Samuel of Bulgaria 46547 225745471 2008-07-15T05:20:46Z 24.12.70.128 [[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 225670924 by [[Special:Contributions/Pekop|Pekop]] ([[User talk:Pekop|talk]]) {{Redirect|Samuil|the [[Brythonic]] king ("Samuil of the Britons")|Sawyl Penuchel}} {{Infobox_Monarch | name =Samuel (Samuil) | title =Tsar (Emperor) of [[Bulgaria]] | image =[[Image:Samuil of Bulgaria.jpg|300px]] | caption =Anthropological reconstruction of Samuil's face | reign =[[997]] – [[6 October]] [[1014]] | coronation = | predecessor =[[Roman of Bulgaria]] | successor =[[Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria|Gavril Radomir]] | consort =[[Agatha, wife of Samuil|Agatha]] | issue =Gavril Radomir <br> [[Theodora Kosara of Bulgaria|Theodora Kosara]] <br> [[Miroslava of Bulgaria|Miroslava]] <br> [[Katun Anastazya of Bulgaria|Katun Anastazya]] <br> [[Agatha of Bulgaria (wife of Edward the Exile)|Agatha]] | royal house =[[Comitopuli dynasty|Comitopuli]] | father =[[Comita Nikola]] | mother =[[Ripsimia of Armenia|Ripsimia]] | date of death ={{death date|1014|10|6|df=y}} | place of death =[[Prilep]], [[First Bulgarian Empire]], present-day [[Republic of Macedonia]] | buried =Church of Saint Achillios}} '''Samuel'''<ref>Spelled thus in Fine, ''The Early Medieval Balkans''; also Ostrogorsky, Treadgold, ''[[#References|opp. cit.]]'', ''Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium''. In French, compare Nicholas Adontz. ''Samuel l'Armenien, Roi des Bulgares.'' Bruxelles, Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, Pp. 347-407.</ref> (also '''Samuil''' representing {{lang-bg|Самуил}}, {{pronounced|samuˈil}}) was the [[Emperor]] (''[[Tsar]]'') of the [[First Bulgarian Empire]] from 997 to [[6 October]] [[1014]]. From 980<ref>”They ([[Cometopuli]]) do their first apparition under the government of Kekaumènos, the strategist of Larissa … (980-983)” . [[Nicholas Adontz|Adontz, Nikoghayos]]. Samuel l'Armenien, Roi des Bulgares. In: Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, Pp. 347-407(358),</ref> to 997, he was a [[general]] for [[Roman I of Bulgaria]], the second surviving son of Emperor [[Peter I of Bulgaria]], and co-ruled with him, as Roman bestowed him command of the army and the real authority.<ref>One theory is that from 972/976 to 997 Samuel ruled with [[Roman I of Bulgaria]], who was the official Tsar until 997 when he died in Byzantine captivity. Roman is mentioned as Tsar in several historical sources; for example ''Annals'' by Yahya of [[Antioch]] calls Roman "Tsar" and Samuel "Roman's loyal military chief". Although, other historians dispute this theory, as Roman was [[castration|castrated]] and so technically could not have claimed the crown. There was also a governor of Skopje called Roman who surrendered the city to the Byzantines in 1004, received the title of patrician from [[Basil II]] and became a Byzantine ''[[strategos]]'' in Abydus ([[John Skylitzes|Skylitzes]]-Cedr. II, 455, 13). However this could be a mere coincidence of names.</ref> Samuel struggled to preserve his country's independence from the [[Byzantine Empire]]. His rule was characterized by constant war against the Byzantium and its similarly ambitious ruler [[Basil II]]. In his early years Samuel managed to inflict several major defeats on the Byzantines and to launch offensive campaigns on their territory.<ref name="sam">[http://www.cc.ece.ntua.gr/~conster/English/PageData/samuel.htm Samuil of Bulgaria]</ref> In the late 10th century, the Bulgarian armies conquered the [[Serbia|Serb]] principality of [[Duklja]]<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9065243/Samuel Britannica Online - Samuel of Bulgaria]</ref> and led campaigns against the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Croatia (Medieval)|Croatia]] and [[Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages|Hungary]]. But from 1001, he was forced mainly to defend the Empire against the superior Byzantine armies. Samuel died of [[heart attack]] on 6 October 1014, two months after the catastrophe at [[battle of Kleidion|Kleidion]], and Bulgaria was fully subjugated by Basil II four years later.<ref>Whittow, ''Making of Orthodox Byzantium'', pp.387-388</ref> Samuel was considered "invincible in power and unsurpassable in strength".<ref>Stephenson, P., ''The legend of Basil the Bulgar-slayer'', p. 16, ISBN 0521815304</ref><ref>Sullivan. D. F., ed. and tr., ''The life of St Nikon'', Brookline 1987, pp. 140-142</ref> Similar comment was made even in Constantinople, where John Kyriotes Geometres penned a poem offering a punning comparison between the Bulgarian Emperor and a comet which appeared in 989.<ref name="poe">Argoe, K. ''John Kyriotes Geometres, a tenth century Byzantine writer'', Madison 1938, pp. 140-141.</ref><ref>Schlumberger, G, ''L'épopée byzantine á la fin de dixiéme siécle, 1. Jean Tzimisés; les jeunes années de Basile II, le tueur de Bulgares (969-989)'', Paris 1896, pp. 643-644</ref> During Samuel's reign, Bulgaria gained control of most of the [[Balkans]] (except [[Thrace]]) and southern [[Greece]]. He moved the capital from [[Skopje]] to [[Ohrid]]<ref name="enc">[http://www.bartleby.com/67/441.html The Encyclopedia of World History. 2001. First Bulgarian Empire - Samuil]</ref><ref name="sam">[http://www.cc.ece.ntua.gr/~conster/English/PageData/samuel.htm Samuil of Bulgaria]</ref>, which had been the cultural and military centre of southwestern Bulgaria since [[Boris I of Bulgaria|Boris I]]'s rule.<ref>[http://www.chrysostompress.org/about-ochrid About Ohrid]</ref> He also made the city the seat of the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church|Bulgarian Patriarchate]]. Although Samuel's reign brought the end of the [[First Bulgarian Empire]], he is regarded as a heroic ruler in Bulgaria.<ref>Andreev, J. ''The Bulgarian Khans and Tsars'' (''Balgarskite hanove i tsare'', ''Българските ханове и царе''), Veliko Tarnovo, 1996, p. 127 ISBN 954-427-216-X</ref><ref>[http://www.jambol.hit.bg/jambol/samuil.htm Оставена от Симеона българска държава дълго време след неговата смърт все още запазвала външните черти<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==The Cometopuli== Samuel was the fourth<ref>Stephen Runciman ''A history of the First Bulgarian Empire'', pp. 217-218</ref> and youngest son of [[Comita Nikola]], most likely Count of Sredets ([[Sofia]])<ref>{{cite book |last=Prokić |first=Božidar |title=Die Zusätze in der Handschrift des Johannes Scylitzes. Codex Vindobonensis hist. graec. LXXIV. |location=München |year=1906 |pages=p. 28 |language=German |oclc=11193528 }}</ref> and the [[Armenia]]n<ref>Adontz, N (1938). "Samuel l'Armenien, roi des Bulgares". MAR Bclsmp (39):p. 37</ref> princess<ref>[http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/BULGARIA.htm Chapter 1. TSARS OF THE FIRST BULGARIAN EMPIRE: C. TSARS of the BULGARIANS 997-1018 and 1040-1041, KOMETOPULOI] Ripsimia was a daughter of [[Ashot II]] Bagratuni, King of [[Armenia]] ([[914]] - [[928]]) and his wife Marie of Kachum. However, a number of historians including Zlatarski, Ostrogorski and Andreev do not mention anything about Ripsimia's origin.</ref> [[Ripsimia of Armenia|Ripsimia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Adontz |first=N |title=Samuel l'Armenien, roi des Bulgares |journal=MAR Bclsmp |issue=39 |year=1938 |pages=p. 37 |language=French }}</ref> His father, who had close ties to the royal court in [[Preslav]]<ref>Blagoeva, B. ''For the origins of Emperor Samuil'' (''Za proizhoda na tsar Samuil'', ''За произхода на цар Самуил''), Исторически преглед, № 2, 1966, стр. 91-94</ref>, died in 970. At that time there was no Emperor in Preslav as Peter I had died on 30 January 970 and his sons Boris and Roman were in Constantinople.