Second Italo-Abyssinian War
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/* Renewed Italian advance in the north */
{{Mergefrom|Abyssinia Crisis|date=June 2008}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|image=[[Image:Italians in ethiopia 1935.JPG|300px]]
|caption=Italian troops fortify a position in Ethiopia on November 8, 1935
|campaign=
|conflict=Second Italo–Abyssinian War
|date=October 1935–May 1936 (occupation until 1941)
|place=[[Ethiopia]]
|territory=[[Annexation]] of Ethiopia by Italy, foundation of [[Italian East Africa]]
|result=Italian victory
|combatant1=<center>[[Image:Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg|75px]]<br> [[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Kingdom of Italy]]
|combatant2=<center>[[Image:Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%29.svg|75px]]<br> [[Ethiopian Empire]]
|commander1=[[Image:Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg|23px]] [[Benito Mussolini]]<br>
[[Image:Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg|23px]] [[Emilio De Bono]]<br>
[[Image:Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg|23px]] [[Pietro Badoglio]]<br>
[[Image:Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg|23px]] [[Rodolfo Graziani]]
|commander2=[[Image:Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%29.svg|23px]] [[Haile Selassie]]<br>
[[Image:Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%29.svg|23px]] [[Imru Haile Selassie]]<br>[[Image:Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%29.svg|23px]] [[Kassa Haile Darge]]<br>[[Image:Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%29.svg|23px]] [[Mulugeta Yeggazu]]<br>[[Image:Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%29.svg|23px]] [[Desta Damtew|Ras Desta Damtu]]
|strength1= 650,000 <ref>Dickson (2001) p.53</ref>
|strength2=~760,000 combatants
|casualties1=1,537 killed<sup>1</sup> <small>(est. May 1936)</small><ref name="Sbacchi37">Alberto Sbacchi, "The Price of Empire: Towards an Enumeration of Italian Casualties in Ethiopia 1935-1940," in ed. Harold G. Marcus, ''Ethiopianist Notes'', vol. II, No. 2, p.37.</ref><br />4,000 wounded <small>(est. May 1936)</small><ref>Sbacchi, "The Price of Empire," p.36.</ref><br />1,537 killed<sup>2</sup> <small>(est. 1936-1940)</small><ref name="Sbacchi43">Sbacchi, "The Price of Empire," p.43.</ref><br />3,000 sick and wounded <small>(est. 1936-1940)</small><ref>Sbacchi, "The Price of Empire," p.38.</ref>
|casualties2=~275,000 combatants killed{{Fact|date=May 2008}}{{Dubious|date=May 2008}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Second Italo-Abyssinian War}}
The '''Second Italo–Abyssinian War''' (also referred to as the '''Second Italo-Ethiopian War''') was a brief [[colonial war]] that started in October [[1935]] and ended in May 1936. The war was fought between the [[armed forces]] of the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom of Italy]] (''Regno d'Italia'') and the armed forces of the [[Ethiopian Empire]] (also known as [[Ethiopia|Abyssinia]]). The war is infamous to this day for the illegal use of [[mustard gas]] and [[Phosgene|phosgene]] by the Italians. The war resulted in the [[Military occupation|military occupation]] of Ethiopia and its [[annexation]] into the newly created colony of [[Italian East Africa]].
Politically, the war is best remembered for exposing the inherent weakness of the [[League of Nations]]. Like the [[Mukden Incident]] (the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] annexation of three [[Republic of China|Chinese]] provinces in [[1931]]), the [[Abyssinia Crisis]] is often seen as a clear example of the ineffectiveness of the League. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations and yet the League was unable to control Italy or to protect Ethiopia when Italy clearly violated the League's own [[Article X of the Covenant of the League of Nations|Article X]].
==Background==
Italian [[dictator]] [[Benito Mussolini]] had long held a desire for a new [[Italian Empire]]. Reminiscent of the [[Roman Empire]], Mussolini's new empire was to rule over the [[Mediterranean]] and [[North Africa]]. His new empire would also avenge past Italian defeats. Chief among these defeats was the [[Battle of Adowa]] which took place in [[Ethiopia|Abyssinia]] on [[1 March]] [[1896]]. Mussolini promised the Italian people "a place in the sun", matching the extensive colonial empires of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[French Third Republic|France]].
Ethiopia was a prime candidate of this expansionist goal for several reasons. Following the [[Scramble for Africa]] by the [[Europe]]an imperialists it was one of the few remaining independent [[African]] nations, and it would serve to unify the Italian-held [[Eritrea]] to the northwest and [[Italian Somaliland]] to the east. It was considered to be militarily weak, and rich in resources.
==Italian incursion==
The [[Italo–Ethiopian Treaty of 1928]] stated that the border between [[Italian Somaliland]] and Ethiopia was twenty-one [[league (unit)|league]]s parallel to the [[Benadir]] coast (approximately 73.5 miles). Acting on this, Italy built a fort at the [[Welwel (Ethiopia)|Welwel]] oasis (Italian ''Ual-Ual'') in the [[Ogaden]] in [[1930]] and garrisoned it with Somali [[dubats]] (irregular frontier troops commanded by Italian officers).
