Secular Jewish culture 1262063 225693561 2008-07-14T22:56:58Z Sardanaphalus 427947 updating link using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] {{Jewish culture}}{{Jews and Judaism (sidebar)}} '''Secular Jewish culture''' embraces several related phenomena; above all, it is the [[culture]] of [[Secularity (non-religiosity)|secular]] communities of [[Jew]]ish people, but it can also include the cultural contributions of individuals who identify as secular Jews, or even those of religious Jews working in cultural areas not generally considered to be connected to [[religion]]. The word ''secular'' in '''secular Jewish culture''', therefore, refers ''not'' to the type of Jew but rather to the type of culture. For example, religiously observant [[Orthodox Jews]] who write literature and music or produce films with non-religious themes are participating in secular Jewish culture, even if they are not secular themselves. The [[Jewish people]] is an [[ethnoreligious]] community rather than solely a religious grouping; [[Judaism]] guides its adherents in both practice and belief, so that it has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life". This makes it difficult to draw a clear distinction between the cultural production of members of the Jewish people, and culture that is specifically Jewish. Furthermore, not all individuals or all cultural phenomena can be easily classified as either "secular" or "religious", a distinction native to European Enlightenment thinking and foreign to most of the history of non-European Jews. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient [[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]] world, in [[Europe]] before and after the [[Age of Enlightenment]], in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain and Portugal]], in [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], in [[Indian Jews|India]] and [[Chinese Jews|China]], and in the contemporary [[United States]] and [[Israel]], Jewish communities have seen the development of cultural phenomena that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews with others around them, and others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities, each as authentically Jewish as the next. ==Origins of secular Jewish culture== For at least 2,000 years, there has not been a unity of Jewish culture. Jews during this period were always geographically dispersed (see [[Jewish diaspora]]), so that by the 19th century the [[Ashkenazi Jews]] were mainly in Europe, especially [[Eastern Europe]]; the [[Sephardi Jews]] were largely spread among various communities in North Africa, Turkey, and various smaller communities in a diverse range of other locations; [[Mizrahi Jews]] were primarily spread around the [[Arab world]]; and other populations of Jews were scattered in such places as [[Ethiopia]] the [[Caucasus]], and [[India]]. (See [[Jewish ethnic divisions]].) Although there was a high degree of communication and traffic between these communities — many Sephardic exiles blended into the Central European Ashkenazi community following the [[Spanish Inquisition]]; many Ashkenazim migrated to the Middle East, giving rise to the characteristic Syrian-Jewish family name "Ashkenazi"; Iraqi-Jewish traders formed a distinct Jewish community in India; and so forth — many of these populations were cut off to some degree from the surrounding cultures by [[ghetto]]ization, by [[Muslim]] laws of ''[[Dhimmi|dhimma]]'', and other circumstances. By 1931, shortly before the [[Holocaust]], 92% of the world's Jewish population was Ashkenazi in origin, including the vast majority of European and of English-speaking Jews. Moreover, secularism as a concept was largely a European idea, and a series of movements in Europe militated for a new, heretofore unheard-of concept called "secular Judaism". For these reasons, much of what is thought of by English-speakers and, to a lesser extent, by non-English-speaking Europeans as "secular Jewish culture" is, in essence, the Jewish culture of Central and Eastern Europe, and its subsequent development in [[North America]]. [[Medieval]] Jewish communities in Eastern Europe continued to display distinct cultural traits over the centuries. Despite the universalist leanings of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] (and its echo within Judaism in the [[Haskalah]] movement), many [[Yiddish]]-speaking Jews in Eastern Europe continued to see themselves as forming a distinct national group — ''" 'am yehudi",'' from the Biblical Hebrew — but, adapting this idea to European Enlightenment values, they assimilated the concept as that of an ethnic group whose identity did