<ref>According to Zlatarski (''History of the Bulgarian state'', I, 2, [http://www.promacedonia.org/vz1b/vz1b_5_3.html pp. 544, 562]) the sons of Peter I were sent in the Byzantine capital in 963 as one of the term to resettle the peace treaty of 927. According to other historians such as Andreev (''Who is who in Medieval Bulgaria'', p. 41) the heir to the Bulgarian throne became hostages per Bulgarian-Byzantine agreement against Kievan Rus' in 968.</ref> In the same year<ref>”They ([[Cometopuli]]) do their first apparition under the government of Kekaumènos, the strategist of Larissa … (980-983)”. [[Nicholas Adontz|Adontz, Nikoghayos]]. Samuel l'Armenien, Roi des Bulgares. In: Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, Pp. 347-407(358),</ref> Samuel and his three brothers [[David of Bulgaria|David]], [[Moses of Bulgaria|Moses]] and [[Aron of Bulgaria|Aaron]] rebelled against [[John I Tzimisces]]'s campaign that aimed to "liberate" Bulgaria from the [[Kievan Rus']], which they saw as an attempt by Byzantium to seize power in Bulgaria.<ref>Ioannes Scylitzes. ''Historia''. 2, pp. 346–347.</ref> Indeed the following year, the Byzantines deceived<ref>Zlatarski, p.595</ref> [[Boris II of Bulgaria|Boris II]] and forced him to [[abdication|abdicate]] in [[Constantinople]].<ref>Andreev, J., Lazarov, Iv., Pavlov, Pl., ''Who is who in medieval Bulgaria'' (''Koi koi e v srednovekovna Balgariya'', ''Кой кой е в Средновековна България''), "Prosveta", Sofia 1995, ISBN 954-01-0476-9, с. 41</ref> Although Tzimisces announced the [[annexation]]<ref>Zlatarski, pp.599-600</ref> of Bulgaria, he only controlled the northeastern half of the country, including the capital Preslav and the seat of patriarchate Drastar ([[Silistra]]).<ref>Zlatarski, p. 595</ref><ref>''Short history of Bulgaria (Kratka istoriya na Balgariya, Кратка история на България)'', Nauka i izkustvo, Sofia 1983, p. 69. That theory is accepted by most Bulgarian historians; however, Treadgold, p.509 says: Tzimisces "established six themes in western Bulgaria".</ref> The lands west of the [[Iskar|Iskar River]]<ref>Zlatarski, p.603</ref><ref>Ostrogorsky, G. ''History of the Byzantine state'' (''Istorija Vizantije', ''Исторijа Византиje''), p. 288</ref> remained under the control of the four brothers, who were called [[Cometopuli dynasty|Cometopuli]] (''Kometopouloi'', i.e., "the sons of the Count") in Byzantine sources.<ref>For the name, see Ostrogorsky (1969), p. 301. ''n''. 1</ref> In 973, the Cometopuli sent envoys to the [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]] in [[Quedlinburg]] in an attempt to secure the protection of their lands.<ref name=delev>Delev, ''12. The decline of the First Bulgarian Empire'' ('' 12. Zalezat na Parvoto Balgarsko Tsarstvo'' ''12. Залезът на Първото българско царство'').</ref> The brothers ruled together in a [[tetrarchy]].<ref name="Guzelev314315">Bozhilov, Gyuzelev, 1999, pp. 314-315</ref> David ruled the southernmost regions and led the defense of one of the most dangerous border areas, around [[Thessaloniki]] and [[Thessaly]].<ref name="Guzelev314315" /> The centres of his possessions were [[Prespa]] and [[Kastoria]]. Moses ruled from [[Strumica|Strumitsa]],<ref name="Guzelev314315" /> which would be a base for attacks on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coast and [[Serres, Greece|Serres]]. Aron ruled from Sredets,<ref name="Guzelev314315" /> and was to defend the main road from [[Edirne|Adrianople]] to [[Belgrade]], and to attack [[Thrace (Greece)|Thrace]]. Samuel ruled northwestern Bulgaria from the strong fortress of [[Vidin]]. He was also to organize the liberation of the conquered areas to the east and of Preslav.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Petrov |first=P |title=Rebellion of Peter and Boyan in 976 and struggle of the Cometopuli with Byzantium (Vosstanie Petra i Boyana v 976 i borba Komitopulov s Vizantiei, Восстание Петра и Бояна в 976 г. и борьба Комитопулов с Византией) |journal=Byzantinobulgarica |issue=1 |year=1962 |pages=pp. 130–132 |language=Russian }}.</ref> Some records suggest that David played a major role in this tumultuous period of Bulgarian history.<ref>Zlatarski, p. 615</ref> [[Image:The Chronicle of Ioannis Skylitzis Preslav Attacked.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Byzantines seize the capital [[Preslav]].]] Even before the fall of Preslav, the Bulgarians defeated Byzantium's Asian army, led by the [[eunuch]] Peter, on the outskirts of [[Plovdiv]] in 970.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Syuzyumov |first=М |title=Sources from Leo Deacanus and Scyzitzes (Ob istochnikah Leva Diakona i Skilitsi, Об источниках Льва Дьякона и Скилицьi) |journal=ВО |issue=2 |year=1916 |language=Russian }}</ref> From 971 to 975, there were many skirmishes and minor battles, and the Bulgarian detachments harassed the Byzantine possessions in the Balkans.<ref name=prokic30/> After John I Tzimiskes died on [[11 January]] [[976]], the Cometopuli launched an assault along the whole border. But within the first weeks David was killed by [[Vlach]] vagrants and Moses was fatally injured by a stone during the siege of Serres.<ref>Skylitzes, pp. 334–335.</ref>Moses died in 986. <ref>Adontz, Nicolas. Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, p.356.</ref> Their actions to the south detained many Byzantine troops and eased Samuel's liberation of northeastern Bulgaria; the Byzantine commander was defeated and retreated to [[Crimea]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Levchenko |first= М. V |title=Precious sources on the Russo-Byzantine relations in the 9th century (Tsenniy istochnih po vaprosu pussko-vizantiyskih otnosheniy v X veke, Ценный источних по вопросу русско-византийских отношений в X веке |year=1951 |pages=pp. 66–68 |language=Russian }}</ref><ref>Nikolov, G., ''Centralism and regionalism in Bulgaria during the early Middle ages (end of VII - beginning of XI c.)'' (''Tsentralizam i regionalizam v rannosrednovekovna Balgariya (kraya na VII - nachaloto na XI v.)'', ''Централизъм и регионализъм в ранносредновековна България (края на VІІ - началото на ХІ в.)''), София 2005, p. 195</ref> Any Bulgarian nobles and officials who had not opposed the Byzantine conquest of the region were executed, and the war continued north of the [[Danube]] until the enemy was scattered and Bulgarian rule was restored.<ref>{{cite book |last=Westberg |first=F |title=Die Fragmente des Toparcha Goticus (Anonymus Tauricus aus dem 10. Jahrhundert) |origyear=1901 |pages=p. 502 |year=1951 |publisher=Zentralantiquariat der Dt. Demokrat. Republik |location=Leipzig |language=German |oclc=74302950 }}</ref> ===Death of Aaron and Samuel's ascent to power=== After its serious defeats in the Balkans, the Byzantine Empire descended into civil war. The commander of the Asian army, [[Bardas Scleros]], rebelled in [[Asia Minor]] and sent troops under his son Romanus in Thrace to besiege Constantinople. The new Emperor [[Basil II]] did not have enough manpower to fight both the Bulgarians and the rebels and resorted to treason, conspiracy and complicated diplomatic plots.<ref>Petrov, p. 133.</ref> [[Image:Skleroi and the Phokades,from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes.jpg|300px|thumb|left|During the civil wars in the Byzantine Empire, the [[Bulgarians]] not only regained their positions on the Balkans, but advanced deep into enemy territory.]] Basil II was making many promises to the Bulgarians and Scleros to divert them from allying against him.<ref>Petrov, pp. 133–134</ref> Aaron, the eldest living Comitopulus, was tempted by an alliance with the Byzantines and the opportunity to seize power in Bulgaria for himself. He held land in Thrace, where the Byzantines could threaten it. Basil reached an agreement with Aaron, who asked to marry the Basil's sister to seal it. But Basil instead sent the wife of one of his officials with the bishop of Sebaste. The deceit was uncovered and the bishop was killed.