In November [[1934]], Ethiopian territorial troops, escorting the Anglo-Ethiopian boundary commission, protested Italy's incursion. The [[United Kingdom|British]] members of the commission soon withdrew to avoid an international incident but Italian and Ethiopian troops remained encamped in close proximity. In early December, the tensions erupted in a clash that left 150 Ethiopians and 50 Italians dead. This resulted in the [[Abyssinia Crisis]] at the League of Nations.
The League of Nations exonerated both parties for the Walwal incident in September [[1935]]; Great Britain and France, keen to keep Italy as an ally against Germany, did not take strong steps to discourage an Italian military buildup. Italy soon began to build its forces on the borders of Ethiopia in Eritrea and Italian Somaliland.
With an attack appearing inevitable, Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] ordered a general mobilization. His new recruits consisted of around 500,000 men, many of whom were armed with nothing more than spears and bows. Other soldiers carried more modern weapons, including rifles, but many of these were from before [[1900]] and were badly outdated.<ref>The condition of the Ethiopian Army on the eve of the war is discussed by Richard Pankhurst, ''Economic History of Ethiopia'' (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University, 1968), pp. 605-608.</ref>
Italy was able to launch its invasion without interference primarily due to the United Kingdom and France placing a high priority on retaining Italy as an ally in case hostilities broke out with [[Nazi Germany|Germany]]. To this end, on [[January 7]], [[1935]], [[Franco–Italian Agreement|France signed an agreement with Italy]] giving them essentially a free hand in Africa to secure Italian co-operation.<ref>Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer. ''The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern'', pg. 677</ref> Next, in April, Italy was further emboldened by being a member of the [[Stresa Front]], an agreement to curb German expansionism.<ref>Andrew J. Crozier. ''The Causes of the Second World War'', pg. 108</ref> In June, non-interference was further assured by a political rift that had developed between the United Kingdom and France following the [[Anglo-German Naval Agreement]].<ref>Roderick Stackelberg. ''Hitler's Germany: Origins, Interpretations, Legacies'', p. 164</ref>
==Opposing forces==
===''Ethiopians''===
{{main|Ethiopian Order of Battle Second Italo-Abyssinian War}}
According to Italian estimates,[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Second_Italo-Abyssinian_War#1935_Italian_intelligence_estimate_of_the_Ethiopian_provinces_and_their_forces] on the eve of hostilities the Ethiopians had an army of 350,000-760,000 men. But only about one-quarter of this army had any kind of military training and the men were armed with 400,000 rifles of every type and in every kind of condition.<ref name=Barker-29>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 29</ref>
In general, the Ethiopian armies were poorly equipped. They had about 200 antiquated pieces of [[artillery]] mounted on rigid gun carriages. There were also about 50 light and heavy [[anti-aircraft gun]]s ([[Oerlikon 20 mm cannon|20 mm Oerlikon]]s, 75 mm [[Schneider Electric|Schneider]]s, and [[Vickers]]). The Ethiopians even had some [[Ford]] truck-based [[Armored car (military)|armored car]]s and a small number of [[Fiat 3000]] [[World War I]]-era tanks.<ref name=Barker-29/>
The serviceable portion of the [[Ethiopian Air Force|Imperial Ethiopian Air Force]] included three outmoded biplanes.<ref name=Barker-57>Barker, A. J., "The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 57</ref> A few transport aircraft were also acquired between [[1934]] and [[1935]] for ambulance work. The air force was commanded by a French pilot, [[Andre Maillet]].
The best Ethiopian units were [[Haile Selassie]]'s "[[Kebur Zabangna|Imperial Guard]]" (''Kebur Zabangna''). These troops were well-trained and better equipped than the other Ethiopian troops. But the Imperial Guard wore a distinctive greenish-khaki uniform of the [[Belgian Land Component|Belgian Army]] which stood out from the white cotton cloak (''shamma'') worn by most Ethiopian fighters. Unfortunately for its wearers, the ''shama'' proved to be an excellent target.<ref name=Barker-29/> The [[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles|Ras]], the "heads" or the commanders of the Ethiopian armies, ranged from very good to far less than very good.
===''Italians''===
{{main|Italian Order of Battle Second Italo-Abyssinian War}}
In April 1935, the build-up of the Italian [[Royal Italian Army|Royal Army]] (''[[Regio Esercito]]'') and the [[Regia Aeronautica|Royal Air Force]] (''[[Regia Aeronautica]]'') in [[East Africa]] started in earnest. In a few months, eight regular, mountain, and blackshirt infantry divisions arrived in [[Eritrea]] and one regular infantry division arrived in [[Italian Somaliland]]. These units alone represented 480,000 soldiers. This number does not include the Italian units already in East Africa, colonial units, or units arriving during the war. For example, there were 200,000 Italian soldiers in Eritrea and Italian Somaliland before the new divisions arrived. The huge army forming up in East Africa also included a great number of logistical and support units.
The equipment for the build-up alone included 6,000 [[machine gun]]s, 2,000 pieces of artillery, 595 tanks, and 150 aircraft. Before these arrived, the Italians had 3,000 machine guns, 275 artillery pieces, 200 tanks, and 205 aircraft. The Italians had tons of ammunition, food, and other necessary supplies. The Italians also had vehicles to move supplies and troops while the Ethiopians carried supplies in horse drawn carts. <ref> Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 20</ref>
In addition to their own colonial troops from Eritra, Somalia, and Libya, the Italians had a variety of local semi-independent "allies" who fought for them. In the north, the [[Oromo|Azebu Galla]] were one of several groups induced to fight for the Italians. For many reasons, the Galla were willing to sweep down on the fleeing Ethiopians. In the south, [[Olol Diinle|Sultan Olol Diinle]] commanded a personal army that advanced into the northern Ogaden alongside the forces of Italian [[Colonel]] [[Luigi Frusci]]. The Sultan was motivated by his desire to take back lands that the Ethiopians had taken from him.