not depend on religion, which under Enlightenment thinking fell under a separate category. Constanin Măciucă writes of "a differentiated but not isolated Jewish spirit" permeating the culture of Yiddish-speaking Jews. This was only intensified as the rise of [[Romanticism]] amplified the sense of [[Nationalism|national identity]] across Europe generally. Thus, for example, ''Bund'' members — that is, members of the [[General Jewish Labor Union]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries — were generally non-religious, and one of the historical leaders of the ''Bund'' was the child of converts to [[Christianity]], though not a practising or believing Christian himself. The [[Haskalah]] combined with the [[Jewish Emancipation]] movement under way in Central and Western Europe to create an opportunity for Jews to enter secular society. At the same time, [[pogrom]]s in Eastern Europe provoked a surge of migration, in large part to the [[United States]], where some 2 million Jewish immigrants resettled between 1880 and 1920. During the 1940s, the Holocaust uprooted and destroyed most of the European Jewish population. This, in combination with the [[History of the State of Israel|creation of the State of Israel]] and the consequent [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]], resulted in a further geographic shift. Defining secular culture among those who practice traditional Judaism is difficult, because the entire culture is, by definition, entwined with religious traditions: the idea of separate ethnic and religious identity is foreign to the Hebrew tradition of an ''" 'am yisrael"''. (This is particularly true for [[Orthodox Judaism]].) [[Gary Tobin]], head of the [[Institute for Jewish and Community Research]], said of traditional Jewish culture: <blockquote>The dichotomy between religion and culture doesn’t really exist. Every religious attribute is filled with culture; every cultural act filled with religiosity. [[Synagogue]]s themselves are great centers of Jewish culture. After all, what is life really about? Food, relationships, enrichment hellip; So is Jewish life. So many of our traditions inherently contain aspects of culture. Look at the [[Passover Seder]] — it’s essentially great theater. Jewish education and religiosity bereft of culture is not as interesting.<ref>[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/culture/About_Jewish_Culture/JewishCulturalIdentity.htm The Emergence of a Jewish Cultural Identity], undated (2002 or later) on MyJewishLearning.com, reprinted from the National Foundation for Jewish Culture. Accessed 11 February 2006.</ref></blockquote> [[Yaakov Malkin]], Professor of Aesthetics and Rhetoric at [[Tel Aviv University]] and the founder and academic director of [[Meitar College for Judaism as Culture]][http://www.meitar.org.il/HTMLs/home.aspx] in Jerusalem, writes: <blockquote>Today very many [[Secularity (non-religiosity)|secular]] Jews take part in Jewish cultural activities, such as celebrating Jewish holidays as historical and nature festivals, imbued with new content and form, or marking life-cycle events such as birth, bar/bat mitzvah, marriage, and mourning in a secular fashion. They come together to study topics pertaining to Jewish culture and its relation to other cultures, in ''havurot,'' cultural associations, and secular synagogues, and they participate in public and political action co-ordinated by secular Jewish movements, such as the former movement to free Soviet Jews, and movements to combat pogroms, discrimination, and religious coercion. Jewish secular [[humanism|humanistic]] education inculcates universal moral values through classic Jewish and world literature and through organizations for social change that aspire to ideals of justice and charity.<ref>Malkin, Y. "Humanistic and secular Judaisms." ''Modern Judaism An Oxford Guide'', p. 107.</ref></blockquote> Today, in North America, the secular and cultural Jewish movements are divided into three umbrella organizations: the [[Society for Humanistic Judaism]] (SHJ), the [[Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations]] (CSJO), and [[Workmen's Circle]]. ===Languages=== {{main|Jewish languages}} Literary and theatrical expressions of secular Jewish culture may be in specifically Jewish languages such as [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] or [[Ladino language|Ladino]], or it may be in the language of the surrounding cultures, such as [[English language|English]] or [[German language|German]]. Secular literature and theater in Yiddish largely began in the 19th century and was in decline by the middle of the 20th century. The revival of Hebrew beyond