<ref>{{cite book |title=General history of Stephan from Taron (Vseobshaya istoriya Stepanosa Taronskogo, Всеобщая история Степаноса Таронского |pages=pp. 175–176 |language=Russian }}</ref> Nonetheless, negotiations proceeded and concluded in a peace agreement. The historian Scylitzes wrote that Aron wanted sole power and "sympathized with the Romans".<ref>Scylitzes, pp. 434–435. In this context, by "Romans" Skylitzes understands "Byzantines".</ref> Samuel learned of the conspiracy and conflict between the two brothers was inevitable. The quarrel broke out in the vicinity of [[Dupnitsa]] on [[14 June]], [[976]] and ended with the annihilation of Aaron's family<!--in-laws?-->. Only his son, [[Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria|Ivan Vladislav]], survived because Samuil's son [[Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria|Gavril Radomir]] pleaded on his behalf.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Petrov |first=P |title=Formation and consolidation of the Western Bulgarian state (Obrazuvane i ukrepvane na Zapadnata Balgarska darzhava, Образуване и укрепване на Западната Българска държава) |journal=Гсуифф |volume=53 |issue=2 |year=1959 |pages=pp. 169–170 |language=Bulgarian}}</ref> Now, practically all power and authority in the state was with Samuel, and the danger of internal conflict was eliminated. However, another theory suggests that Aron participated in the [[battle of the Gates of Trajan]] which took place ten years later. According to that theory Aron was killed on 14 June 987 or 988.<ref>Seibt, ''Untersuchungen'', p. 90</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rozen |first=V. R |title=Emperor Basil the Bulgar-slayer: extractions from Yuhia of Antioch's chronicles (Imperator Vasiliy Bolgaroboytsa: izvecheniya iz letopisi Yahi Antiohijskago, Император Василий Болгаробойца: извлечения из летописи Яхи Антиохийскаго) |publisher=Variorum Reprints |location=London |pages=pp. 21 |language=Russian |isbn=9780902089396 |year=1972 }}</ref> ==Co-rule with Roman== {{main|battle of the Gates of Trajan}} [[Image:Byzantyne attack Preslav.jpg|200px|thumb|right|The Byzantine cavalry fighting in northern Bulgaria.]] After the Byzantine plan to use Aron to cause instability in Bulgaria failed, they tried to encourage the rightful heirs to the throne,<ref>Boris II and Roman were sons of Peter I whose dynasty had ruled Bulgaria since the reign of [[Khan (title)|Khan]] [[Krum of Bulgaria|Krum]] (803-814)</ref> [[Boris II]] and Roman, to oppose Samuil. Basil II hoped that they would win the support of the nobles and isolate Samuel or perhaps even start a Bulgarian civil war.<ref>Petrov, p. 134</ref> Boris and Roman were send back in 986<ref>[[Nicholas Adontz|Adontz, Nikoghayos]].Samuel l'Armenien. In: Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, Pp. 347-407(353),</ref> but while they were passing through a forest around the border, Boris was killed by Bulgarian guards who were misled by his Byzantine clothing. Roman, who was walking some distance behind, managed to identify himself to the guards.<ref>Skylitzes, pp. 434–435.</ref> Roman was taken to [[Vidin]], where he was proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria.<ref>Prokić, p. 28.</ref> Samuel became his first assistant and general and together they gathered an army and fought the Byzantines.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rozen |first=V. R |title=Emperor Basil the Bulgar-slayer: extractions from Yuhia of Antioch's chronicles (Imperator Vasiliy Bolgaroboytsa: izvecheniya iz letopisi Yahi Antiohijskago, Император Василий Болгаробойца: извлечения из летописи Яхи Антиохийскаго) |publisher=Variorum Reprints |location=London |pages=pp. 20–21 |language=Russian |isbn=9780902089396 |year=1972 }}</ref> During his captivity, Roman had been [[castration|castrated]] on the orders of John I Tzimiskes so that he would not have heirs. Thus, his first assistant, Samuel, was certain to eventually succeed Roman. The new emperor entrusted Samuel with state affairs and became occupied with the church and religion.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Petrov |first=P |title=On the question concerning the authenticity of the Virgin charter and the data it contains (Po vaprosa za awtentichnostta na Virginskata gramota i sadarzhastite se v neya danni, По въпроса за автентичността на Виргинската грамота и съдържащите се в нея данни) |journal=Гсуифф |issue=54 |volume=2 |year=1958 |pages=pp. 219–225 |language=Bulgarian }}</ref> As the main efforts of Basil II were concentrated against the rebel Skleros, Samuel's armies easily attacked all European possessions of the Byzantine Empire. He invaded not only Thrace and the area of [[Thessaloniki]], but also [[Thessaly]], [[Hellas]] and [[Peloponnese]]. Many Byzantine fortresses fell under Bulgarian rule.<ref>Skylitzes, pp. 435–436.</ref> Samuel wanted to seize the important fortress of [[Larissa]], which controlled the key routes to Thessaly. From 977 to 983, the area around the town was blocked. After starvation forced the Byzantines to surrender<ref name="enc">[http://www.bartleby.com/67/441.html The Encyclopedia of World History. 2001. First Bulgarian Empire - Samuil]</ref>, the population of the town was deported to the interior of Bulgaria and the males were forced to enlist in the Bulgarian army.<ref name=ce6566>Cecaumenes. ''Strategion'', pp. 65–66.</ref> Although Basil II sent forces to the region, they were defeated, and the conquest of Thessaly marked the loss of the last Byzantine stronghold in that part of the peninsula. With this victory, Bulgaria had gained influence over the southwestern Balkans. From Larissa, Samuel took the relics of ''St Achillios'', which were laid in a specially built church of the same name on an island in [[Lake Prespa]].<ref name=sk436>Skylitzes, p. 436.</ref><ref>''Cecaumeni Strategion'', eds. B. Wassilewsky and P. Jernstedt, St Petersburg, 1896, pp. 65-66</ref><ref>Litavrin, G. ''Soveti i rasskazy Kekavmena. Sochinenie vizantiiskogo polkovodtsa XI veka'', Moscow, 1972, pp. 250-252</ref> [[Image:Samuil-skilitsa-trud.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The Bulgarians defeat the Byzantines in the [[battle of Solun|battle of Thessaloniki]].]] The major successes in the west raised justifiable fears in [[Constantinople]], and after serious preparations, Basil II launched a campaign in the very centre of the Bulgarian Empire<ref>Ostrogorsky, G. ''History of the Byzantine state'' (''Istorija Vizantije', ''Исторijа Византиje''), pp. 391-393</ref> to distract Samuel from southern Greece.<ref>Leo Diaconus. ''Historia'', p. 171.</ref><ref>W.Seibt, ''Untersuchungen zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte der bulgarischen Kometopulen'', Handes Amsorya 89 (1975), pp.65-98</ref> The Byzantine army passed through the mountains around [[Ihtiman]] and besieged Sofia in 986. For 20&nbsp;days, the Byzantine assaults proved fruitless and even disastrous: several times, the Bulgarians came out of the city, slaughtered many enemy soldiers and captured [[draught animal]]s and [[horse]]s. Eventually, the Bulgarian troops burned the [[siege]] equipment of the invaders. Basil II withdrew to Thrace, but on [[17 August]] [[986]],<ref>Rozen, p. 21.</ref> while passing through the mountains, the Byzantine army was thoroughly routed at the [[battle of the Gates of Trajan|Trajan's Gate Pass]]. This was a significant blow for Basil,<ref>Stephen of Taron, pp.185-186</ref><ref>Dennis, ''Three Treatises'', pp.242-43</ref> who was one of the few to return to Constantinople; his personal treasure was captured by the victors.<ref>Skylitzes, pp. 436–438.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gilferding |first=А |title=Letters from the history of Serbians and Bulgarians (Pisma ob istorii serbov i bolgar, Письма об истории сербов и болгар) |location=Москва |year=1868 |oclc=79291155 |language=Russian |pages=p. 209 }}</ref> After the defeat, the Byzantine Empire descended into a civil war after the rebellion of [[Bardas Phocas]].