Science and technology in ancient India 1770300 223571605 2008-07-04T17:53:42Z Lightbot 7178666 Units/dates/other {{HistoryOfSouthAsia}} '''Science and technology in [[ancient India]]''' covered many major branches of human knowledge and activities, including [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]], [[Hindu astronomy|astronomy]] and [[physics]], [[metallurgy]], [[Ayurveda|medical science]] and [[surgery]], [[fine arts]], mechanical and production [[technology]], [[civil engineering]] and [[architecture]], [[shipbuilding]] and [[navigation]], [[sports]] and [[game]]s. ==Sciences== ===Astronomy=== {{main|Indian astronomy}} {{see|Hindu cosmology|Jyotisha}} Classical Indian astronomy documented in literature spanning the [[Maurya period|Maurya]] ([[Vedanga Jyotisha]], ca. 5th century BCE) to the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] (such as the 16th century [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics|Kerala school]]) periods. The first named authors writing treatises on astronomy date from the 5th century CE, the date when the classical period of Indian astronomy can be said to begin. Besides the theories of [[Aryabhata]] in the ''[[Aryabhatiya]]'' and the lost ''Arya-siddhānta'', we find the ''[[Pancha-Siddhāntika]]'' of [[Varahamihira]]. From this time on, we find a predominance of [[geocentric model]]s, and possibly [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] models, in Indian astronomy, in contrast to the "[[Mount Meru (mythology)|Merucentric]]" astronomy of [[Puranas|Puranic]], [[Jainism|Jaina]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] traditions whose actual [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]] has been largely lost and only fabulous accounts remain.{{Fact|date=August 2007}} The astronomy and the [[astrology]] of [[ancient India]] ([[Jyotisha]]) is based upon [[sidereal]] calculations, although a [[Tropics|tropical]] system was also used in a few cases. For example, [[Uttarayana]] (Uttarāyana उत्तरायण) was determined according to a tropical system in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', or by [[Lagadha]] in the ''[[Vedanga Jyotisha]]''. But even then, sidereal astronomy was the mainstay. Now, even Uttarāyana is determined according to the sidereal system of [[Hindu]]s. ===Linguistics=== {{main|Vyakarana|Tolkāppiyam}} {{see|Panini (grammarian)|Bhartrihari|History of linguistics}} [[Linguistics]] (along with [[phonology]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], etc.) first arose among Indian grammarians who were attempting to catalog and codify Sanskrit's rules. Modern linguistics owes a great deal to these grammarians, and to this day, for example, key terms for compound analysis such as [[bahuvrihi]] are taken from Sanskrit. Linguistics was pursued in [[Vedic civilization|ancient India]] for many centuries. The [[Sanskrit]] [[grammar]] of {{Unicode|[[Pāṇini]]}} (c. 520 &ndash; 460 BCE), who is often considered the founder of linguistics, contains a particularly detailed description of Sanskrit [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[phonology]] and [[Root (linguistics)|roots]], evincing a high level of linguistic insight and analysis. In particular, he is most famous for formulating the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology in the text ''{{Unicode|[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]}}''. His sophisticated grammar of Sanskrit continues to be in use to this day. The Indian grammatical tradition is believed to have been active for many centuries before {{Unicode|Pāṇini}}, and anticipates by millennia certain developments in the West, such as the phoneme and the generation of word forms by the successive application of morphological rules for example. (Outside of India, the [[phoneme]] seems to have been discovered and forgotten several times through history.) The [[South India]]n linguist [[Tolkāppiyar]] (c. 3rd century BCE) wrote the ''[[Tolkāppiyam]]'', the grammar of [[Tamil language|Tamil]], which is also still in use today. [[Bhartrihari]] (c. 450 &ndash; 510) was another important author on [[Indic]] linguistic theory. He theorized the act of speech as being made up of three stages: conceptualization by the speaker; performance of speaking; and comprehension by the interpreter. The work of {{Unicode|Pāṇini}}, and the later Indian linguist Bhartrihari, had a significant influence on many of the foundational ideas proposed by [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], professor of Sanskrit, who is widely considered the father of modern [[Structuralism|structural]] linguistics. ===Mathematics=== {{Main|Indian mathematics}} Main authors of classical Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1200 CE) are scholars like [[Aryabhata]], [[Brahmagupta]], and [[Bhaskara II]]. Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the [[Decimal Number System|decimal number system]], [[0 (number)|zero]], [[negative numbers]], [[arithmetic]], and [[algebra]]. In addition, [[trigonometry]], having originated in the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic world]] was introduced to India, where it was further developed, particularly the modern definitions of [[sine]] and [[cosine]]. These mathematical concepts were transmitted to the [[Middle East]], [[China]], and [[Europe]] and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics. The [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] made contributions to [[calculus]] that might have been later transmitted to Europe. ===Medicine and surgery=== {{main|Ayurveda}} Ayurvedic practice was flourishing during the time of Buddha (around 520 BC) , and in this period the Ayurvedic practitioners were commonly using [[mercury (element)|Mercuric]]-[[sulphur]] combination based medicines. An important Ayurvedic practitioner of this period was [[Nagarjuna]], a [[Buddhist]] [[herbologist]], famous for inventing various new drugs for the treatment of ailments. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} Nagarjuna was accompanied by [[Surananda]], [[Nagbodhi]], [[Yashodhana]], [[Nityanatha]], [[Govinda]], [[Anantdev]], [[Vagbhatta]] etc. [[Sushruta]] (also spelt Susruta or Sushrutha) (c. 6th century BC) was the first surgeon in the world who lived in ancient India and is the author of the book Sushruta Samhita, in which he describes over 120 surgical instruments, 300 surgical procedures and classifies human surgery in 8 categories. He lived and taught and practiced his art on the banks of the Ganga in the area that corresponds to the present day city of Varanasi in North India.<br /> [[Plastic surgery]] developed in India. During the regime of [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (375-415 AD), Ayurveda was part of mainstream Indian medical techniques, and continued to be so until the colonisation by the [[United Kingdom|British]]. [[Chakrapani Dutta (DuttaSharma)]] was a Vaid [[Brahman]] of [[Bengal]] who wrote books on Ayurveda such as "[[Chakradutta]]" and others. [[Chakrapani Dutta]] was the Rajavaidya of Great King Laxman Sen {some says rajVaid of King Nayapala (1038 - 1055)}. It is believed by some practitioners that Chakradutta is the essence of Ayurveda. Ayurveda was mainly formulated in ancient times, but there were a number of additions made during the [[Middle Ages]]. Alongside the ancient physicians [[Sushruta]] and [[Charaka]], the medieval physician [[Vagbhata (Ayurveda)|Vagbhata]], who lived in the 7th century, is considered one of the three classic writers of Ayurveda. In the 8th century, [[Madhav]] wrote the ''Nidāna'', a 79-chapter book which lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and complications. He also included a special chapter on [[smallpox]] (''masūrikā'') and described the method of [[inoculation]] to protect against smallpox.<ref>Dick, Michael S. (1998). [http://www.ayurveda.com/online%20resource/ancient_writings.htm The Ancient Ayurvedic Writings]. Retrieved May 19, 2005.</ref> Ayurveda has always been preserved by the people of India as a traditional "science of life", despite increasing adoption of European medical techniques during the time of British rule. For several decades the reputation and skills of the various Ayurvedic schools declined markedly as Western medicine and Western-style hospitals were built. However, beginning in the 1970s, a gradual recognition of value of Ayurveda returned, and today Ayurvedic hospitals and practitioners are flourishing throughout all of India. As well, the production and marketing of Ayurvedic herbal medicines has dramatically increased, as well as scientific documentation of benefits. Today, Ayurvedic medicines are available throughout the world. ===Philosophical Discussions=== {{Unreferenced|date=September 2007}} ====Atomism==== :''Further information: [[Atomism#Indian atomism|Indian atomism]] The concept of the [[atom]] in [[ancient India]] derives from the [[Categorization|classification]] of the material world in five basic [[Classical element|elements]] by [[Indian philosophy|Indian philosophers]]. This classification existed since [[Vedic period|Vedic times]] (c. 1500 BCE). The elements were the [[earth]] (''prithvi''), [[fire]] (''agni''), [[air]] (''vayu''), [[water]] (''jaal'') and [[Aether (classical element)|ether]] or space (''aksha''). The elements were associated with human sensory perceptions: smell, touch, vision, taste and ether/space respectively. Later, Buddhist philosophers replaced ether/space with life, joy and sorrow. Ancient Indian philosophers believed that all elements except ether were physically [[palpable]] and hence comprised of minuscule particles. The smallest particle, which could not be subdivided, was called '''paramanu''' in Sanskrit (shortened to ''parmanu''), from ''parama'' (''ultimate'' or ''beyond'') and ''anu'' (''atom''). Thus, "''paramanu''" literally means "''beyond atom''" and this was a concept at an abstract level which suggested the possibility of splitting atoms, which is now the source of [[atomic energy]]. However, the term "atom" should not be conflated with the concept of atom as it is understood today. The 6th century BCE Indian philosopher [[Kanada]] was the first person who went deep systematically in such theorization. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha [[Katyayana]], a contemporary of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], also propounded the ideas of atomic constitution of the material world. All these were based on [[logic]] and [[philosophy]] and lacked any empirical basis for want of commensurate technology. ====Light==== :''Further information: [[Light#Theories about light|Theories about light]]'' In ancient India, the philosophical schools of [[Samkhya]] and [[Vaisheshika]], from around the [[6th century BCE|6th]] &ndash; 5th century BCE, developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements (''tanmatra'') out of which emerge the gross elements. The [[atomism|atomicity]] of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous. According to the Vaisheshika school, motion is defined in terms of the movement of the physical atoms and it appears that it is taken to be non-instantaneous. Light rays are taken to be a stream of high velocity of ''tejas'' (fire) atoms. The particles of light can exhibit different characteristics depending on the speed and the arrangements of the ''tejas'' atoms. Around the first century, the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' refers to [[sunlight]] as "the seven rays of the sun". Later in 499, [[Aryabhata]], who proposed a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] [[solar system]] of [[gravitation]] in his ''[[Aryabhatiya]]'', wrote that the planets and the [[Moon]] do not have their own light but reflect the light of the [[Sun]].{{Fact|date=May 2008}} The Indian [[Buddhist]]s, such as [[Dignāga]] in the 5th century and [[Dharmakirti]] in the 7th century, developed a type of [[atomism]] that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy, similar to the modern concept of [[photon]]s, though they also viewed all matter as being composed of these light/energy particles. ==Technology== ==Biotechnology== 1. Making of curd and butter milk from milk was prevalent in mahabharatha and ramayana periods. ( BC). 2.Production of defferent alcoholic beverages from grapes , coconut , palm tree etc 3. Production of ayurvedic medicinal preparations 4. Human embryo culture and test tube baby evidents are present in various texts like mahabharatha, yogavasishta in prehistoric periods i India. ===Chemistry and metallurgy=== {{main|History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent}} Ancient India's development in [[chemistry]] was not confined at an abstract level like physics, but found development in a variety of practical activities. [[Metallurgy]] has remained central to all [[civilization]]s, from the [[Bronze Age]] and the [[Iron Age]], and later. It is believed that the basic idea of [[smelting]] reached ancient India from [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Near East]]. In ancient India, the science of smelting reached a high level of refinement and precision. In the 5th century BCE, the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] historian [[Herodotus]] observed that the: {{quote|"Indian and the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] army used [[arrow]]s tipped with iron."}} The [[Ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] used [[armour]] and [[cutlery]] made of Indian iron. In India itself, certain objects testify to the high level of metallurgy. An iron pillar believed to be cast in the [[Gupta]] period around the 5th century stands by the side of [[Qutub Minar]] [[World heritage site]] in [[Delhi]]. It is 7.32 m tall, with a diameter of 40 cm at the base tapering to 30 cm at the top, and is estimated to weigh 6 [[tonne]]s. Standing in the open for last 1500 years, it has withstood wind, heat and water without rusting, except for very minor natural erosion. This kind of rust-proof iron was not possible until [[iron]] and [[steel]] was discovered a few decades before. An influential Indian metallurgist and [[Alchemy|alchemist]] was [[Nagarjuna (metallurgist)|Nagarjuna]] (b. 931). He wrote the treatise ''Rasaratnakara'' that deals with preparations of ''rasa'' ([[mercury (element)|mercury]]) compounds. It gives a survey