==Italian invasion==
At precisely 5:00 am on [[3 October]] 1935, [[General]] [[Emilio De Bono]] crossed the [[Mareb River]] and advanced into Ethiopia from Eritrea without a [[Declaration of War|declaration of war]]. At this point in the campaign, there was only one drawback as the Italians crossed into Ethiopia: Roadways. On the Italian side, roads had been constructed right up to the border. On the Ethiopian side, these roads often transitioned into vaguely defined paths.<ref name=Barker-33>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 33</ref>
De Bono was the Commander-in-Chief of the Italian armed forces on the northern front. He had under his command a force of nine divisions in three Army Corps: The Italian I Corps, the Italian II Corps, and the Eritrean Corps.
General [[Rodolfo Graziani]], the Commander-in-Chief on the southern front, was forming up his forces in Italian Somaliland. Graziani initially had two divisions and a variety of smaller units under his command. Soon after De Bono advanced from Eritrea, Graziani would advance into Ethiopia with a force of Italians, Somalis, Eritreans, and Libyans.
===De Bono's advance===
On [[5 October]], the I Corps took [[Adigrat]] and, by [[6 October]] 1935, [[Adwa]] (Adowa) was captured by the II Corps. In [[1896]], Adwa was the site of a humiliating Italian defeat during the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] and now that defeat was "avenged." But, in 1935, the Italian capture of Adwa was accomplished with almost no Ethiopian resistance. Haile Selassie had ordered [[Seyum Mangasha|Ras Seyoum]], the Commander of the Ethiopian [[Tigray Province|Tigray]] Army, to withdraw a day's march away from the Magreb River. Later, he ordered Ras Seyoum and [[Haile Selassie Gugsa|Ras Gugsa]], also in the area, to move back fifty-five and thirty-five miles from the border.<ref name=Barker-33/>
On [[7 October]], the [[League of Nations]] declared Italy the [[aggressor]] and started the slow process of imposing [[sanctions]]. However, these sanctions did not extend to several vital materials, such as oil. The British and French argued that if they refused to sell oil to the Italians, the Italians would then simply get it from the [[United States]], which was not a member of the League (the British and French wanted to keep Mussolini on side in the event of war with Germany, which by 1935 was looking like a distinct possibility). In an effort to find compromise, the [[Hoare-Laval Plan]] was drafted (which essentially handed 3/5ths of Ethiopia to the Italians without Ethiopia's consent on the condition the war ended immediately), but when news of the deal was leaked public outrage was such that the British and French governments were forced to wash their hands of the whole affair.
On [[11 October]], "Commander of the Door" (''[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles|Dejagmateh]]'') [[Haile Selassie Gugsa]] and 1,200 of his followers surrendered to the commander of the Italian outpost at Adagamos. De Bono notified Rome and the Ministry of Information promptly exgerated the importance of the surrender. Ras Gugsa was Emporer Haile Selassie's son-in-law. But less than a tenth of his army defected with him. Two weeks before the invasion, Haile Selassie had been warned that Ras Gugsa was not to be trusted and he was shown evidence that suggested that his son-in-law was already in the pay of the Italians. But the Emporer had shrugged it off.<ref name=Barker-35/>
On [[14 October]], De Bono issued a proclamation ordering the suppression of [[Abolition of slavery timeline|slavery]]. Howerver, he was to write: "I am obliged to say that the proclomation did not have much effect on the owners of slaves and perhaps still less on the liberated slaves themselves. Many of the latter, the instant they are set free presented themselves to the Italian authorities, asking 'And now who gives me food' ? "<ref name=Barker-35/>
By [[15 October]], De Bono's forces moved on from Adwa for a bloodless occupation of the holy capital of [[Axum]]. The old Fascist entered the city riding triumphantly on a white horse. However, the invading Italians he commanded looted the [[Obelisk of Axum]].