<ref>[http://www.roman-emperors.org/basilii.htm Roman Emperors - Basil II]</ref><ref>Al-Rudrawari, pp.28-35</ref><ref>Ostrogorsky, G. ''History of the Byzantine state'' (''Istorija Vizantije', ''Исторijа Византиje''), pp. 397-398</ref> Samuil seized the opportunity and began to exert pressure on Thessaloniki.<ref>E Codd. ''Manuscriptis Bibliothecae Regiae Parisiensis'', J.A.Cramer (ed.), 4 Vols (Oxford, 1839-1841), Vol 4, pp.271, 282</ref><ref>Rozen, p. 27.</ref> Basil II sent a large army to the town and appointed a new governor, Gregorios Taronites,<ref>Skylitzes, p. 446.</ref> but he was powerless to stop the Bulgarian advance. By 989, the Bulgarian troops had penetrated deep into Byzantine territory<ref>John Geometres: Anecdota Graeca, E Codd. ''Manuscriptis Bibliothecae Regiae Parisiensis'', J.A.Cramer (ed.), 4 Vols (Oxford, 1839-1841), Vol 4, pp.271-3, 282-283</ref> and seized many fortresses, including such important cities as [[Veria]] and [[Servia, Greece|Servia]]. In the south, the Bulgarians marched throughout [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] and in the west they seized the area of modern [[Durrës]] on the [[Adriatic Sea]].<ref>Zlatarski, pp. 645–647.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Vasilyevskiy |first=V. G |title=History of the years 976-986 (K istorii 976-986 godov, К истории 976-986 годов) |pages=p. 83 |language=Russian }}</ref><ref>Ioannes Geometer. ''Carmina'', col. 920A.</ref> [[Image:Byzantine army under the leadership of Nikephoros Uranos putting the Bulgarians to flight from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The defeat at Spercheios.]] In 989, Phocas was killed and his followers surrendered, and the following year Basil II reached an agreement with Skleros.<ref>Ostrogorsky, ''Byzantine State'', pp.303-308</ref> The Byzantines focused their attention on Bulgaria,<ref>Zlatarski, pp. 651–652.</ref> and in 991 counter-attacked.<ref>Yahya, PO 23 (1932), pp.430-431</ref><ref>Stephen of Taron, p.198</ref> The Bulgarian army was defeated and Roman was captured while Samuel managed to escape.<ref>Rozen, p. 34.</ref> The Byzantines conquered some areas; but in 995, the [[Arabs]] invaded Asia Minor and Basil II was forced to move many of his troops to combat this new threat. Samuil quickly regained the lost lands and advanced south. In 996, he defeated the Byzantines in the [[battle of Solun|battle of Thessaloniki]]. During the battle, Thessaloniki's governor, Gregorios, perished and his son Ashot was captured.<ref>Skylitzes, p. 449.</ref> Inspired, the Bulgarians continued south. They marched through Thessaly, overcame the defensive wall at Thermopylae and entered Peloponnese, devastating everything on their way.<ref>Skylitzes, pp. 449–450.</ref> The Byzantines recovered and an army under Nikephorus Uranos was sent after the Bulgarians. The two armies met near the flooded river of Spercheios. The Byzantines found a place to ford, and on [[19 July]] [[996]], they surprised the unprepared Bulgarian army and routed it in the [[battle of Spercheios]].<ref>Skylitzes, p. 450.</ref> Samuel's arm was wounded and he barely escaped captivity; he and his son allegedly pretended to be dead.<ref>Stephenson, P., ''The legend of Basil the Bulgar-slayer'', p. 17, ISBN 0521815304</ref> After nightfall they headed for Bulgaria and walked {{convert|400|km|mi|0}} home. Research of Samuel's grave suggests that, the bone in his arm healed at an angle of 140° but remained crippled.<ref name="Andreev1999">Andreev, 1999, pp. 331-334</ref> ==Emperor== In 997, Roman died in captivity in Constantinople, ending the line of rulers started by [[Krum of Bulgaria|Krum]]. Because of the war with Byzantium, it was dangerous to leave the throne vacant for long, and Samuel was chosen as the new Emperor of Bulgaria because he had the closest relations to the deceased emperor and was Roman's long-standing military commander.<ref>Rozen, p. 43.</ref> The presbyter of [[Duklja]] also marked the event: "By that time among the Bulgarian people rose one Samuel, who proclaimed himself Emperor. He led a long war against the Byzantines and expelled them from the whole territory of Bulgaria, so that the Byzantines did not dare to approach it."<ref>{{cite book |last=Šišić |first=Ferdo |title=Chronicle of the Dukjean priest (Letopis popa Dukljanina, Летопис попа Дукљанина) |year=1928 |publisher=Serbian Royal Academy |location=Belgrade |pages=p. 330 |language=Serbian |oclc=4434344 }}</ref> {{Quote box2 |width= 20em |border= 1px |margin= 2px |align= right |bgcolor= #c6dbf7 |halign= left |quote= "Above the comet scorched the sky, below the comet[oupolos] (Samuil) burns the West." |source= Byzantine writer John Kyriotes Geometres.<ref name="poe">Argoe, K. ''John Kyriotes Geometres, a tenth century Byzantine writer'', Madison 1938, pp. 140-141.</ref>}} Constantinople would not recognize the new emperor, as for the Byzantines Boris II's abdication symbolized the official end of Bulgaria and Samuel was considered a rebel. Instead Samuel sought recognition from the [[Pope]], which would be a serious blow to Byzantine positions in the Balkans and lessen the influence of the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], which would benefit both Rome and Bulgaria. Samuil possibly received his imperial crown from [[Pope Gregory V]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Duichev |first=Iv. |title=Correspondence of Pope Innocent III with the Bulgarians (Prepiska na papa Inokentii III s balgarite, Преписка на папа Инокентий III с българите.) |journal=Гсуифф |issue=38 |year=1942 |pages=pp. 22–23 |language=Bulgarian }} There is no direct evidence for that recognition, but in his correspondence with [[Pope Innocent III]] two centuries later, the Bulgarian emperor [[Kaloyan]] pointed out that his predecessors [[Peter I of Bulgaria|Peter]] and Samuil had received imperial recognition by Rome.</ref> ===War against Serbs and Croats=== In 998, Samuel launched a major campaign against the [[Serbia]]n principality of Duklja to prevent an alliance between Prince [[Jovan Vladimir]] and the Byzantines. When the Bulgarian troops reached Duklja, the Serbian prince and his people withdrew to the mountains. Samuel left part of the army at the foot of the mountains and led the remaining soldiers to besiege the [[Ulcinj]] coastal fortress. In an effort to avoid bloodshed he asked Jovan Vladimir to surrender. After the prince refused, some Serb nobles offered their services to the Bulgarians and, when it became clear that further resistance was fruitless, the Serbs surrendered. Jovan Vladimir was exiled to Samuel's palaces in [[Prespa]].<ref name=sisc331>Šišić, p. 331.</ref> [[Image:Samoil.death.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The wedding of Ashot and Samuil's daughter Miroslava.]] The Bulgarian troops next went through Dalmatia, took control of [[Kotor]], and journeyed to [[Dubrovnik]]. Although they failed to take Dubrovnik, they devastated the surrounding villages. The Bulgarian army then attacked [[Croatia]] in support of rebel princes [[Krešimir III of Croatia|Krešimir III]] and [[Gojslav of Croatia|Gojslav]] and advanced northwest to [[Split]], [[Trogir]] and [[Zadar]], then northeast through [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]] and [[Raška]] and returned to Bulgaria.<ref name=sisc331/> This [[Croato-Bulgarian Wars|Croato-Bulgarian War]] allowed Samuel to install friendly monarchs in Croatia. Samuel's daughter [[Theodora Kosara of Bulgaria|Theodora Kosara]] fell in love with the captive Jovan Vladimir. The couple married after gaining Samuil's approval, and Jovan returned to his lands as a Bulgarian official along with his uncle Dragomir, whom Samuel trusted.<ref>Šišić, p. 334</ref> Meanwhile, Princess [[Miroslava of Bulgaria|Miroslava]] fell in love with the Byzantine noble captive Ashot and threatened to commit suicide if she was not allowed to marry him. Samuel conceded and appointed Ashot as governor of the Drach Province.