Bailey]], Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1950 , pp. 389-409; see also: Ancient Kamboja, Iran and Islam, 1971, p 66, Dr H. W. Bailey.</ref> According to other scholars, it were the Saka [[horde]]s alone who had put an end to the Greek kingdom of Bactria.<ref>Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510; Taxila, Vol I, p 24, Marshal, Early History of North India, p 50, Dr S. Chattopadhyava.</ref> ==Location of the Sakas== [[Image:Central Asia Physical.jpg|thumb|375px|[[Physical map]] of Central Asia from the Caucasus in the northwest, to Mongolia in the northeast.]] It is proven that in the [[3rd century]] AD the Sacae had their own empire in Khotan, western China (in Kashgar). Therefore the Sacaes are sometimes called ''Khotan-Sacae''. Because of the [[Huns]] who had pushed the Kushans out from their territory, the Sacae had to flee to south where they migrated in [[Sistan]]. The Sakas had at least three major settlements, ''Saka Haumavarka, Saka Tigrakhauda and Saka Taradarya'', according to inscriptions left by King [[Achaemenid]] [[Darius I]] (522-486 BC) in the city of [[Hamadan]] and his royal seat of [[Perspolis]].<ref>Select Inscriptions bearing on the Indian History and Civilization, Vol I, p 10; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 297, Dr J. L. Kamboj</ref> However, scholars think these three settlements may be merely remnants of a much greater civilization left by the waves of [[Scythians|Scythian]] migrations back to the middle of the 8th century BC.<ref>Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510, E. J. Rapson (Ed); Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 46, Dr M. R. Singh.</ref> The Darian inscriptions say that the ''Sakas Haumavarka'' lived "beyond [[Sogdiana]]" (para-Sugudam) which ,when seen from [[Perspolis]], seems to point to Tashkant, [[Fargana]], [[Kashgar]] and nearby regions.<ref>Some writers interpret the Darian inscription as locating Sakas Haumavarka north of Suguda ([[Sogdiana]]), in the plains of [[Jaxartes]] in the [[Issyk-Kul]] Lake area. Para-Sugudma seems a more reasonable location for Saka Haumavarka because there was a different Sakas settlement near Suguda to the north of Jaxartes in the lower valleys near Aral. Further, in reference to the [[Transoxiana]] Sakas, [[Arrian]] mentions the Sakas living not far from [[Bactria]] and Sugada, likely an allusion to Haumavarka Sakas living in Tashkant, Fargana and Kashgar (See: History and Culture of Indian People, Vol II, p 120).</ref> The ''Sakas Tigrakhauda'' lived near the [[Aral]]s in the lower valleys of the [[Jaxartes]] as well as the plains north of the Jaxartes. The third Sakas settlement,''Sakas Taradarya'', was located north of the [[Black Sea]] in the [[Russia]]n [[Steppes]].<ref> See discussion in 'Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country', 1981, p 296 sqq., Dr J. L. Kamboj.</ref> There are also references to the ''Saka Haumavarka'' in ancient Indian texts. It seems likely that it was these Sakas Haumavarka and other allied tribes such as the Lohas, Parama Kambojas, Rishikas, etc that lived in, and north of the [[Pamir]] mountains as far as [[Kashgar]], [[Fargana]] and [[Issyk-Kul]] Lake, that entered into conflict with the Ta Yue-chi or Great Yue-chi and migrated into northern India.<ref>Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 297, Dr J. L. Kamboj; cf also: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 381, 691-92, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury and Dr B. N. Murkerjee</ref> According to the evidence furnished by Mahabharata, the [[Transoxiana|Transoxian]] [[Pamir]] mountains and regions to the north as far as [[Fargana]] were known as the lands of the allied ''Lohas, Parama Kambojas, [[Rishikas]]'', etc [[tribe]]s.