De Bono's advance continued methodically, deliberately, and somewhat slowly. On [[8 November]], the I Corps and the Eritrean Corps captured [[Mek'ele|Makale]]. This proved to be the limit how far De Bono would get. Increasing pressure from the rest of the world on Mussolini caused him to need fast glittering victories. He was not prepared to hear of obstacles or delays from De Bono.<ref>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 36</ref>
On [[16 November]], De Bono was promoted to the rank of [[Marshal of Italy]] (''Maresciallo d'Italia''). But, by the end of November, he was replaced on the northern front because of the slow, cautious nature of his advance. De Bono was replaced by [[Marshal]] [[Pietro Badoglio]].<ref>Nicolle, David, "The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia 1935-1936", p. 8</ref>
===Christmas offensive===
Haile Selassie decided to test this new Italian commander with attacks of his own. What became known as the Ethiopian "Christmas Offensive" had as its objectives the splitting of the Italian forces with the Ethiopian center, crushing the Italian left with the Ethiopian right, and invading Eritrea with the Ethiopian left. Ras Seyoum held the area around [[Abiy Addi|Abbi Addi]] with about 30,000 men. Seyoum was the Ethiopian center. [[Imru Haile Selassie|Ras Imru]] with approximately 40,000 men advanced from [[Gojjam]] toward Mai Timket to the left of Ras Seyoum. Imru was the Ethiopian left. [[Kassa Haile Darge|Ras Kassa]] with approximately 40,000 men advanced from [[Dessie]] to support Ras Seyoum in the center in a push towards Warieu Pass. [[Mulugeta Yeggazu|Ras Mulugeta]] advanced from Dessie with approximately 80,000 men to take positions around [[Amba Aradam]] to the right of Ras Seyoum. Mulugeta was the Ethiopian right.<ref>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 45</ref>
=====Criniti's escape=====
On [[15 December]], Ras Imru's advance guard crossed the [[Tekezé River]] by the fords at Mai Timkat and Addi Atcheb. As a column of Ethiopians advanced towards Dembeguina Pass, it was cut off by a force of Eritreans commanded by a Major Criniti. Under the cover of nine [[L3/35|tanks]], the Eritreans withdrew and made for the pass themselves with the advancing Ethiopian column behind them. When Criniti got to Dembeguina Pass, he found that it was already held by another group of Ethiopians.<ref name=Barker-56>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 56</ref>
Under a blazing sun, the battle began between Criniti's Eritreans on the plateau and the Ethiopians holding the high ground around the pass. The Ethiopians formed up in a horseshoe formation on the surrounding crests and Criniti ordered his tanks to smash a way through them. The tanks lumbered towards the Ethiopians only to have the Ethiopians surge forward and engulf them. The tanks were little more than small two-man machine-gun carriers and the massed Ethiopians were able to disable them. Criniti then ordered his Eritreans to fix bayonets and charge. In the end, the Eritreans made a breach through the Ethiopians in front of them and were able to escape from the Ethiopians to their rear. But Criniti lost fully half of his force on the battlefield and, if nothing else, the Ethiopians had scored a ''moral'' victory.<ref name=Barker-56/>
=====Black period of the war=====
During the Christmas Offensive, at time that informed circles in Italy termed the "Black Period" of the war, the Italians were forced to fall back from the Tekezé to [[Axum]] and from Amba Tzellene to the Warieu Pass.<ref name=Barker-47>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 47</ref> The ambitious Ethiopian plan called for Ras Kassa and Ras Seyoum to split the Italian army in two and isolate the Italian I Army Corps and the Italian III Army Corps in Makale. Ras Mulugeta would then descend from [[Amba Aradam]] and crush both corps. According to this plan, after Ras Imru retook Adwa, he was to invade Eritrea.
Badoglio's inability to get the Italians back on the offensive immediately caused Mussolini to fly into a rage. He threatened to replace Badoglio with Graziani.<ref name=Barker-56/>
But the Ethiopian offensive was ultimately stopped due to the superiority of the Italian forces in modern weapons like machine guns and heavy artillery. More importantly, on [[26 December]], Graziani asked for and was given permission to use [[mustard gas]]. The Italians delivered the poison gas by special artillery canisters and with bombers of the Italian Air Force. While the poorly equipped Ethiopians experienced some success against modern weaponry, they did not understand the "terrible rain that burned and killed."<ref name=Barker-56/>
On [[30 December]], Haile Selassie formally filed a complaint with the [[League of Nations]]. He claimed that Italy's use of poison gas was yet another addition to the long list of international agreements contravened by Italy. In response, the Italians denied that poison gas was being used and, instead, decried the use of "[[Expanding bullet|dum dum]]" bullets and the mis-use of the [[Red Cross]] by the Ethiopians.<ref name=Barker-57/>
===Renewed Italian advance in the north===
On [[20 January]] [[1936]], the Italians resumed their northern offensive at the [[First Battle of Tembien]] between the Warieu Pass and Makale. The fighting proved inconclusive and, on [[24 January]], the battle ended in a draw. But, for all intents and purposes, the threat posed by the "Christmas Offensive" was over. The Ethiopians were never to split the Italian army and they were never to invade Eritrea.
While Graziani had already done so during the [[Battle of Genale Doria]] on the southern front, it was during the First Battle of Tembien that Badoglio unleashed the indiscriminate use of mustard gas and phosgene as a primary weapon on the northern front. Speaking of the Ethiopian threat to Italian-held Makale and the resultant use of poison gas, Haile Selassie was to say:
<blockquote>It was at the time when the operations for the encircling of [[Mek'ele|Makale]] were taking place that the Italian command, fearing a rout, followed the procedure which it is now my duty to denounce to the world. Special sprayers were installed on board aircraft so that they could vaporize, over vast areas of territory, a fine, death-dealing rain. Groups of nine, fifteen, eighteen aircraft followed one another so that the fog issuing from them formed a continuous sheet. It was thus that, as from the end of January 1936, soldiers, women, children, cattle, rivers, lakes, and pastures were drenched continually with this deadly rain. In order to kill off systematically all living creatures, in order to more surely poison waters and pastures, the Italian command made its aircraft pass over and over again. That was its chief method of warfare.<ref>Safire, William. ''Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History''. 1997, p. 318.</ref></blockquote>
In February, the Italians captured [[Amba Aradam]] and destroyed Ras Mulugeta's army in the [[Battle of Amba Aradam|Battle of Enderta]]. While the battle on the ground was lop-sided, the heavy use of poison gas was what destroyed the vast majority of Mulugeta's army. On [[27 February]] the Italians destroyed the armies of Ras Kassa and Ras Seyoum at the [[Second Battle of Tembien]]. Again poison gas played a major role in the destruction of their armies. In late February and early March, the army of Ras Imru was attacked, bombed, and sprayed out of existance as it attempted to withdraw during the [[Battle of Shire]].