<ref>Skylitzes, p. 451.</ref> Samuel also gained an alliance with the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] when his eldest son and heir, Gavril Radomir, married the daughter of the Hungarian Ruling Prince [[Géza of Hungary|Géza]].<ref name=venedikov>{{cite book |last=Venedikov |first=Iv. |chapter=The first wedlock of Gavril Radomir (Parviyat brak na Gavril Radomir, Първият брак на Гаврил Радомир) |title=Collection in memory of Аl. Burmov |year=1973 |pages=pp. 144–149 |language=Bulgarian |oclc=23538214 }}</ref> ===Advance of the Byzantines=== The beginning of the new [[millennium]] saw a change in Byzantine-Bulgarian relations.<ref>Holmes, ''Basil II and the government of the empire, vii, pp. 264-265''</ref> Basil II had amassed an army larger and stronger than that of the Bulgarians. Determined to definitively conquer Bulgaria, the he moved much of the battle-seasoned war potential from the eastern campaigns against the Arabs to the Balkans<ref>Antoljak, ''Samuel and his estate'', pp. 78-80</ref><ref>R. V. Rozen, ''Emperor Basil the Bulgar-slayer'' (''Imperator Vasiliy Bolgaroboytsa'', ''Император Василий Болгаробойца''), p. 34</ref> and Samuil was forced to defend rather than attack.<ref>Аndreev, J. ''The Bulgarian Khans and Tsars'' (''Balgarskite hanove i tsare'', ''Българските ханове и царе''), Veliko Tarnovo, 1996, p. 125 ISBN 954-427-216-X</ref> {{Quote box2 |width= 20em |border= 1px |margin= 2px |align= right |bgcolor= #c6dbf7 |halign= left |quote= "Even if the sun would have come down, I would have never thought that the Moesian [Bulgarian] arrows were stronger than the Avzonian [Roman, Byzantine] spears. <br>... And when you, Featon [Sun], descend to the earth with your gold-shining chariot, tell the great soul of the Caesar: The Danube [Bulgaria] took the crown of [[Rome]]. The arrows of the Moesians broke the spears of the Avzonians." |source= Byzantine writer John Kyriotes Geometres on the [[battle of the Gates of Trajan]].<ref>Ioannis Geometrae ''Carmina varia''. Migne, Patrol. gr., t. 106, col. 934</ref>}} In 1001, Basil II sent a large army under the patrician Theodorokanos and [[Nicephorus Xiphias]] to the north of the [[Balkan Mountains]] to seize the main Bulgarian fortress in the area. The Byzantine troops seized [[Preslav]] and [[Pliska]],<ref>Skylitzes, p. 452.</ref> putting north-eastern Bulgaria under Byzantine rule for a second time. The following year, they struck in the opposite direction, marching through Thessaloniki to tear off Thessaly and the southernmost parts of the Bulgarian Empire. Although the Bulgarian commander of the fortress of Veroia, Dobromir, was married to one of Samuel's nieces, he voluntarily surrendered the fort and joined the Byzantines.<ref>Ibidem. II, р. 452</ref> The Byzantines also captured the fortress of Kolidron without a fight, but its commander Dimitar Tihon managed to retreat with his soldiers and join Samuel.<ref>Prokić, p. 30.</ref> The next town, Servia, did not fall so easily. Its governor [[Nikulitsa of Bulgaria|Nikulitsa]] organized the defenders well. They fought bravely until the Byzantines penetrated the walls and forced them to surrender.<ref>Zonaras, ibid., IV, p. 118–119</ref> Nikulitsa was taken to Constantinople and given the high court title of ''patricius'', but he soon escaped and joined the Bulgarians. He tried to retake Servia, but the siege was unsuccessful and he was captured again and imprisoned.<ref>Skyl.—Cedr., ibid., II, p. 452–453.</ref> Meanwhile, Basil II's campaign seized many towns in Thessaly. He forced the Bulgarian population of the conquered areas to resettle in the Voleron area between the [[Mesta River|Mesta]] and [[Maritsa]] rivers. [[Edessa, Greece|Edessa]] resisted for weeks but after a long siege was conquered. The population was moved to Voleron and its governor Dragshan was taken to Thessaloniki, where he was betrothed to the daughter of a local noble. Unwilling to be married to an enemy, Dragshan three times tried to flee to Bulgaria and was eventually executed.<ref>Skylitzes, pp. 452–454.</ref> ===War with Hungary=== {{main|Bulgarian-Hungarian Wars}} [[Image:Bulgaria Samuil raster.png|right|thumb|300px|Map of Bulgaria in its largest extension during Samuel's reign.<ref name=delev/>]] The Byzantine-Bulgarian conflict reached its height in 1003 when Hungary became involved. Since the beginning of the 9th century, the Bulgarian territory had stretched beyond the [[Carpathian Mountains]] as far as the [[Tisza]] River and the middle Danube. During the reign of Samuel, the governor of these northwestern parts was Duke [[Ahtum]], the grandson of Duke [[Glad (duke)|Glad]], who was defeated by the Hungarians in 930s. Ahtum commanded a strong army and firmly defended the northwestern borders of the Empire. He also built many churches and monasteries through which he spread [[Christianity]] in [[Transylvania]].<ref>''Legenda Saneti Gerhardi episcopi'', p. 489.</ref><ref>Venedikov, p. 150.</ref> Although Gavril Radomir's marriage to the daughter of the Hungarian ruler had established friendly relation between the two strongest states in the Danube area, the relationship deteriorated after Géza's death. The Bulgarians supported Gyula and Koppány as rulers instead of Géza's [[Stephen I of Hungary|Stephen I]]. As a result of the conflict, the marriage between Gavril Radomir and the Hungarian princess was dissolved. The Hungarians then attacked Ahtum, who had directly backed the pretenders for the Hungarian crown. Stephen I convinced Hanadin, Ahtum's right-hand man, to help in the attack. When the conspiracy was uncovered Hanadin fled and joined the Hungarian forces.<ref>''Legenda Saneti Gerhardi episcopi'', p. 492–493.</ref> At the same time, a strong Byzantine army besieged Vidin, Ahtum's seat. Although many soldiers were required to participate in the defense of the town, Ahtum was occupied with the war to the north. After several months he died in battle when his troops were defeated by the Hungarians.<ref>Venedikov, pp. 151–152.</ref> As a result of the war, Bulgarian influence to the northwest of the Danube diminished. ===Further Byzantine successes=== [[Image:Victory of the Byzantines over the Bulgarians from John Skylitzes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The first decade of the new millennium was abundant in constant bloody battles, sieges and skirmishes. This picture shows a Byzantine victory in that period.]] The Byzantines took advantage of Bulgarian difficulties in the north. In 1003, Basil II led a large army to Vidin, northwestern Bulgaria's most important town. After an eight-month siege, the invaders captured the fortress by force.<ref>Skylitzes, p. 454.</ref> The commanders of the town repulsed all attempts to break its defence, including the use of [[Greek fire]].<ref name=prokic30>Prokić, p. 30.</ref> While Basil's forces were engaged there, Samuel struck in the opposite direction: on [[15 August]] he attacked [[Adrianople]] and plundered the area.<ref>Skylitzes, pp. 454–455.</ref> The Byzantines continued the siege of Vidin and finally gained the town after a betrayal by the local bishop.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ivanov |first=Jordan |title=Bulgarian historical monuments in Macedonia (Balgarski starini iz Makedoniya, Български старини из Македония) |year=1970 |origyear=1931 |publisher=Nauka i izkustvo |location=Sofia |pages=p. 557 |language=Bulgarian |oclc=3736478 }}</ref> Basil II then decided to return to Constantinople, but, fearing an encounter with the Bulgarian army on the main road to his capital, he used an alternate route. The Byzantines marched south through the [[Great Morava|Morava]] valley and reached a key Bulgarian city, [[Skopje]], in 1004. The Bulgarian army was camping on the opposite side of the [[Vardar River]]. After finding a ford and crossing the river Basil II attacked and defeated Samuel's unsuspecting army, repeating tactics used in the [[Battle of Spercheios]].