its use in the liturgy is largely an early 20th-century phenomenon, and is closely associated with [[Zionism]]. Generally, whether a Jewish community will speak a Jewish or non-Jewish language as its main vehicle of [[discourse]] is dependent on how isolated or assimilated that community is. For example, the Jews in the [[shtetls]] of [[Poland]] and the [[Lower East Side]] of [[New York City|New York]] (during the early 20th century) spoke [[Yiddish]] at most times, while assimilated Jews in [[Germany]] during the 19th century or the [[United States]] today would or do speak [[German language|German]] or [[English language|English]]. ==Politics and morals== [[Image:ac.manif1917.jpg|frame|A [[General Jewish Labor Union|Bundist]] demonstration, 1917]] :''See main article [[Jewish political movements]]''. Even in religious Judaism there is much room for a range of political or moral views; this is only more so for secular Jews. However, even Jewish secular culture is often strongly influenced by moral beliefs deriving from Jewish scripture and tradition. In recent centuries, Jews in Europe and the Americas have traditionally tended towards the [[left-wing politics|political left]], and played key roles in the birth of the [[labor movement]] as well as [[socialism]]. While Diaspora Jews have also been represented in the [[conservatism|conservative]] side of the political spectrum, even politically conservative Jews have tended to support [[Jewish views of religious pluralism|pluralism]] more consistently than many other elements of the [[right-wing politics|political right]]. Some scholars<ref>Daniel J. Elazar, [http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles2/jud-democ.htm Judaism and Democracy: The Reality]. Undated. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Accessed 11 February 2006.</ref> attribute this to the fact that Jews are not expected to [[Missionary#Jewish missions|proselytize]], and as a result do not expect a single world-state, which differs from the beliefs of many religions, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] and [[Islam]]ic traditions; rather, since in Jewish theology the religions of most [[Noahide Laws|nations]] are respected, there was never any perceived reason to convert others. This lack of a universalizing religion is combined with the fact that most Jews live as minorities in their countries, and that no central Jewish religious authority has existed for over 2,000 years. ''(See also [[list of Jews in politics]], which illustrates the diversity of Jewish political thought and of the roles Jews have played in politics.)'' ==Professions associated with Jews== Typically, Jews were an agricultural people, comprising mostly farmers.{{fact|date=October 2007}} In fact, farming provides the source of much Jewish culture today,{{fact|date=October 2007}} and was revived during the restoration of [[Zionism]] at the beginning of the nineteenth century. However, in the [[Middle Ages]], European laws prevented Jews from owning land and gave them powerful incentive to go into other professions that Europeans were not wiling to do. A major aspect of this was the strong social stigma against lending money and charging interest among the Christian majority, commonly decried as "usury". As a modern system of capital was developing, loans became necessary. As lending money (and more broadly, the modern systems of finance) began to develop, Jews (as non-Catholics, not being bound by the "usury" stigma) were able to gain a foothold by providing these services. As a result, in the modern world, some professions have traditionally been considered particularly "Jewish." These include banking and finance, law, medicine, science, and academia. ''See also [[Court Jew]].'' The [[Bene Israel]] settled in the coastal district of [[Raigad]] in [[Maharashtra]], [[India]], traditionally were oil pressers, so much that to this date they they are called Sahnivar Telis or Saturday oil pressers. ===Banking and finance=== {{See also|List of Jewish American businesspeople}} In most of Europe up until the late 18th century, and in some places to an even later date, Jews were prohibited by Roman Catholic governments (and others) from owning land. On the other hand, the Church, because of a number of Bible verses forbidding [[usury]], declared that charging any [[interest]] was against the divine law, and this prevented any mercantile use of [[Capital (economics)|capital]] by pious Christians. As the [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Canon law]] did not apply to Jews, they were not liable to the ecclesiastical punishments which were placed upon [[usury|usurers]] by the [[pope]]s. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having a class of men like the Jews who could supply capital for their use without being liable to [[excommunication]], and the money trade of western Europe by this means fell into the hands of the Jews. However, in almost every instance where large amounts were acquired by Jews through banking transactions the property thus acquired fell either during their life or upon their death into the hands of the king. This happened to [[Aaron of Lincoln]] in [[England]], [[Ezmel de Ablitas]] in [[Navarre]], Heliot de Vesoul in [[Provence]], [[Benveniste de Porta]] in [[Aragon]], etc. It was for this reason indeed that the kings supported the Jews, and even objected to their becoming Christians, because in that case they could not have forced from them money won by usury. Thus both in England and in [[France]] the kings demanded to be compensated for every Jew converted. The result was the stereotypical Jewish role as bankers and merchants. ===Medicine, science, and academia=== Also, the strong Jewish tradition of religious scholarship often left Jews well prepared for secular scholarship, although in some times and places this was countered by Jews being banned from studying at [[university|universities]], or admitted only in limited numbers (see [[Jewish quota]]). In medieval and early modern times, Jews were disproportionately represented among court physicians. Even into recent times Jews were little represented in the land-holding classes, but far better represented in academia, the learned professions, finance and commerce. The strong representation of Jews in science and academia is represented in the fact that at least 167 Jews and persons of [[half-Jewish]] ancestry have been awarded the [[Nobel Prize]], accounting for 22% of all individual recipients worldwide between 1901 and 2004. In addition, of ''[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]'' magazine's 100 most influential people of the 20th century, fourteen persons listed are either of Jewish ancestry or have converted to Judaism. ==Literary and artistic culture== In some places where there have been relatively high concentrations of Jews, distinct secular Jewish subcultures have arisen. For example, ethnic Jews formed an enormous proportion of the literary and artistic life of [[Vienna]], [[Austria]] at the end of the 19th century, or of [[New York City]] 50 years later (and [[Los Angeles]] in the mid-late 20th century), and for the most part these were not particularly religious people. In general, however, Jewish artistic culture in various periods reflected the culture in which they lived. ===Literature=== :''See main articles [[Yiddish literature]], [[Ladino language#History|Ladino literature]], [[Hebrew literature]], [[Jewish American literature]], [[English Jewish literature]]. Also see [[List of Jews in literature and journalism|Jews in literature and journalism]].'' Jewish authors have both created a unique Jewish literature and contributed to the national literatures of many of the countries in which they live. Though not strictly secular, the Yiddish works of authors like [[Sholem Aleichem]] (whose collected works amounted to 28 volumes) and [[Isaac Bashevis Singer]] (winner of the 1978 Nobel Prize), form their own canon, focusing on the Jewish experience in both Eastern Europe, and in America. In the United States, Jewish writers like [[Philip Roth]], [[Saul Bellow]], and many others are considered among the greatest American authors, and incorporate a distinctly secular Jewish view into many of their works. The poetry of [[Allen Ginsberg]] often touches on Jewish themes (notably the early autobiographical works such as ''[[Howl]]'' and ''[[Kaddish (poem)|Kaddish]]''). Other famous Jewish authors that made contributions to world literature include [[Heinrich Heine]], German poet, [[Isaac Babel]], Russian author, and [[Franz Kafka]], of Prague. In "Modern Judaism An Oxford Guide," [[Yaakov Malkin]], Professor of Aesthetics and Rhetoric at [[Tel Aviv University]] and the founder and academic director of [http://www.meitar.org.il/HTMLs/home.aspx Meitar College for Judaism as Culture] in Jerusalem, writes: <blockquote>Secular Jewish culture embraces literary works that have stood the test of time as sources of aesthetic pleasure and ideas shared by Jews and non-Jews, works that live on beyond the immediate socio-cultural context within which they were created. They include the writings of such Jewish authors as [[Sholem Aleichem]], [[Itzik Manger]], [[Isaac Bashevis Singer]], [[Philip Roth]], [[Saul Bellow]], [[S.Y. Agnon]], [[Isaac Babel]], [[Martin Buber]], [[Isaiah Berlin]], [[Haim Nahman Bialik]], [[Yehuda Amichai]], [[Amos Oz]], [[A.B. Yehoshua]], and [[David Grossman]]. It boasts masterpieces that have had a considerable influence on all of western culture, Jewish culture included - works such as those of [[Heinrich Heine]], [[Gustav Mahler]], [[Leonard Bernstein]], [[Marc Chagall]], [[Jacob Epstein]], [[Ben Shahn]], [[Amedeo Modigliani]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Max Reinhardt (theatre director)|Max Reinhardt (Goldman)]], [[Ernst Lubitsch]], and [[Woody Allen]].