On [[31 March]] [[1936]], the Italians defeated a [[counteroffensive]] by the main Ethiopian army commanded by Haile Selassie at the [[Battle of Maychew]]. Badoglio finished off what was left of Haile Selassie's army by attacking the survivors at [[Lake Ashangi]] with mustard gas. On [[4 April]], Haile Selassie looked with dispair upon the horrific sight of the dead bodies of his army ringing the poisoned lake.<ref>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 105</ref>
===Southern front===
On [[3 October]] [[1935]], Graziani implimented his "Milan Plan." The object of this plan was to remove Ethiopian forces from various frontier posts and to test the reaction to a series of probes all along the southern front. While incessant rains worked to hinder the plan, within three weeks the villages of [[Kelafo]], Dagnerai, Gerlogubi, and Gorahai<!-- Qorahy? --> were in Italian hands. Gorahai was known as an old stronghold of Sayyid [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]]. An Italian force sent to catch and destroy the Ethiopian force that fled Gorahai caught up with it only to have the Ethiopians turn back on them and attack. Battle was joined under a pitilessly hot sun. After several hours, both sides withdrew and both sides claimed victory. While better equipped in all ways, the Italians were never able to get the upper hand. The [[L3/35|light tanks]] sent against the Ethiopians quickly bogged down in the rough terrain and were put out of action by Ethiopians who crept up on them and fired through the weapon slits in the [[Vehicle armour|armor]].<ref>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 70</ref>
Late in the year, the initiative on the southern front went over to the Ethiopians as it had gone over to them on the northern front. [[Desta Damtew|Ras Desta Damtu]] formed up his army in the area around [[Negele Boran]] with the goal of advancing on [[Dolo, Ethiopia|Dolo]] and invading [[Italian Somaliland]]. Between [[12 January]] and [[16 January]] [[1936]], the Italians defeated his advancing and then withdrawing army during what became known as the [[Battle of Genale Doria]]. In reality there was very little fighting on the ground as Graziani primarily used the Italian Air Force and poison gas to destroy Ras Desta's army.<ref>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 76</ref>
After a lull in February 1936, the Italians in the south prepared a major thrust towards the city of [[Harar]]. On [[22 March]], the Italian Air Force bombed Harar and [[Jijiga]] as a prelude. Both cities were reduced to ruins even though Harar had been declared an "[[open city]]."<ref>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 112</ref>
On [[31 March]], the Italians won the last major battle of the war on the northern front during the [[Battle of Maychew]].
On [[14 April]], Graziani launched his attack against [[Nasibu Emmanual|Ras Nasibu]] to defeat the last Ethiopian army in the [[Battle of the Ogaden]]. The Ethiopians were drawn up behind a defensive line that was termed the "Hindenburg Wall." Ten days after the battle began, the last Ethiopian army had totally disintegrated.<ref>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 123</ref>
===March of the Iron Will===
On [[26 April]] 1936, when Badoglio launched his "March of the Iron Will" towards Addis Ababa, he faced no meaningful Ethiopian resistance.<ref>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 109</ref> Haile Selassie boarded a train from [[Addis Ababa]] to [[Djibouti]] on the [[Imperial Railway Company of Ethiopia|Imperial Railway]] very early on [[2 May]]. From there he fled to [[England]] and into [[exile]].
Prior to his departure, Haile Selassie ordered that the government of Ethiopia be moved to [[Gore, Ethiopia|Gore]] and he ordered that the mayor of Addis Ababa maintain order in the city until the Italian arrival. The city police and the remainder of the Imperial Guard did their utmost to restrain a growing and ever more restless mob. But, on the first day, attempts to maintain order were abandoned. Soon rioters took control. They rampaged thoughout the city; looting and setting fire to shops owned by Europeans.<ref>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 125</ref>
Badoglio's forces marched into Addis Ababa on [[5 May]] and restored order. While there never was a formal surrender, the Second Italo-Abyssinian War was over.
The [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom of Italy]] annexed the [[Ethiopian Empire]] on [[7 May]] and [[King of Italy|King]] [[Victor Emmanuel III]] was proclaimed [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] on [[9 May]]. Italy merged Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somaliland into a single colony known as Italian East Africa.
==Aftermath==
On [[9 May]] [[1936]], when victory was announced by Mussolini from the balcony of the ''[[Palazzo Venezia]]'', the Italian population was jubilant. Of course, the crowds in the ''Piazza Venezia'' had not been informed of the use of mustard gas by Italian troops.
In early June 1936, Rome promulgated a constitution bringing Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland together into a single administrative unit divided into six provinces, Italian East Africa. Marshal [[Pietro Badoglio]] was proclaimed as the first [[Viceroy]] and [[Governor General]] of the new Italian colony. But Badoglio held these positions only briefly and on [[11 June]] 1936, newly promoted Marshal [[Rudolfo Graziani]] replaced him.