<ref>Skylitzes, p. 455.</ref> The Byzantines continued east and besieged the fortress of [[Pernik]]. Its governor, [[Krakra]], was not seduced by Basil's promises for a noble title and wealth. Krakra defended the fortress and the Byzantines withdrew to Thrace after suffering heavy losses.<ref>Skylitzes, p. 454.</ref><ref>Zlatarski, pp. 685–687.</ref> In the same year, Samuel undertook a march against Thessaloniki. He ambushed and captured its governor, Ioannes Chaldus,<ref name=prokic30/><ref>Actes d'Iviron I. ''Des origines au milieu du XIe siècle, Archives de l'Athos XIV'', eds. J.Lefort, N.Oikonomides, D.Papachryssanthou, H.Métrévéli (Paris, 1985), doc. 8</ref> but this success could not compensate for the losses the Bulgarians had suffered in the past four years. The setbacks in the war demoralized some of Samuil's military commanders, especially the captured Byzantine nobles. Samuel's son-in-law Ashot, the governor of Dyrrhachium, made contact with the local Byzantines and the influential Ioannes Chryselios, Samuel's father-in-law. Ashot and his wife boarded one of the enemy ships that beleaguered the town, and fled to Constantinople. Meanwhile Chryselios surrendered Dyrrhachium to the Byzantine chief Eustathios Daphnomeles in 1005, securing the title of ''[[patricius]]'' for his sons.<ref>Skylitzes, p. 451.</ref><ref>Ostrogorsky, G. ''History of the Byzantine state'' (''Istorija Vizantije', ''Исторijа Византиje''), pp. 404-405</ref> From 1006 to 1013, neither side had much success and the balance of power remained unchanged. But in 1006&ndash;1007, Basil II penetrated deep into Bulgarian territory<ref>Gilferding, p. 250.</ref> and in 1009 Samuel's forces were defeated at [[battle of Kreta|Kreta]] east of Thessaloniki.<ref name=zlatarski>Златарски, pp. 689–690.</ref> Basil launched annual campaigns into Bulgarian territory, devastating everything on his way.<ref>Skylitzes, p. 457.</ref> Although there was still no decisive battle, it was clear that the end of the Bulgarian resistance was imminent; the evidence was the fierceness of the military engagements and the constant campaigns of both sides which devastated the Bulgarian and Byzantine lands.<ref>Daulaurier, p. 37</ref><ref name=zlatarski/> ===Disaster at Kleidion=== {{main|Battle of Kleidion}} [[Image:The Chronicle of Ioannis Skylitzis Bulagar Defeat.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The battle of Kleidion.]] Since the Byzantines usually used the valley of the [[Strumica river|Strumitsa River]] for their invasions into Bulgaria, Samuel built a thick wooden wall in the gorges around the village of [[Klyuch]] (''Kleidion'', "key") to bar the enemy's way. When Basil II launched his next campaign in the summer of 1014, his army suffered heavy casualties in assaults against the wall. Meanwhile Samuel sent forces under his general [[Nestoritsa]] to attack Thessalonica to distract Basil's attention. Nestoritsa was [[battle of Salonica (1014)|defeated near the city]]<ref>Selected sources for the Bulgarian history, Volume II: The Bulgarian states and the Bulgarians in the Middle Ages (Podbrani izvori za balgarskata istoriya, Tom II: Balgarskite darzhavi i balgarite prez srednovekovieto, Подбрани извори за българската история, Том II: Българските държави и българите през средновековието), p. 66</ref> by its governor Botaniates who later joined the main Byzantine army near Klyuch.<ref>Пириватрич, Самуиловата държава, с. 136</ref> After several days of trying to break through the wall, one Byzantine commander, the governor of Plovdiv [[Nicephorus Xiphias]], found a by-pass and on [[29 July]] attacked the Bulgarians from the rear.<ref>Skylitzes, p. 457.</ref> Despite the desperate resistance and the personal bravery of Gavril Radomir, the Byzantines [[Battle of Kleidion|overwhelmed the Bulgarian army]] and captured around 14,000&nbsp;soldiers.<ref>{{cite book |first=Al. |last=Fol |coauthors=V. Gyuzelev et al |title=Short history of Bulgaria (Kratka istoriya na Balgariya, Кратка история на България) |location=Sofia |year=1983 |publisher=Nauka i izkustvo |pages=p. 71 |language=Bulgarian |oclc=8553856 }}</ref> According to some sources the number was 15,000.<ref>Conquest of Bulgaria by Byzantium (end of X-beginning of XI c.) in the Russina chronography, HV-XVI c. (Zavoevenie Bolgarii Vizantiei (konets X-nachalo XI v.) v russkom hronografe, HV-XVI vv,; ЗАВОЕВАНИЕ БОЛГАРИИ ВИЗАНТИЕЙ (КОНЕЦ Х-НАЧАЛО XI в.) В РУССКОМ ХРОНОГРАФЕ, XV-XVI вв.) L. V. Gorina (Moscow State University)- in Russian [http://www.promacedonia.org/is_ran/is_ran_5.html] </ref> Basil II immediately sent forces under his favourite commander [[Theophylactus Botaniates]] to pursue the surviving Bulgarians, but they were defeated after an [[battle of Strumitsa|audacious counter-attack]] by Gavril Radomir, who personally killed Botaniates. Then, under order of Basil II the captured men were blinded; one of every 100 men was left with one eye to lead the others home.<ref>{{cite book |last=Duichev |first=Ivan |year=1943–1946 |publisher=Hemus |location=Sofia |title=In the old Bulgaria literature (Iz starata balgarska knijnina, Из старата българска книжнина) |volume=2 |pages=p. 102 |language=Bulgarian |oclc=80070403 }}</ref><ref>Cecaumenes. Strategion, 65-66</ref> They were sent back to Samuel, who had a heart attack on seeing the blinded soldiers. He died two days later, on [[15 October]] [[1014]].<ref>Skylitzes, p. 457.</ref> This savagery gave the Byzantine emperor his byname ''Boulgaroktonos'' ("Bulgar-slayer" in {{lang-gr|Βουλγαροκτόνος}}). Some historians theorize it was the death of his favourite commander that infuriated Basil II to blind the captured soldiers.<ref>Zlatarski, p. 699.</ref> ==Aftermath== [[Image:Byzantine Macedonia 1045CE.svg|250px|right|thumb|Themes in the Byzantine Empire under Basil II]] The battle of Kleidion had major political consequences. Although Samuel's son and successor, Gavril Radomir, was a talented military leader, he was unable to restore the Bulgarian Empire's previous power. After Samuel's death, many of his subordinates, including [[Krakra of Pernik|Krakra]], surrendered to the Byzantines. In the deep north-northwest, the duke of [[Syrmia]], [[Sermon (ruler)|Sermon]], was deceived and killed by the Byzantines.<ref>Zlatarski, pp. 742–744.</ref> After many other bloody battles, The Bulgarian Empire was thoroughly conquered by the end of 1018, only four years after Samuel's death.<ref>{{cite book |title=Emperor Samuil and the "Bulgarian epopee" |url=http://www.vmro-rousse.hit.bg/Pl_Pavlov.html |language=Bulgarian |last=Pavlov |first=Plamen |location=Sofia, Veliko Tarnovo |year=2002 |publisher=VMRO Rusa }}</ref> Most of the territory was incorporated in the new [[Bulgaria (theme)|Theme of Bulgaria]] with [[Skopje]] as capital.<ref>Themes in the Byzantine Empire under Basil II [http://img53.exs.cx/img53/6537/ThemesintheByzantineEmpireunderBasilII.jpg Themes under Basil II]</ref> It was more than a 150 years before Bulgaria was restored, with the rebellion of brothers [[Peter II of Bulgaria|Peter]] and [[Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria|Asen]] in 1185. ==Family== [[Image:Gerb na Samuil.png|thumb|150px|left|Detail form Samuil's garment.]] Samuel married Agatha, whose origin is unknown. They had five children: Gavril Radomir and four daughters&mdash;Theodora Kosara, Miroslava, Katun Anastasiya and Agatha. Gavril Radomir married twice, to Ilona of Hungary and Irina from Larisa; Kosara married the Prince of Duklya, Jovan Vladimir; Miroslava married the captured Byzantine noble Ashot and Katun Anastasiya married the Hungarian noble [[Vazul]]. After the fall of Bulgaria, Samuel's descendants assumed important positions in the Byzantine court after they were resettled and given lands in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Armenia]]. Оne of his granddaughters, Catherine, became Empress of Byzantium. Another grandchild, [[Peter II Delyan]], tried to restore the Bulgarian Empire after a major [[Bulgarian uprising against the Byzantine Empire (1040-1041)|uprising in 1040&ndash;1041]]. Two other women of the dynasty became Byzantine Empresses,<ref>[http://www.promacedonia.org/vz1b/vz1b_prit_15.html V. Zlatarski - Istorija 1 B - Priturka 15<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> while many nobles were [[strategos]] and governors of different provinces. {{familytree/start}} {{familytree | | | | | | | | CmN |~|y|~| RoA |CmN=[[Comita Nikola|Comita<br>Nikola]] |RoA=[[Ripsimia of Armenia|Ripsimia<br>of Armenia]]}} {{familytree | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|.