Sanitation
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/* External links */ +Sanitation, Hygiene and Wastewater Resource Guide
{{dablink|For other uses, see [[Sanitization_(classified_information)]]}}
[[Image:EscherichiaColi NIAID.jpg|thumb|230px|[[E. Coli]] [[bacteria]] under magnification]]
'''Sanitation''' is the hygienic means of preventing human contact from the hazards of wastes to promote health. Hazards can be either physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause health problems are human and animal feces, solid wastes, domestic wastewater (sewage, sullage, greywater), industrial wastes, and agricultural wastes and now appliances in disuse wastes like cars, computers,household appliances, electronic appliances(bulbs, regulators) Hygienic means of prevention can be by using engineering solutions (e.g. sewerage and wastewater treatment), simple technologies (e.g.latrines, septic tanks), or even by personal hygiene practices (e.g. simple [[Hand washing|handwashing]] with soap).
The term "'''sanitation'''" can be applied to a specific aspect, concept, location, or strategy, such as:
*'''Basic sanitation''' - refers to the management of human feces at the household level. This terminology is the indicator used to describe the target of the Millennium Development Goal on sanitation.
*'''On-site sanitation''' - the collection and treatment of waste is done where it is deposited. Examples are the use of pit latrines, septic tanks, and imhoff tanks.
*'''Food sanitation''' - refers to the hygienic measures for ensuring food safety.
*'''Environmental sanitation''' - the control of environmental factors that form links in disease transmission. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water and wastewater treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise and pollution control.
*'''Ecological sanitation''' - a concept and an approach of recycling to nature the nutrients from human and animal wastes.
==Sanitation and wastewater==
==== Wastewater collection ====
{{Details|Wastewater}}
The standard sanitation technology in urban areas is the collection of [[wastewater]] in [[sewer]]s, its treatment in [[wastewater treatment plant]]s for [[reuse]] or disposal in rivers, lakes or the sea. Sewers are either combined with [[storm drain]]s or separated from them as [[sanitary sewer]]s. Combined sewers are usually found in the central, older parts or urban areas. Heavy rainfall and inadequate maintenance can lead to combined sewer overflows or [[sanitary sewer overflow]]s, i.e. more or less diluted raw sewage being discharged into the environment. Industries often discharge wastewater into municipal sewers, which can complicate wastewater treatment unless industries pre-treat their discharges.<ref>.''Environmental [[Biotechnology]]: Advancement in Water And Wastewater Application'', edited by Z. Ujang, IWA Proceedings, [[Malaysia]] (2003)</ref>
The high investment cost of conventional wastewater collection systems are difficult to afford for many [[developing countries]]. Some countries have therefore promoted alternative wastewater collection systems such as condominial sewerage, which uses smaller diameter pipes at lower depth with different network layouts from conventional sewerage.
==== Wastewater treatment ====
{{Details|Sewage treatment}}
[[Image:Wonga wetlands sewage plant.jpg|thumb|220px|left|[[Sewage treatment]] plant, [[Australia]].]]
In developed countries treatment of municipal wastewater is now widespread,<ref>[http://adminrecords.ucsd.edu/ppm/docs/516-10-6.html Typical U.S. water treatment standards]</ref> but not yet universal (for an overview of technologies see [[wastewater treatment]]). In [[developing countries]] most wastewater is still discharge untreated into the environment. For example, in Latin America only about 15% of collected sewerage is being treated (see [[water and sanitation in Latin America]])
==== Reuse of wastewater ====
The reuse of untreated wastewater in irrigated agriculture is common in developing countries. The reuse of treated wastewater in landscaping (esp. on golf courses), irrigated agriculture and for industrial use is becoming increasingly widespread.
In many peri-urban and rural areas households are not connected to sewers. They discharge their wastewater into septic tanks or other types of on-site sanitation.
==== Ecological sanitation ====
{{Details|Ecological sanitation}}
[[Ecological sanitation]] is sometimes presented as a radical alternative to conventional sanitation systems. Ecological sanitation is based on the separation of urine and feces at the source for sanitization and recycling. It thus eliminates fecal pathogens from the wastewater flow. If ecological sanitation is practiced municipal wastewater consists of [[greywater]], which can be recycled for gardening. However, in most cases greywater continues to be discharged to sewers.
=== Sanitation and public health ===
The importance of waste isolation lies in an effort to prevent [[water and sanitation related disease]]s, which afflicts both [[developed countries]] as well as [[developing countries]] to differing degrees. It is estimated that up to 5 million people die each year from preventable water-borne disease<ref>[http://www.pacinst.org/reports/water_related_deaths/water_related_deaths_report.pdf Pacific Institute]</ref>, as a result of inadequate sanitation and hygiene practices.