<ref>Lohan paramakambojanrishikan uttaranpi...Mahabharata 2.27.25. '''See Ganguli's Trans''': [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m02/m02026.htm http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m02/m02026.htm]. But it may be noted that Mr Ganguli has erroneously translated the expression ''Parama Kambojas'' as ''Eastern Kambojas'' which designation for ''Parama Kambojas'' is not correct and is misleading. Therefore see: Geographical Data in Early Puranas, pp 167-68, Dr M. R. Singh; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1-8, K. D. Sethna; cf: A Geographical Text of Puranas: A Further Critical Study, Purana Vol VI, No 1, Feb 1962, pp 112- sqq.; Purana, Vol VI, No 1, pp 207-14 etc</ref> All these peoples living in the [[Scythia]] of the classical writers or the ''Shakadvipa'' of [[India]]n texts, were lumped together and given the general name Sacae by [[Greeks]] and [[Sakas]] by the [[Iran]]ians. They were known as [[Shakas]] in Indian texts.<ref>Dr Robert Shafer has recently reported that the [[Shakas]], [[Kambojas]], [[Pahlavas]], Sugudas, etc were the left-over population of the [[Indo-Iranian]] [[Aryan]]s after Aryans latter had moved from their original home in [[Central Asia]] to [[Iran]] and [[India]] (See Report: Ethnography of Ancient India, p 43, Robert Shafer) </ref> ==Origins== The [[Scythian language]] is considered by mainstream historians and linguists as one of the [[Iranian languages]]. The Saka speakers were gradually conquered and acculturated by the [[Turkic expansion]] to Central Asia beginning in the 4th century. [[Image:PazyrikHorseman.JPG|thumb|200px|Saka (Scythian) horseman from [[Pazyryk]] in Central Asia, c. 300 BC.]] Ashkanian is the dynasty name of the [[Parthia]]n empire and sources indicate that the Parthian revolt against Greek dominance over Persia started in the [[Semnan]] region. Ashkanian means "Sakan people" or "Saka descendants". An Arab source names Sagsar as the place from which Ashkanians originated. Sagsar, or according to varies sources, "Saka sar" or "Sagasar", is now modern [[Sangsar]], a city in the mountainous region of [[Semnan Province]], in the north of Iran. [[Semnan]] is also derived from Sakestan, which during the Parthian empire was one of the largest provinces connecting the northern [[Alborz]] mountains to eastern Iran bordering the [[Kushan]] empire, now Pakistan and Afghanistan. Moreover, many of the legends recorded in the national [[Persian literature|Persian]] epic, [[Shahnameh]] are believed to be a mixture of [[Persian literature|Persian]], [[Sogdian]] and Saka legends. Sagsar and Semnan are mentioned in Firdosi's [[Shahnameh]], particularly honoring the brave people of Sagsar and their couragous uprising against injustice. Sangsaris are still famous for being a sensitive people, proud of their culture and language, one of oldest and best preserved of ancient Iranian languages. [[Image:MenWithDragons.jpg|thumb|250px|Gold artifacts of the Scythians in Bactria, at the site of [[Tillia tepe]].]] The most notable Saka burial to date, whose occupant is referred to as the "[[Golden Man]]", was found in [[Kazakhstan]]. The silver dish found with the "Golden Man" is of a type common to other Germanic finds and is inscribed with a form of [[runic]] writing related to that found in Germanic and Scandinavian runic writing. See [[Issyk Kurgan]]. Archeological evidence and histographies shows a worldview of Sakas, similar to that of ancient German and Scandinavian traditions and closely related to that of present-day Kazakhs and Mongols{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. It is theorized that they believed Man was a part of the [[Universe]], [[Cosmos]], [[Heaven]], [[Sun]], mountains, river, in total nature, and shows close affinities with [[Shamanism]] and [[Tengri]]ism which are still practiced today, from Kazakhstan to Siberia which conceive of God as related to Cosmic laws and forces. However, modern Kazakhs are [[Muslim]], most modern [[Mongols]] are [[Buddhist]]s, and Siberian [[Shamanism]] is not known to be directly connected to Indo-European religion. However, many cultures have changed religious practices over the period of millennia. ==Indo-Scythians== {{main|Indo-Scythians|Shalivahana era}} The Sakas were also one of several tribes that conquered [[India]] from the northwest, where they established the rule of the [[Indo-Scythians]]. The Saka Era is used by the [[Indian national calendar]], a few other [[Hindu calendar]]s, and the [[Cambodia]]n [[Buddhist calendar]]&mdash;its year zero begins near the vernal equinox of [[78]]. See [[Kushan Empire]] article for more complex description of Kushan-Scythian dating. There has been no strong genetic link discovered between the Kazakhs and peoples of India; however, the marker [[R1a1]] accounts for more than 50% of Altay, [[Kyrgyz]], Slavic and NW Indian/Pakistani males. It is likely that by about 600 BC, Central Asia was occupied by a number of ethnic groups, all [[nomadic]] [[Equestrian nomad|equestrian]]s sharing simple cultural traits. ===Parama Kambojas and Saka connection=== According to scholars, term Kamboja may be explained as ''Kam+boja''. ''Boja'' is the [[Persian language|Iranian]] equivalent of the [[Sanskrit]] ''Bhoja'' which means Lord or King or Master.