}} {{familytree | Dav | | Mos | | Aar | | Sam |~|y|~| Aga |Dav=[[David of Bulgaria|David]] |Mos=[[Moses of Bulgaria|Moses]] |Aar=[[Aron of Bulgaria|Aron]] |Sam=[[Samuil of Bulgaria|Samuil<br>of Bulgaria]] |Aga=Agatha}} {{familytree | | |,|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|^|.}} {{familytree | | KtA | | | ThK | | | Mir | | | GvR |GvR='''[[Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria|Gavril<br>Radomir]]''' |ThK=[[Theodora Kosara of Bulgaria|Theodora<br>Kosara]] |Mir=[[Miroslava of Bulgaria|Miroslava]] |KtA=[[Katun Anastazya of Bulgaria|Katun<br>Anastazya]]}} {{familytree/end}} There is also another version about Samuel’s origin. The 11th century historian [[Stepanos Asoghik]] wrote that Samuel had only one brother, and they were Armenians from the district [[Tercan|Derjan]] (Armenian land incorporated into the Byzantine Empire). They were sent to fight the Bulgarians in [[Macedonia]] but ended up joining them.<ref>[[Asoghik]] (Stepanos de Taron). L'histoire universelle, Paris, 1859. Translation in German, Leipzig, 1907.</ref> This version is supported by the historian [[Nicholas Adontz]] who analyzes the events and facts of the century and concludes that Samuel had only one brother, David.<ref> Nicholas Adontz. Samuel l'Armenien, Roi des Bulgares. Bruxelles, Palais des academies, 1938. Published also in: Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, Pp. 347-407.</ref> Asoghik's version is also supported by the historian Jordan Ivanov,<ref> Иванов, Йордан (Jordan Ivanov). Произход на цар Самуиловия род (The origin of the family of the king Samuil). In: Сборник в чест на В. Н. Златарски, София, 1925.</ref> and according to [[Samuil's Inscription]] he had only one brother called David. [[Yahya]] says that the son of Samuel – Gabriel (Gavril) was assassinated by the boss of the Bulgarians, son of Aaron, because Aaron belonged to the race that reigned over Bulgaria. [[Asoghik]] and [[Yahya]] clearly distinguish the race of Samuel from the one of Aaron or the race of the Comitopouli from the royal race. Moses and Aaron are not from the family of the Comitopouli. David and Samuel were of Armenian origin. Moses and Aaron were Armenians from their mother’s side.<ref>Adontz, Nicolas. Etudes Armeno-Byzantines. Livraria Bertrand. Lisbonne, 1965, p.387-380.</ref>Check out: * Simeon I of Bulgaria had several daughters and four sons: 1.Michael. 2.Peter I of Bulgaria (married to an Armenian Irina (Maria)/ Boris, Roman. 3.Ivan (married to an Armenian in Caesarea/ Moses, Aaron/ John (Ivan) Vladislav. 4.Benjamin (Bajan). * Comes (comita) Nikola/ David, Samuel/ Gabriel (Gavril Radomir) and several other children. ==Grave== [[Image:Agios Ahilleios Mikri Prespa 200704.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The remains of the Basilica of Agios Achillius in [[Lake Prespa]] where Samuil's grave was found.]] Samuel's grave was found in 1965 by [[Greece|Greek]] professor Nikolaos Moutsopoulos, on an island in [[Lake Prespa]], in the Church of St Achillios. Samuel had built the church for the relics of the saint of the same name.<ref>{{cite news |title= Prof. Kazimir Popkonstantinov: The offer for exchange of Samuil's remains is a provocation from Greece |date=2007-02-15 |publisher="Focus" Agency |language=Bulgarian |url=http://www.focus-news.net/index.php?id=n647796&chain=1 |accessdate=2007-04-28 }}</ref> The [[coat of arms]] of the Comitopuli house, two perched [[parrot]]s, was embroidered on his funeral garment. His remains are kept in a secret location in Greece, but according to a recent agreement, they may be returned to Bulgaria and buried in the [[SS. Forty Martyrs Church]] in [[Veliko Tarnovo]] by April 2007, to rest with the remains of emperors [[Kaloyan of Bulgaria|Kaloyan]] and [[Michael Shishman of Bulgaria|Michael Shishman]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://e-vestnik.bg/370/ |title=The remains of Tsar Samuil will after all go to Tarnovo&nbsp;— to the grave of Kaloyan |publisher=e-vestnik.bg |last=Dobrev |first=Petar |date=2007-04-18 |accessdate=2007-04-28 |language=Bulgarian }}</ref> The skull was reconstructed to restore the appearance of the 70-year-old Bulgarian ruler. According to the reconstruction he was sharp-faced man, bald-headed with white beard and moustache.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bnr.bg/RadioBulgaria/Emission_Bulgarian/Theme_IstoriaIReligia/Material/samuil_reconstrukica.htm |title=The appearance of Tsar Samuil is resurrected in Moscow |date=2007-03-05 |accessdate=2007-04-28 |language=Bulgarian |publisher=Radio Bulgaria }}</ref> ==Nomenclature== <!--[[Image:LocationMacedonia-BYZ-1-z.png|thumb|200px|left|The borders of Byzantine [[Macedonia (theme)|Province of Macedonia]] during the reign of Tsar Samuel.]]--> Samuel's empire had its heartlands about [[Ochrid]], west and southwest of the earlier centers of the [[First Bulgarian Empire]]. Thus the White Russian-Yugoslav scholar [[George Ostrogorsky]] distinguished Samuel's Empire sharply from the earlier Bulgarian Empire, as being a "Macedonian kingdom".<ref>''History of the Byzantine State'', (Rutgers, 1969) p. 302</ref> Some of his school, such as Anastasijević, claimed that Samuel ruled a separate Slavic Empire,<ref>Anastasiavić, D. N. Hypothesis on Western Bulgaria (Hipoteza o Zapadnoj Bugarskoj, Хипотеза о Западноj Бугарскоj), Glasnik Skopskog nauchnog drushtva, b. III, Skopie, 1928.</ref> founded as an anti-Bulgarian rebellion of the Comitopuli, not a continuation of the Bulgarian state. This theory is now held only in the Republic of Macedonia; although Pirivatrić rejects it.<ref>Pirivatrić, Samuilova Drjava: obim i karakter, Самуилова држава: обим и карактер.</ref> The official publications of the Republic even refer to a "Macedonian Slavic" or even only "Macedonian" Empire.<ref>An outline of Macedonian history from ancient times to 1991. Macedonian Embassy London. Retrieved on 2007-04-28.</ref> But Samuel called himself Bulgarian Emperor, and claimed the prestige of the Bulgarian patriarchate. <!-- He also spoke Slavic, like the modern Bulgarians, but unlike the Turkic or Iranic language of the Old [[Bulgars]].--> ==Legacy== [[Image:Samuil Fortress.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A memorial in Petrich, [[Bulgaria]].]] Samuel is among the most renowned Bulgarian rulers. His military struggle with the Byzantine empire is marked as an epic period of Bulgarian history. The great number of monuments and memorials in Bulgaria and Republic of Macedonia, such as the ones in [[Petrich]] and [[Ohrid]] signify the trail this historical figure has left in the memory of people. Four Bulgarian villages bear his name as well as [[Samuel Point]]<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/apcbg/toponyms.htm#AQ72 Republic of Bulgaria, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Antarctic Place-names Commission, Bulgarian Antarctic Gazetteer Samuel Point]</ref> on [[Livingston Island]], [[Antarctica]]. Samuel is the main figure in at least three major Bulgarian novels by authors [[Dimitar Talev]]<ref>{{cite book | last =Talev | first =Dimitar | title =Samuil&nbsp;— Bulgarian Tsar (Samuil&nbsp;— tsar balgarski, Самуил&nbsp;— цар български) | publisher =Аbagar | date =1998 | isbn =9545842385 }}</ref>, [[Anton Donchev]] and [[Stefan Tsanev]] and is mentioned in the verse of [[Ivan Vazov]]<ref>Ivan Vazov, [http://liternet.bg/publish/vazov/lirika/gusla/opylchencite.htm The Volunteers at Shipka (in Bulgarian)]</ref>, [[Pencho Slaveykov]]<ref>Slaveykov, P., [http://slovo.bg/old/slaveykov/samuil.htm ''Tsar Samuil'' (in Bulgarian)]</ref> and [[Atanas Dalchev]].