By December, Graziani declared the whole country to be [[pacification|pacified]] and under effective Italian control. Ethiopian [[Resistance movement|resistance]] nevertheless continued. The [[Military occupation|occupation]] was marked by recurring guerrilla campaigns against the Italians and Italian reprisals. The reprisals included mustard gas attacks against rebels and the summary execution of prisoners.
On [[30 June]] 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie gave a stirring speech before the [[League of Nations]] denouncing Italy's actions and criticizing the world community for standing by. He warned that "It is us today. It will be you tomorrow". As a result of the League's condemnation of Italy, Mussolini declared the country's withdrawal from the organization.
The international response was mixed. The [[Italian Empire]] was officially recognized by the [[Empire of Japan]] on [[18 November]] 1936.<ref>Cedric James Lowe, F. Marzari. ''Italian Foreign Policy 1870-1940'', p. 307</ref> The [[United States]] never recognized Italian sovereignty over Ethiopia. <ref>U.S., Department of State, Publication 1983, Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931-1941 (Washington, D.C.: U.S., Government Printing Office, 1943), pp. 28-32</ref>
A failed [[assassination]] attempt against Graziani occurred on [[18 February]] [[1937]]. During a public ceremony at the Viceregal Palace in Addis Ababa (the former Imperial residence), Abraha Deboch and Moges Asgedom, attempted to kill Graziani with a number of grenades. Both men were of Eritrean origin and not Ethiopian. The Italian security guard fired indiscriminately into the crowd of civilian onlookers. Over the following weeks the colonial authorities executed about 30,000 persons in retaliation -- including about half of the younger, educated Ethiopian population.<ref>{{cite book | author=Angelo Del Bocca and Giorgio Rohat | title=I gas di Mussolini | publisher=Editori Riuniti | id = ISBN=8835940915 | year=1996}}</ref>
In the end, the harsh policies of Graziani did not pacify the country. Therefore, on [[21 December]] 1937, Rome appointed [[Amedeo, 3rd Duke of Aosta]], as the new Viceroy and Governor General of Italian East Africa and instructed him to adopt a more flexible line. Accordingly, large-scale public works projects were undertaken. One result was the construction of the country's first system of improved roads. All in all, the Duke brought a program of progressive improvement that included 2,000 miles of new paved roadways, 25 hospitals, 14 hotels, dozens of post offices, telephone exchanges, aqueducts, schools, and shops.
However, with the good came the bad. The Italians decreed [[miscegenation]] to be illegal. Racial separation, including residential segregation, was enforced as thoroughly as possible. In addition, the Italians showed favouritism to non-[[Christian]] ethnicities such as the [[Oromo]], the [[Somali]], and other [[Muslims]] (some of whom had supported the Italian invasion). And with the bad came the good. In an attempt to isolate the dominant [[Amhara people|Amhara]] rulers of Ethiopia, who supported Haile Selassie I, the Italians granted the Oromo, the Somali, and other Muslims autonomy and rights effectively [[Abolitionism|abolishing]] [[Slavery|slavery]] and abrogating [[Feudalism|feudal laws]] previously upheld by the Amharas.
Early in [[1938]], a revolt broke out in Gojjam led by the [[Committee of Unity and Collaboration]], which was made up of some of the young, educated elite who had escaped the reprisal after the attempt on Graziani's life.
In exile in [[England]], Haile Selassie sought to gain the support of the [[democracies|Western Democracies]] for his cause but had little success until [[World War II]]. During that war, the [[United Kingdom]] and the Emperor sought to cooperate with Ethiopian and other local forces in a campaign to dislodge the Italians from Ethiopia and [[British Somaliland]], which the Italians had seized in August [[1940]], and to resist the Italian invasion of [[Sudan]]. Haile Selassie proceeded immediately to [[Khartoum]], where he established closer liaison with both the British headquarters and the resistance forces within Ethiopia.
On [[18 January]] [[1941]], Emperor Selassie crossed the border into Ethiopia near the village of Um Iddla. Two days later the Emporer joined [[Gideon Force]], a small British-led African regular force. The standard of the [[Lion of Judah]] was raised again.<ref>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 156</ref>
The invasion of Ethiopia and the general condemnation of it by Western Democracies (weak as it was) tended to isolate Mussolini and the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom of Italy]] more and more. After Ethiopia, Mussolini and German dictator [[Adolf Hitler]] joined forces in [[Spain]] during the [[Spanish Civil War]]. They then signed the [[Pact of Steel]] in [[1939]] and the [[Tripartite Pact]] in 1940. On [[10 June]] 1940, Mussolini entered World War II and joined Hitler as his ally. As a result, the colony of Italian East Africa proved to be short-lived. By the end of 1941, during the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]], Ethiopia was liberated from Italian control by a combination of [[United Kingdom|British]], [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], [[Free French]] and Ethiopian forces.