<ref>Pirart 1998:542; Linguistic aspects of the Aryan non-invasion theory, section 3.5. (Pre-IE substratum in Indo-Aryan: language X), Dr. Koenraad ELST, '''see link''': [http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/articles/aid/keaitlin1.html http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/articles/aid/keaitlin1.html]; Central Asiatic Provinces of Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj, Ancient Kamboja in Iran and Islam, p 66-70, Dr H. W. Bailey etc.</ref> Thus, Kambojas may be explained as Lords or Masters or Rulers of ''Kam'' country. The root ''Kam'' implying place or region is reflected in the ''Kama'' [[valley]], a region lying between the [[Khyber Pass]] and [[Jalalabad]]. It is also reflected in the place names ''Kama''-daka, ''Kamma''-Shilman, ''Kama''-bela of [[Kabol]]; in the ''Kam''desh or ''Kam''brom, ''Kam''ich, ''Kama'' and ''Kamu'' & ''Kama''tol of the [[Kunar]] and Bashgul valleys. It is further reflected in the vast expanses of the region called Kazal-''kam'' and Kara-''kam'' lying on either side of the [[Oxus]] north of [[Hindukush]] in parts of [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]]. There is also a river named ''Kama'' in the Russian [[Steppes]]. Kambah is also said to be name of an ancient town some destinations north-west of Samarkhand in [[Uzbekistan]].<ref>See: Alam-shahir, p 18; Kamboj Itihaas, 1971, H. S. Thind.</ref> The [[Ptolemy|Ptolemian]] term ''Kamoi'' also refers to a people of the region falling in the Oxus/Jaxartes [[doab]]. According to Dr Seth, it seems highly likely that the ancient Kambojas had their habitats in the doab of the river Vamksu ([[Oxus]]) and Syr ([[Jaxartes]]) (''ancient Suguda'') and beyond in the hilly regions of Syr. The territory is watered by numerous tributaries of the [[Oxus]] and [[Jaxartes]] and was referred to as Komdei by [[Ptolemy]]. [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] (325 AD‑330 AD) labelled the mountainous region of Suguda as Komedas.<ref> J. W. McCrindle, Ancient India, Trans & edited Dr R. C. Majumdar, 1927, p 275, 325; Central Asiatic Provinces of the Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, S Kirpal Singh.</ref> These names seem to point towards 'Komdesh' (''Kambojdesh ?'') which was the original home of the Kambojas.<ref>Central Asiatic Provinces of the Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, S Kirpal Singh.</ref> [[Ptolemy]] has also stated that there is a [[tribe]] variously called Komroi, Komedei or '''Komoi''' which occupies the highlands of [[Bactria]]a and Sogdiana countries.<ref> op cit., 1927, p 268, 278, Dr J. W. McCrindle, Dr R. C. Majumdar</ref> Al-Maqidisi in his book ''Al-Muqhni'' calls the people of this territory ''Kumiji'' a name that apparently points to the [[Sanskrit]] Kamboja. The Komdei of Ptolemy has been identified with the ''Kiumito'' of [[Hiun Tsang]].<ref>op cit., 1927, p 284, McCrindle, Majumdar</ref> Scholars have identified this Kiumito as the habitat of Iranian Kambojas.<ref> H. C. Seth, P. C. Baghchi, Buddha Prakash, Dr J. L. Kamboj, S Kirpal Singh</ref> The ''Kumuda-dvipa'' of the [[Puranas]] is said to lie to north of [[Pamirs]] in the [[Tartary]] region and is equivalent to the Komdei of Ptolemy and the Kumadas of Ammianus Marcellinus. The fifth century [[Sanskrit]] poet [[Kalidasa]] attests that the [[Hunas]] and Kambojas lived as neighbors in their respective west and east Oxus valleys.<ref> Raghuvamsa 4.68-71.</ref> [[Rajatarangini]] of [[Kalhana]] also refers to [[Tukharas]] and [[Kambojas]] living respectively in the west and east [[Oxus]] valleys, during the 8th century AD.