<ref>Malkin, Y. "Humanistic and secular Judaisms." ''Modern Judaism An Oxford Guide'', p. 107.</ref></blockquote> ===Theatre=== ====Yiddish theatre==== {{main|Yiddish theatre}} The [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] Jew [[Abraham Goldfaden]] founded the first professional [[Yiddish language|Yiddish-language]] theatre troupe in [[Iaşi]], [[Romania]] in 1876. The next year, his troupe achieved enormous success in [[Bucharest]]. Within a decade, Goldfaden and others brought Yiddish theater to [[Ukraine]], [[Russia]], [[Poland]], [[Germany]], [[New York City]], and other cities with significant [[Ashkenazi]]c populations. Between 1890 and 1940, over a dozen Yiddish theatre groups existed in New York City alone, performing original [[Play (theatre)|plays]], [[musical theatre|musicals]], and Yiddish translations of theatrical works and [[opera]]. Perhaps the most famous of Yiddish-language plays is ''[[The Dybbuk]]'' (1919) by [[Shloime Ansky|S. Ansky]]. Yiddish theater in New York in the early 20th Century rivalled English-language theater in quantity and often surpassed it in quality. A 1925 ''[[New York Times]]'' article remarks, "…Yiddish theater… is now a stable American institution and no longer dependent on immigration from Eastern Europe. People who can neither speak nor write Yiddish attend Yiddish stage performances and pay [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] prices on [[Second Avenue (Manhattan)|Second Avenue]]." This article also mentions other aspects of a New York Jewish cultural life "in full flower" at that time, among them the fact that the extensive New York Yiddish-language press of the time included seven daily newspapers.<ref>Melamed, 1925.</ref> In fact, however, the next generation of American Jews spoke mainly English to the exclusion of Yiddish; they brought the artistic energy of Yiddish theater into the American theatrical mainstream, but usually in a less specifically Jewish form. Yiddish theater, most notably [[Moscow State Jewish Theater]] directed by [[Solomon Mikhoels]], also played a prominent role in the arts scene of the [[Soviet Union]] until Stalin's 1948 reversal in government policy toward the Jews. ''(See [[Rootless cosmopolitan]], [[Night of the Murdered Poets]])'' ====Mentorship==== Yiddish theatre fed into the mainstream of American stage and film acting: the [[method acting]] of [[Konstantin Stanislavski]] found its way to America through [[Jacob Adler]]; Adler's daughter [[Stella Adler|Stella]] and son [[Luther Adler|Luther]] were instrumental in the [[Group Theatre (New York)|Group Theatre]], two of whose three founders were also Jews. The list of Stella Adler's and Group Theatre founder [[Lee Strasberg]]'s students, mostly Gentiles, reads like a ''Who's Who'' of American acting: [[Marlon Brando]], [[Jill Clayburgh]], [[James Dean]], [[Robert DeNiro]], [[Paul Newman]], [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Al Pacino]], and [[Eva Marie Saint]], to name just a few. Similarly, what Jewish composer [[John Kander]] calls an "interesting phenomenon that [[Musical theatre|Broadway musical]] composers like [[Jerome Kern]], [[George Gershwin]] and [[Marc Blitzstein]] are [[Secular Jewish culture#American English-language theatre|predominantly Jewish]]" comes from "the tradition established from New York's Yiddish theater."<ref>Keith D. Cohen, [http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=14601602&BRD=1425&PAG=461&dept_id=154733&rfi=6 John Kander to be honored in KC concerts]. ''The Kansas City Jewish Chronicle'', May 27, 2005. Accessed 11 February 2006.</ref> ====American English-language theatre==== :''See also [[List of Jewish American musicians#Musicals writers|List of Jewish American musicals writers]], [[list of Jewish American entertainers#Theatre|List of Jewish Americans in theatre]], [[List of Jewish American playwrights]].'' [[Image:West Side Story Poster.gif|thumb|Poster for the [[West Side Story (film)|film adaptation]] of ''[[West Side Story]]'' by the team of Jewish writers consisting of [[Leonard Bernstein]] (music), [[Stephen Sondheim]] (lyrics), [[Arthur Laurents]] (book) and [[Jerome Robbins]] (direction and choreography)]] Not only have "[[American Jews|Jewish]] composers and lyricists always dominated [[Broadway musicals]]"<ref>Chris Curcio, [http://www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/local/articles/0331berlinrevu31.html This 'Musical Journey' slips along the way], March 31, 2005, ''The Arizona Republic''. Accessed 11 February 2006.