Among other things, the [[Treaty of peace with Italy (1947)|Treaty of Peace with Italy]] signed between the [[Italy|Italian Republic]] (''Repubblica Italiana'') and the [[allies of World War II|victorious powers]] of [[World War II]] on [[10 February]] [[1947]] in [[Paris]], included Italy's formal recognition of Ethiopian independence and an agreement to pay $25,000,000 in [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|reparations]]. At the time of this treaty, Ethiopia presented Italy with a bill of its own for damages inflicted during the course of Mussolini's colonial adventure. Claimed were the loss of 2,000 churches, the loss of 525,000 houses, and the slaughter and/or consfication of 6,000,000 beef cattle, 7,000,000 sheep and goats, 1,000,000 horses and mules, and 700,000 camels. The bill for all of this presented to the Economic Commission for Italy came to £184,746,023.<ref name=Barker-159>Barker, A. J., ''The Rape of Ethiopia 1936'', p. 159</ref>
In addition, the following losses were recorded by the Ethiopians:
:275,000 - killed in action
:78,500 - patriots killed during the occupation (1936-1941)
:17,800 - women, children, and others killed by bombings
:30,000 - massacre of February 1937
:35,000 - persons who died in concentration camps
:24,000 - patriots executed by Summary Courts
:300,000 - persons who died of privations due to the destruction of their villages
:'''760,300''' - '''TOTAL''' <ref name=Barker-159/>
==Atrocities==
In addition to conventional weaponry, Badoglio's troops also made substantial use of mustard gas, in both artillery and aerial bombardments. In total, the Italians deployed between 300 and 500 tonnes of mustard gas during the war, despite having signed the [[1925]] [[Geneva Protocol]]. The deployment of gas was not restricted to the battlefield, however, as civilians were also targeted by the Italians, as part of their attempt to terrorise the local population. Furthermore, the Italians carried out gas attacks on [[ICRC|Red Cross]] camps and ambulances.<ref>Bernard Bridel, [http://www.icrc.org/web/fre/sitefre0.nsf/html/5RQERS Les ambulances à Croix-Rouge du CICR sous les gaz en Ethiopie], Le Temps, 13/08/2003, in French, hosted at the International Committee of the Red Cross [http://icrc.org website] </ref>
The armed forces disposed of a vast arsenal of grenades and bombs loaded with mustard gas which were dropped from airplanes. This substance was also sprayed directly from above like an "insecticide" onto enemy combatants and villages. It was Mussolini himself who authorized the use of the weapons:
<blockquote>
"Rome, [[27 October]] '35. A.S.E. Graziani. The use of gas as an ''ultima ratio'' to overwhelm enemy resistance and in case of counterattack is authorized. Mussolini."
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
"Rome, [[28 December]] '35. A.S.E. Badoglio. Given the enemy system I have authorized V.E. the use even on a vast scale of any gas and flamethrowers. Mussolini."
</blockquote>
Mussolini and his generals sought to cloak the operations of chemical warfare in the utmost secrecy, but the use of gas was revealed to the world through the denunciations by the International Red Cross and of many foreign observers. The Italian reaction to these revelations consisted in the "erroneous" bombardment (at least 19 times) of Red Cross tents posted in the areas of military encampment of the Ethiopian resistance. The orders imparted by Mussolini, with respect to the Ethiopian population, were very clear:<ref>{{cite book | author=Giorgio Candeloro | title=Storia dell'Italia Moderna | publisher=Feltrinelli | year=1981}}</ref>
<blockquote>
"Rome, [[5 June]] 1936. A.S.E. Graziani. All rebels taken prisoner must be killed. Mussolini."
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
"Rome, [[8 July]] 1936. A.S.E. Graziani. I have authorized once again V.E. to begin and systematically conduct a politics of terror and extermination of the rebels and the complicit population. Without the ''[[lex talionis]]'' one cannot cure the infection in time. Await confirmation. Mussolini."</blockquote>
The predominant part of the work of repression was carried out by Italians who, besides the bombs laced with mustard gas, instituted forced labor camps, installed public gallows, killed hostages, and mutilated the corpses of their enemies. Graziani ordered the elimination of captured guerrillas by way of throwing them out of airplanes in mid-flight. Many Italian troops had themselves photographed next to cadavers hanging from the gallows or hanging around chests full of detached heads.<ref>{{cite book | author=Angelo del Bocca | title=Italiani, brava gente? Un mito duro a morire | publisher=Colibri}}; {{cite book | author=A. Mignemi (ed.) | title=Si e no padroni del mondo. Etiopia 1935-36. Immagine e consenso per un impero | publisher=Istituto Storico della Resistenza in Provincia Novara Piero Fornara}} </ref>
==Church statements==
While [[Pope Pius XI]] issued ambiguous statements, his bishops were quite vocal in blessing the armed forces of their Italian “fatherland.” In the book ''[[The Vatican in the Age of the Dictators, Anthony Rhodes]] reports:''
: In his Pastoral Letter of the 19th October [1935], the Bishop of Udine [Italy] wrote, ‘It is neither timely nor fitting for us to pronounce on the rights and wrongs of the case. Our duty as Italians, and still more as Christians is to contribute to the success of our arms.’ The Bishop of Padua wrote on the 21st October, ‘In the difficult hours through which we are passing, we ask you to have faith in our statesmen and armed forces.’ On the 24th October, the Bishop of Cremona consecrated a number of regimental flags and said: ‘The blessing of God be upon these soldiers who, on African soil, will conquer new and fertile lands for the Italian genius, thereby bringing to them Roman and Christian culture. May Italy stand once again as the Christian mentor to the whole world.