<ref>Atanas Dalchev, [http://www.litclub.com/library/bg/dalchev/kumrod.htm Towards the Motherland (in Bulgarian)]</ref> ==See also== {{Samuil's campaigns}} *[[Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars]] *[[Bulgarian-Hungarian Wars]] *[[Medieval Bulgarian Army]] *[[Comitopuli dynasty]] *[[Bitola inscription]] *[[Samuil's Inscription]] ==References== * {{cite book | title = The Bulgarian Khans and Tsars | last = Andreev | first = Jordan | coauthors = Milcho Lalkov | chapter = | year = 1996 | language = Bulgarian | publisher = Abagar | isbn = 954-427-216-X }} * {{cite book | title = Pouvoir et contestations a Byzance (963-1210)e | last = Cheynet | first = J.-Cl. | coauthors = | chapter = | year = 1990 |location = Paris | language = French | publisher = | isbn = }} * {{cite book | title = History and civilization for 11. grade | last = Delev | first = Petar | coauthors = Valeri Katsunov, Plamen Mitev, Evgeniya Kalyanova, Iskra Baeva, Boyan Dobrev | chapter = 12. The decline of the First Bulgarian Empire | year = 2006 | language = Bulgarian | publisher = Trud, Sirma | isbn = 9549926729 }} * {{cite book |title = Bulgaria: illustrated history |last = Dimitrov |first = Bozhidar |authorlink = Bozhidar Dimitrov |chapter = Bulgarian epic endeavours for independence 968–1018 |chapterurl = |publisher = Borina |year = 1994 |location = Sofia |isbn = 9545000449 }} *Fine, John V. A., Jr.. ''The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991 Chapter 6:"Bulgaria after Symeon, 927–1018". pp. 188–200. ISBN 978-0472081493. * {{cite book |last=Lalkov |first=Milcho |title=Rulers of Bulgaria |chapterurl= |chapter=Tsar Samuil (997–1014) |publisher=Kibea |isbn=954-474-098-8 |year=1997 }} *[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshal]], ''The Bulgarians : from pagan times to the Ottoman conquest''. Boulder, Colo. : Westview Press, 1976. ISBN 0891585303 *[[George Ostrogorsky|Ostrogorsky, George]], ''History of the Byzantine State''. tr. (from the German) by [[Joan Hussey]], rev. ed., Rutgers Univ. Press, 1969. *Pavlov P., [http://www.vmro-rousse.hit.bg/Pl_Pavlov.html Samuil and the Bulgarian epopee (in Bulgarian)], Sofia - Veliko Tarnovo, 2002 * {{cite book | title = Samuil's state: appearance and character | last = Pirivatrić | first = Srćan | coauthors = Bojidar Ferјančić | publisher = Institute of Byzantology SANU | year = 1997 | oclc = 41476117 | location = Belgrade | language = Serbian }} [http://www.promacedonia.org/new_books/pirivatrich.html Excerpt from the Bulgarian translation]. * {{cite book |last=Runciman |first=Steven |authorlink=Steven Runciman |title=A history of the First Bulgarian Empire |url=http://www.promacedonia.org/en/sr/index.html |chapterurl=http://www.promacedonia.org/en/sr/sr_3_3.htm |chapter= The end of an empire |publisher=[[George Bell & Sons]] |location=[[London]] |oclc= 832687 |year=1930 }} * {{cite book | title = L'epopee byzantine a la fin du X-me siecle | last = Schlumberger | first = G. | authorlink = | chapter = t. 2 Basile II-eme - le Tueur des Bulgares | publisher = | language = French | year = 1900 | location = Paris | isbn = }} *Treadgold, Warren. ''A History of the Byzantine State and Society''. Stanford, 1997, pb. ISBN 0804726302 * {{cite book | title = Bulgarian Chronicles | last = Tsanev | first = Stefan | authorlink = Stefan Tsanev | chapter = Chapter XIII. (972–1014). Heroic agony. Tsar Roman, Tsar Samuil. | publisher = Тrud, Zhanet 45 | language = Bulgarian | year = 2006 | location = Sofia, Plovdiv | isbn = 954-528-610-5 }} * {{cite book |last=Zlatarski |first=Vasil |authorlink=Vasil Zlatarski |title=History of the Bulgarian state in the Middle Ages. Volume I. History of the First Bulgarian Empire. |url=http://www.promacedonia.org/vz1b/index.html |edition=2 |chapter=Part II. Frpm the Slavinization of the country to the fall of the First Empire (852—1018). VI. Struggle for independence |publisher=Nauka i izkustvo |location=Sofia |year=1971 |origyear=1927 |language=Bulgarian |oclc=67080314 }} * {{cite book | url = http://www.mfa.government.bg/history_of_Bulgaria/ | title = The Bulgarians and Bulgaria | publisher = Ministry of Internal Affairs, Тrud, Sirma | chapter = 1.3. The Bulgarian capitals in the Macedonian lands. The southwestern Bulgarian lands. | chapterurl = http://www.mfa.government.bg/history_of_Bulgaria/30.html | year = 2005 | language = Bulgarian }} == External links == <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; font-size: 0.9em;"> *{{bg icon}} Павлов П., ''[http://www.vmro-rousse.hit.bg/Pl_Pavlov.html Цар Самуил и "Българската епопея"] '' *{{bg icon}} [http://standartnews.com/bg/article.php?d=2006-08-20&article=157235 Крадат ни и цар Самуил, ст.н.с. Божидар Димитров] *{{bg icon}} [http://slovo.bg/litvestnik/index.php?ar=495 Самуил, циркаджиите, университетите и дипломацията] *{{bg icon}} „''Десетте лъжи на македонизма''“ - [http://www.macedoniainfo.com/10_Lies_Macedonism.htm 1st part], [http://www.macedoniainfo.com/10_Lies_Macedonism2.htm 2nd part], [http://www.macedoniainfo.com/10_Lies_Macedonism3.htm 3rd part] *{{bg icon}} [http://sitemaker.umich.edu/mladjov/files/bulgarian_rulers.pdf Detailed list of Bulgarian rulers (PDF)] *{{ru icon}} [http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus6/Dukljanin/frametext.htm Летопис попа Дуклянина] *{{ru icon}} [http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus/Yahya/text1.phtml?id=1996 Яхъя Антиохийский, Летопись 1-6], [http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus/Yahya/text2.phtml?id=1997 7-17] *{{ru icon}} [http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus/Skyliza/1014.phtml?id=1341 Йоан Скилица за битката при Беласица] *{{en icon}} [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl1.html John Skylitzes, ''Synopsis Historion'': ''The Battle of Kleidion''] *{{en icon}} Catherine Holmes, ''[http://www.roman-emperors.org/basilii.htm Basil II (A.D. 976-1025)]'' *{{en icon}} [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/lpd1.html Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja] *{{en icon}} [http://www.euratlas.com/big/big1000.htm Map of Europe in 1000.] </div> ==Footnotes== :'''1.''' ''Bulgarian'' ъ'' can be transliterated ''a'', ''u'', or sometimes ''â'', as in ''български'', ''balgarski'' (as below) or ''bulgarski''. :'''2.''' The work of Vasil Zlatarski, ''History of the Bulgarian state in the Middle Ages'' has three editions. The first edition is from 1927 published in Sofia; the second edition is from 1971 and can be found [http://www.promacedonia.org/vz1b/index.html here] in Bulgarian; the third edition is from 1994 published in Sofia, ISBN 954-430-299-9 {{reflist|3}} {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Roman I of Bulgaria|Roman]]| title=[[List of Bulgarian monarchs|Emperor of Bulgaria]]| after=[[Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria|Gavril Radomir]]| years=997—1014<br /><small>(''de facto'' since 976)</small> }} {{end box}} {{Bulgarian monarchs}} [[Category:Bulgarian monarchs]] [[Category:958 births]] [[Category:1014 deaths]] [[Category:History of Bulgaria]] [[Category:History of Macedonia]] [[Category:Bulgarian Christians]] {{Link FA|bg}} [[bs:Samuilo]] [[bg:Самуил]] [[de:Samuil (Bulgarien)]] [[fr:Samuel Ier de Bulgarie]] [[ko:불가리아의 사무엘]] [[hr:Samuilo]] [[id:Samuil dari Bulgaria]] [[it:Samuele di Bulgaria]] [[mk:Самоил (цар)]] [[nl:Samuel van Bulgarije]] [[ja:サムイル (ブルガリア皇帝)]] [[pl:Samuel Komitopuli]] [[ru:Самуил (царь Болгарии)]] [[sq:Samoili]] [[sk:Samuil]] [[cu:Самоилъ]] [[sr:Самуило (цар)]] [[sv:Samuil av Bulgarien]]