<ref> Rajatarangini 4.163-165</ref> Scholars believe that the Kiumito of [[Hiun Tsang]] is same as the Kamboja of Raghuvamsa and of Rajatarangini and represents the Iranian section of the Kambojas.<ref> See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 91-92, S Kirpal Singh ; On Kamboja-Kumuda and Komdei connection, see detailed discussion in Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 48-49, 155, 299-300, Dr J. L. Kamboj.</ref> The Kumuda or Kumuda-dvipa of Indian texts and the Komdei of Ptolemy lay in the ''Shaka-dvipa'' per [[Mahabharata]] and [[Puranic]] texts.<ref>India as Known to Panini, p 70, Dr V. S. Aggarwala, The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S. Kirpal Singh.</ref> Komdei apparently refers to the region which has been called Parama Kamboja in Mahabharata.<ref> See: The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 59, 92, 159, S Kipral Singh</ref> This was the region where the Rishikas, Parama Kambojas, Lohas and other allied people dwelt. Needless to say that all these people including the Parama Kambojas were Scythians by culture for obvious reasons. Writing on the Rishikas, Dr V. S. Aggarwala observes: "The name [[Rishika]] occurs in Mahabharata as a part of 'Shakadvipa'. [[Arjuna]] had conquered Rishikas across the Vakshu (Oxus) which flowed through the Shaka country." As the Parama Kambojas, Lohas and the Rishikas were all neighborly tribes and were allied in their fight against Arjuna,<ref>'''Lohan. ParamaKambojan.Rishikan'''uttaranpi</ref> this strongly suggests that the [[Transoxiana|Transoxian]] Lohas and Parama Kambojas were also located in Shakadvipa or Scythia. Dr Bailey lists several breeds of Kamboja horses and states that their ''haya-'' and ''javana-'' breeds ( 'swift horse') refer to the famous horses of the [[Farghana]] breed.<ref>Ancient Kamboja, in Iran and Islam, 1971, p 65, H. W. Bailey</ref> Praja Bhata, a [[Kashmir]]i [[Sanskrit]] poet and author of the ''fourth Rajatarangini'' while writing about the history of [[Moghul]] [[dynasty]] in [[India]], addresses [[emperor]] [[Babur]] as a [[Yavana]] king hailing from [[Kambhoja]].<ref> :Kaambhoja.yavaneshen Vabhore.n vipatitah | :tadaiva hastinapuryamebhrahemo nripeshavra || 223 || : (Raghu Nath Sinha, Shukarjatrangini tatha Rajatarangini Sangraha: p 110).</ref> Since Vabur (Babur) was native of [[Fargana]] (in [[Kyrgyzstan]] of [[Central Asia]]), this Indian reference seems to extend the Kamboja i.e the Parama Kamboja domain almost as far as to Fargana. Thus the foregoing discussion sufficiently proves that the territory of the Parama Kambojas lay in a region beyond ''Imaos'' or [[Himalaya]]/[[Hindukush]], the region that ancient [[Sanskrit]] texts such as [[Mahabharata]] labelled ''Shakadvipa'' and classical writers Strabo and Diodorus define as part of [[Scythia]] (see above). This allows the conclusion that ''the Parama Kambojas, the Rishikas and Lohas were Scythians''.<ref> Dr [[Michael Witzel]] asserts that name [[Kamboja]] has also been transmitted as Ambautai by [[Ptolemy]] without the typical prefix K. Ptolemy (Geography 6.18.3) reports a section of people called Ambautai who were located on southern side of [[Paropamisus]] ([[Hindukush]]) towards [[Kabol]] valley. Dr Michael and some other scholars asserts that Ambaurai = (K)ambautai = Kamboja. It is also asserted that –tai in Ambautai is a Scythian suffix (Italo Ronca, Ostiran und Zentralasien bei Ptolemeios, Diss. Mainz 1968., p 121; cf also Bulitai]"; Hydronomy of Nepal, Dr Michael Witzel, p 40, fn 98.). The Ambautai here apparently refers to the cis- Hindukush branch of Kambojas if the interpretation of Dr Michael is to be believed. And Geography implies they were Scythians people. Thus the Kambojas lying on the southern side of Hindukush were also included in the Scythian category of Classical writers.</ref> According to [[Serge Thion]]: ''"It seems from some inscriptions that the Kambojas were a royal clan of the Sakas better known under the Greek name of Scyths" ''.<ref>'''See link''' [http://www.nectec.or.th/thai-yunnan/20.html#r49 http://www.nectec.or.th/thai-yunnan/20.html#r49], Serge quotes the following references: Foucher, La vieille route de l'Inde, p. 271; Also - Rock Edict 13, 30 (See Bloch). Some one knowing French language needs to check these references quoted by Serge.