=== Global access to improved sanitation ===
The Joint Monitoring Program for water and sanitation of [[WHO]] and [[UNICEF]] has defined improved sanitation as
* connection to a public [[sewer]]
* connection to a [[septic system]]
* pour-flush [[latrine]]
* simple pit latrine
* ventilated improved pit latrine
According to that definition, 59% of the world population had access to improved sanitation in 2004. [http://www.wssinfo.org/en/32_san_global.html] Only slightly more than half of them or 31% of the world population lived in houses connected to a sewer. Overall, 2.6 billion people lacked access to improved sanitation and thus had to resort to open defecation or other unsanitary forms of defecation, such as public latrines or open pit latrines. This outcome presents substantial public health risks as the waste could contaminate [[drinking water]] and cause life threatening forms of [[diarrhea]] to infants.
In developed countries, where less than 20% of the world population lives, 99% of the population has access to improved sanitation and 81% were connected to sewers.
==Solid waste disposal==
{{Details|Waste management}}
[[Image:Israel hiriya.jpg|thumb|210px|left|[[Hiriya|Hiriya Landfill]], [[Israel]].]]
Disposal of [[solid waste]] is most commonly conducted in [[landfill]]s, but incineration, [[recycling]], [[compost]]ing and conversion to [[biofuel]]s are also avenues. In the case of landfills, [[advanced countries]] typically have rigid protocols for [[daily cover]] with topsoil, where [[underdeveloped countries]] customarily rely upon less stringent proocols<ref>George Tchobanoglous and Frank Kreith ''Handbook of Solid Waste Management'', McGraw Hill (2002)</ref>. The importance of daily cover lies in the reduction of vector contact and spreading of [[pathogen]]s. Daily cover also minimises odour emissions and reduces windblown litter. Likewise, developed countries typically have requirements for perimeter sealing of the landfill with clay-type soils to minimize migration of [[leachate]] that could contaminate [[groundwater]] (and hence jeopardize some [[drinking water]] supplies).
For incineration options, the release of [[air pollutant]]s, including certain [[toxic]] components is an attendant adverse outcome. Recycling and biofuel conversion are the [[sustainable]] options that generally have superior life cycle costs, particularly when total [[ecological]] consequences are considered<ref>William D. Robinson, ''The Solid Waste [[Handbook]]: A Practical Guide'', John Wiley and sons (1986)</ref>. Composting value will ultimately be limited by the market demand for compost product.
== Sanitation in developed countries ==
In [[US]], sanitation is a legislative requirement of [[Occupational safety and health|OSH]], which is governed by 29 [[Code of Federal Regulations|CFR]] Part 1910.141 <ref name=1910.141>{{cite web
| last = [[Code of Federal Regulations]]
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| title = 1910.141 Sanitation
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| url = http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/06sept20031800/edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2003/julqtr/pdf/29cfr1910.141.pdf
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== Sanitation in the developing world ==
The [[United Nations]] [[Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs) include a target to reduce by half the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation by 2015. In December 2006, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] declared 2008 'The International Year of Sanitation', in recognition of the slow progress being made towards the MDGs sanitation target. The year aims to develop awareness and action to meet the target. Particular concerns are:
* Removing the stigma around sanitation, so that the importance of sanitation can be more easily and publicly discussed.
* Highlighting the [[poverty reduction]], [[health]] and other benefits that flow from better [[hygiene]], household sanitation arrangements and wastewater treatment.
Research from the [[Overseas Development Institute]] suggests that sanitation and hygiene promotion needs to be better 'mainstreamed' in development, if the MDG on sanitation is to be met. At present, promotion of sanitation and hygiene is mainly carried out through water institutions. The research argues that there are, in fact, many institutions that should carry out activities to develop better sanitation and hygiene in developing countries. For example, educational institutions can teach on [[hygiene]], and health institutions can dedicate resources to preventative works (to avoid, for example, outbreaks of [[cholera]]).<ref name="odisanitation">{{cite web |url=http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/briefing/bp_dec06_sanitation_hygiene.pdf |title=Sanitation and Hygiene: knocking on new doors |accessyear=2007 |year=2006 |publisher=Overseas Development Institute}}</ref>
==Sanitation in the food industry==
[[Image:Canteen kitchen.jpg|thumb|220px|Modern [[restaurant]] food preparation area.]]