of the status of metallurgy and [[alchemy]] in the land. Extraction of [[metal]]s such as [[silver]], [[gold]], [[tin]] and [[copper]] from their [[ore]]s and their purification were also mentioned in the treatise. Ancient India's advanced chemical science also finds expression in activities like distillation of [[perfume]]s and fragrant ointments, manufacturing of dyes and chemicals, preparation of pigments and colours, and polishing of mirrors. Paintings found on walls of [[Ajanta]] and [[Ellora]] World Heritage sites still look fresh after 1000 years, further testifying to the high level of science. ===Civil engineering and architecture=== {{main|Indian architecture}} {{See|Indus Valley Civilization}} India's urban civilization is traceable to [[Mohenjodaro]] and [[Harappa]], now in [[Pakistan]], where planned urban townships existed 5000 years ago. From then on, Indian [[architecture]] and [[civil engineering]] continued to develop, and was manifested in [[temple]]s, [[palace]]s and [[fort]]s across the Indian peninsula and neighbouring regions. Architecture and civil engineering was known as ''sthapatya-kala'', literally "the art of constructing". On the east, [[Buddhism]] took Indian style architecture and civil engineering to places like [[Sri Lanka]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], [[Thailand]], [[Burma]], [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]]. [[Angkor Wat]] is a testimony to the contribution of Indian civil engineering and architecture to Cambodian [[Khmer people|Khmer]] heritage. In mainland India, there are several ancient architectural marvels, including World Heritage Sites like [[Ajanta]], [[Ellora]], [[Khajuraho]], [[Konark]], [[Mahabodhi Temple]], [[Sanchi]], [[Brihadisvara Temple]] and [[Mahabalipuram]]. ===Production technology=== Mechanical and production technology of ancient India ensured processing of natural produce and their conversion into [[merchandise]] of [[trade]], [[commerce]] and [[export]]. A number of travelers and historians (including [[Megasthanes]], [[Ptolemy]], [[Faxian]],[[Xuanzang]], [[Marco Polo]], [[Al Baruni]] and [[Ibn Batuta]]) have indicated a variety of items, which were produced, consumed and exported around that society's "known world" by the ancient Indians. The [[spinning wheel]] was invented in India, as was the practice of dying cloth with [[indigo]]. ===Shipbuilding and navigation=== {{main|Indian maritime history}} :''Further information: [[Lothal]] and [[Indus Valley Civilization#Trade|Indus Valley Civilization: Trade]]'' The science of [[shipbuilding]] and [[navigation]] were well-known to ancient Indians. Sanskrit and [[Pāli|Pali]] texts are replete with maritime references. Indians, particularly from [[coastal regions]], traded with several nations across the [[Bay of Bengal]] like [[Cambodia]], [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Sumatra]], [[Borneo]], even [[China]] and [[South America]], and across the [[Arabian Sea]] like [[Arabia]], [[Egypt]] and Persia. A panel found in [[Mohenjodaro]] depicts a sailing craft, and thousands of years later [[Ajanta]] murals also depict a sea-faring ship. Around 500 CE, [[sextant (astronomical)|sextant]]s and mariner's [[compass]] were not unknown to ancient Indian shipbuilders and navigators. J.L. Reid, a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders, [[England]], around the beginning of the 20th century wrote in the ''Bombay Gazetteer'' (Volume XIII, Part II, Appendix A) that "The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil, pointing north. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word ''MATSYA-YANTRA'' ("fish-machine"), which [[Molesworth]] calls "mariner's compass". ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== * Haug, Martin and Basu, Major B. D. (1974). ''The Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda, Containing the Earliest Speculations of the Brahmans on the Meaning of the Sacrificial Prayers''. ISBN 0-404-57848-9 * Joseph, George G. (2000). ''The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics'', 2nd edition. Penguin Books, London. ISBN 0691006598 * Teresi, Dick (2002). ''Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science -- from the Babylonians to the Maya''. [[Simon & Schuster, Inc.|Simon & Schuster]], New York. ISBN 0-684-83718-8 * Thurston, Hugh (1994). ''Early Astronomy''. Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-94107-X {{Refimprove|date=June 2008}} ==See also== * [[Indian logic]] * [[History of measurement systems in India]] * [[History of mathematics]] * [[History of astronomy]] * [[Science and technology]] {{Asia topic|Science and technology in}} [[Category:History of science]] [[Category:Science and technology in India]] [[Category:Ancient India]] [[Category:Social history of India]]