</ref> ==Sakas in Ancient Indian Literature== {{main|Indo-Scythians in Indian literature}} The Indo-Scythians were named "Shaka" in India, an extension on the name Saca used by the Persians to designate Scythians. Shakas receive numerous mentions in texts like the [[Purana]]s, the [[Manusmriti]], the [[Ramayana]], the [[Mahabharata]], the Mahabhasya of [[Patanjali]], the Brhat Samhita of Varaha Mihira, the Kavyamimamsa, the Brihat-Katha-Manjari, the [[Kathasaritsagara|Katha-Sarit Sagara]] and several other old texts. The Shakas are described as part of an amalgam of other war-like tribes from the northwest. The founder of Buddhism, [[Shakyamuni Buddha]], is recorded to have been a member of a tribe called [[Shakya]] or Sākiya. It is unknown whether this name indicates a relationship to the Sakas of later Indian history. ==See also== *[[Kambojas]] *[[Yona]] *[[Indo-Scythian]]s *[[Mount Imeon]] *[[Śākadvīpa]] ==References== <div style="height: 250px; overflow: auto; padding: 3px; border:1px solid #AAAAAA; reflist4" > {{reflist|2}} </div> == Books and Articles == * Bailey, H. W. 1958. "Languages of the Saka." ''Handbuch der Orientalistik'', I. Abt., 4. Bd., I. Absch., Leiden-Köln. 1958. * Davis-Kimball, Jeannine. 2002. ''Warrior Women: An Archaeologist's Search for History's Hidden Heroines''. Warner Books, New York. 1st Trade printing, 2003. ISBN 0-446-67983-6 (pbk). * ''Bulletin of the Asia Institute: The Archaeology and Art of Central Asia''. Studies From the Former Soviet Union. New Series. Edited by B. A. Litvinskii and Carol Altman Bromberg. Translation directed by Mary Fleming Zirin. Vol. 8, (1994), pp. 37-46. * Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.'' Draft annotated English translation.[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html] * Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.'' Draft annotated English translation. [http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html] * Lebedynsky, Iaroslav. (2006). ''Les Saces: Les <<Scythes>> d'Asie, VIII<sup>e</sup> av. J.-C.-IV<sup>e</sup> siècle apr. J.-C.'' Editions Errance, Paris. ISBN 2-87772-337-2 (in French). * Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 1970. "The Wu-sun and Sakas and the Yüeh-chih Migration." ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 33'' (1970), pp. 154-160. * Puri, B. N. 1994. "The Sakas and Indo-Parthians." In: ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250''. Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 191-207. * Thomas, F. W. 1906. "Sakastana." ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'' (1906), pp. 181-216. * Yu, Taishan. 1998. ''A Study of Saka History''. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 80. July, 1998. Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania. * Yu, Taishan. 2000. ''A Hypothesis about the Source of the Sai Tribes''. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 106. September, 2000. Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania. == External links == *[http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/scythians/scythians.html Scythians/Sacae: Article by Jona Lendering] *[http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Kivisild2003b.pdf Article by Kivisild et al on genetic heritage of early Indian settlers] *[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/index.isc Sacaes/Scythians/Chionits] *[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v74n5/40813/40813.text.html?erFrom=-8290989896152298581Guest#sc2 genetic heritage of central Asia] *[http://tantranand.zaadz.com/blog/2006/10/genetic_journeys_and_ancestors genetic journeys and ancestors] *[http://boole.cs.iastate.edu/book/3-%CA%B7(%C0%FA%CA%B7)/3-%CA%C0%BD%E7%C0%FA%CA%B7/www.friesian.com/sangoku.htm#saka, Indian, Japanese and Chinese Emperors] {{Achaemenid Provinces}} [[Category:Ancient Iranian peoples]] [[Category:Scythians]] [[Category:Eurasian nomads]] [[Category:Ancient India]] [[Category:History of Pakistan]] [[Category:History of Afghanistan]] [[cv:Сакасем]] [[de:Saken]] [[fa:سكا]] [[fr:Sakas]] [[ko:사카]] [[is:Sakani]] [[it:Saci]] [[kk:Сақтар]] [[hu:Szakák]] [[ja:サカ]] [[pl:Sakowie]] [[pt:Sakas]] [[ro:Saci]] [[ru:Саки (племена)]] [[sk:Sakovia]] [[sv:Saka (folk)]] [[tr:Saka İskit Devleti]]