==Ferenghi==
Invariably, any success achieved by the Ethiopians was attributed to foreigners (''[[List of English words of Hindi origin|ferenghi]]''). Most of these elusive individuals were military advisors, pilots, doctors, or just well wishers of Haile Selassie's "cause." While never numbering more than a hundred, the Italian propaganda machine magnified the number to thousands so that Rome could account for the virtual standstill of the Italian Royal Army after De Bono's first rapid advances. Something had to explain the Ethiopian's ability to launch the "Chrismas Offensive" of late [[1935]].<ref name=Barker-47/>
The following are a few of the foreigners who came to Ethiopia or who supported the Ethiopian people in whatever way they could:
* [[Bill Deedes]] - Journalist
* [[Andrew Fountaine]] - Ambulance driver
* [[Marcus Garvey]] - Supporter
* [[Hubert Julian]] - Pilot
* [[Marcel Junod]] - [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]] doctor
* [[Oliver Law]] - Demonstrator
* [[Webb Miller (journalist)|Webb Miller]] - Journalist
* [[Mehmet Vehib Kaçı|Wehib Pasha]] - Military advisor
* [[Carl Gustaf von Rosen|Count Carl Gustaf von Rosen]] - Red Cross pilot
* [[John Spencer (historian)|John Spencer]] - Advisor
While the majority of non-Italian foreigners in Ethiopia were with the Ethiopians, there were others who saw the war from the Italian lines. An example:
* [[Pedro del Valle]] - Observer
==See also==
* [[First Italo-Ethiopian War]]
* [[Timeline of the Second Italo–Abyssinian War]]
* [[Italian Colonial Empire]]
* [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]]
* [[Treaty of peace with Italy (1947)]]
* [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947]]
* [[League of Nations]], the [[Abyssinia Crisis]], and [[Article X of the Covenant of the League of Nations]]
* [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement#History of the Movement#The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies#History|International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]]
* [[Faccetta Nera]] - A ''marching song'' of the Italian soldiers
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==Bibliography==
* {{cite book| first=A.J.| last=Barker| title=Rape of Ethiopia, 1936| publisher=Ballantine Books| date=1971|location=New York |isbn=978-0345024626|pages=160 pages}}
* De Bono E., ''La preparazione e le prime operazioni'', Roma: Istituto Nazionale Fascista di Cultura, 1937.
* Graziani, R., ''Fronte del Sud'', Milano: A. Mondadori, 1938.
* Mockler, Anthony, ''Haile Selassie's War'', New York: Olive Branch Press.
* {{cite book| first=David| last=Nicolle| title=The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia 1935-1936 | publisher=Osprey| date=1997|location=Westminster, MD |isbn=978-1-85532-692-7|pages=48 pages}}
* Starace, A., ''La marcia su Gondar'' Milano: A. Mondadori, 1937.
==Videography ==
* {{en}} ''Fascist Legacy'', Ken Kirby, Royaume-Uni, 1989, documentary 2x50min [http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/impu/itaimp1.html] {{Youtube|QBZT-9f-bIk|Fascist Legacy|it}}
==External links==
* [http://regioesercito.dns1.us/campagne/etiopia/indexcampetiopia.htm Regio Esercito: La Campagna d'Etiopia]
*[http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList96/DEB07F09BE30F4B8C1256DB000479398 A report by the International Committee of the Red Cross on the use of mustard gas by Italian forces.]
*[http://www.workmall.com/wfb2001/ethiopia/ethiopia_history_mussolinis_invasion_and_the_italian_occupation.html Mussolini's Invasion and the Italian Occupation]
*[http://www.needham.k12.ma.us/High_School/cur/Baker_00/03/baker-mc-03/ethiopia.htm Mussolini's Ethiopia Campaign]
*[http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/ink/italy/fitalyethiopia1935.htm OnWar: Second Italo–Abyssinian War 1935–1936]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ny/ethiocrown/HaileII.html Haile Selassie I, Part 2]
*[http://www.oneworldmagazine.org/focus/etiopia/musso.html OneWorld Magazine: Hailé Selassié VS. Mussolini]
*[http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/ethiopia/pankhurst/early_20th_cent_ethiopia_3.htm]
*[http://www.rootsinternational.net/exhibit2.html]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1935]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1936]]
[[Category:Former Italian colonies|Abyssinia]]
[[Category:Invasions]]
[[Category:Wars involving Ethiopia|Italy]]
[[Category:Wars involving Italy|Abyssinia]]
[[Category:1935 in Italy]]
[[Category:1936 in Italy]]
[[de:Italienisch-Äthiopischer Krieg]]
[[es:Segunda Guerra Ítalo-Etíope]]
[[fr:Seconde guerre italo-éthiopienne]]
[[fur:Vuere di Abissinie]]
[[id:Perang Italia-Ethiopia Kedua]]
[[it:Guerra d'Etiopia]]
[[he:המלחמה האיטלקית-אתיופית השנייה]]
[[hu:Abesszíniai háború]]
[[nl:Tweede Italiaans-Ethiopische Oorlog]]
[[ja:第二次エチオピア戦争]]
[[pl:Wojna włosko-abisyńska 1935-1936]]
[[pt:Segunda Guerra Italo-Etíope]]
[[ru:Вторая итало-эфиопская война]]
[[sl:Druga italijansko-abesinska vojna]]
[[sr:Други италијанско-абисински рат]]
[[sv:Abessinienkriget]]