Sanititation within the food industry means to the adequate treatment of food-contact surfaces by a
process that is effective in destroying vegetative cells of [[microorganism]]s of [[public health]] significance, and in substantially reducing numbers of other undesirable microorganisms, but without
adversely affecting the product or its safety for the consumer ([[FDA]], [[Code of Federal Regulations]], 21CFR110, USA). [[Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures]] are indispensable for food industries in [[US]], which are regulated by 9 CFR part 416 in conjunction with 21 CFR part 178.1010. Similaly in Japan, food hygiene has to be reached through the compliance of [[Food Sanitation Law]] <ref name=fslj>{{cite web
| last = [[Japan External Trade Organization]]
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| title = Food Sanitation Law in Japan
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| url = http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/market/regulations/pdf/food-e.pdf
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| accessyear = 2008 }}</ref>.
Additionally, in the food and [[Biopharmaceutical]] industries, the term sanitary equipment means equipment that is fully cleanable using [[Clean-in-place]] (CIP), and [[Sterilization in place]] ([[Sterilization in place|SIP]]) procedures: that is fully drainable from [[cleaning solution]]s and other [[liquid]]s. The design should have a minimum amount of deadleg<ref>[http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JFEGA4000127000001000124000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes Treatment of deadleg plumbing areas]</ref> or areas where the [[turbulence]] during cleaning is not enough to remove product deposits. In general, to improve cleanability, this equipment is made from [[Stainless Steel]] 316L, (an [[alloy]] containing small amounts of [[molybdenum]]). The surface is usually [[electropolish]]ed to an effective surface roughness of less than 0.5 [[micrometre]], to reduce the possibility of [[bacteria]]l adhesion to the surface.
==History==
The earliest evidence of urban sanitation was seen in [[Harappa]], [[Mohenjo-daro]] and the recently discovered [[Rakhigarhi]] of [[Indus Valley civilization]]. This urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes.
[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] cities and villas had elements of sanitation systems, delivering water in the streets of towns such as Pompeii, and building stone and wooden drains to collect and remove [[wastewater]] from populated areas - see for instance the Cloaca Maxima into the River Tiber in Rome. But there is little record of other sanitation in most of Europe until the [[High Middle Ages]]. Unsanitary conditions and overcrowding were widespread throughout [[Europe]] and [[Asia]] during the [[Middle Ages]], resulting periodically in cataclysmic pandemics such as the Plague of Justinian (541-42) and the Black Death (1347-1351), which killed tens of millions of people and radically altered societies.<ref>Carlo M. Cipolla, ''Before the [[Industrial Revolution]]: European Society and Economy 1000-1700'', W.W. Norton and Company, London (1980) ISBN 0-393-95115-4</ref>
Very high infant and child mortality prevailed in Europe throughout [[medieval]] times, due not only to deficiencies in sanitation but to insufficient food for a population which had expanded faster than [[agriculture]]<ref>Burnett White, ''Natural History of Infectious Diseases''</ref>. This was further complicated by frequent warfare and exploitation of civilians by brutal rulers. Life for the average person at this time was indeed 'nasty, brutish and short.'
== References==
[[Image:Ethanol Car.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sanitation [[vehicle]] in [[New York City]].]]
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==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|sanitation}}
*[[Carl Rogers Darnall]]
* [[Disinfectant]]
*[[Ecological sanitation]]
* [[National Sanitation Foundation]]
*[[Public water supply and sanitation in Germany]]
* [[Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures]]
*[[Sanitary sewer overflow]]
*[[Sewage collection and disposal]]
*[[Sewerage]]
*[[Trap (plumbing)]]
*[[Water crisis]]
*[[Water supply]]
*[[Water supply and sanitation in France]]
*[[Water supply and sanitation in Latin America]]
*[[Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Water supply and sanitation in the United States]]
*[[Wastewater treatment]]
*[[World Plumbing Council]]
*[[World Toilet Organization]]
==External links==
* [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTWSS/EXTTOPSANHYG/0,,contentMDK:21147365~menuPK:3748896~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:1923181,00.html Sanitation, Hygiene and Wastewater Resource Guide (World Bank)]
*[[Central Asia Health Review]] (CAHR). [http://www.cahr.info/index_files/page0015.htm Poor Sanitation Causes Death among Children under Five in Afghanistan]
* [http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/pdfs/report/HDR_2006_Chapter_3.pdf The 2006 UNDP Human Development Report: Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis - Chapter 3: The vast deficit in sanitation] accessed on August 22, 2007
*[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTWSS/0,,menuPK:337308~pagePK:149018~piPK:149093~theSitePK:337302,00.html Water Supply and Sanitation, World Bank] accessed on August 22, 2007
*[http://www.mohenjodaro.net/tcdraintiles87.html Early urban sanitation in ancient India]
*[http://poopthebook.com/blog/?p=21 Sanitation coverage vs. population growth: an encouraging trend]
*[http://www2.ncsu.edu/ncsu/wrri/reports/srs16.html Daily cover in landfills]
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[[Category:Waste management]]
[[Category:Hygiene]]
[[Category:Public health]]
[[Category:Sewerage]]
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