</ref> in [[New York City]], but they were instrumental in the creation and development of [[genre]] of [[musical theatre]] and earlier forms of theatrical entertainment, as well as contributing to non-musical theatre in the United States. According to [[University of Toronto]] [[English language|English]] professor Andrea Most, <blockquote>Almost all the American musicals in the 20th century were written by Jews and... the most compelling reason for this is that the musical offers a lot of strategies for exploring and performing new identities theatrically… the musical theater exists because of the unique historical situation of the Jews who created it"<ref>[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2002-12/uot-bhj121102.php Broadway helped Jews gain acceptance, researcher says], 11-December-2002 on EurekaAlert.org. Summary Andrea Mostbook. Accessed 11 February 2006.</ref><ref>Alan Gomberg, [http://www.talkinbroadway.com/rialto/past/2004/02_16_04.html What's New on the Rialto?], book review of ''Making Americans: Jews and the Broadway Musical'' by Andrea Most, February 2004. On Talkin' Broadway site. Accessed 11 February 2006.</ref></blockquote> [[Brandeis University]] Professor Stephen J. Whitfield has commented that "More so than behind the screen, the talent behind the stage was for over half a century virtually the monopoly of one ethnic group. That is... [a] feature which locates Broadway at the center of Jewish culture".<ref>Stephen J. Whitfield, [http://www.brandeis.edu/publications/review/winspr2000/whitfield.pdf Musical Theater] ([[PDF]]). ''Brandeis Review'', Winter/Spring 2000. Accessed 11 February 2006.</ref> [[New York University]] Professor Laurence Maslon says that "There would be no American musical without Jews… Their influence is corollary to the influence of black musicians on jazz; there were as many Jews involved in the form".<ref>Samantha M. Shapiro, [http://www.hadassah.org/news/content/per_hadassah/archive/2004/04_OCT/art.asp The Arts: A Jewish Street Called Broadway]. ''Hadassah Magazine'', October 2004 Vol. 86 No.2. Accessed 11 February 2006.</ref> Other writers, such as Jerome Caryn, have noted that musical theatre and other forms of American entertainment are uniquely indebted to the contributions of Jewish-Americans, since "there might not have been a modern Broadway without the "Asiatic horde" of [[List of Jewish American entertainers#Comedians|comedians]], gossip columnists, [[List of Jewish American entertainers#Singers and Songwriters|songwriters]], and singers that grew out of the [[ghetto]], whether it was on the [[Lower East Side]], [[Harlem]] (a Jewish ghetto before it was a black one), [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]], or [[Washington, DC]]."<ref>Charyn, Jerome. [http://find.galegroup.com/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=EAIM&docId=A112354671&source=gale&srcprod=EAIM&userGroupName=ucirvine&version=1.0 "Early Broadway's un-Jewish Jews."] ''Midstream'' 50.1 (January 2004): 19(7). ''Expanded Academic ASAP''. Thomson Gale. UC Irvine (CDL). 9 March 2006</ref> Likewise, in the analysis of Aaron Kula, director of The Klezmer Company, <blockquote>"…the Jewish experience has always been best expressed by music, and Broadway has always been an integral part of the Jewish-American experience… The difference is that one can expand the definition of "Jewish Broadway" to include an interdisciplinary roadway with a wide range of artistic activities packed onto one avenue--theatre, opera, symphony, ballet, publishing companies, choirs, synagogues and more. This vibrant landscape reflects the life, times and creative output of the Jewish-American artist".<ref>[http://www.fau.edu/president/communications/pressreleases/February/13.html The Klezmer Company Breaks New Ground with Orchestral Klezmer Production "Jewish Broadway with Orchestra and Chorus" at FAU]. Florida Atlantic University press release, February 8, 2005. Accessed 11 February 2006.</ref></blockquote> In the 19th and early 20th centuries the European [[operetta]], a precursor the musical, often featured the work of Jewish composers such as [[Paul Abraham]], [[List of operettas|Leo Ascher]], [[List of Austrian Jews#Composers|Edmund Eysler]], [[List of Austrian Jews#Musicians|Leo Fall]], [[List of operettas#Bruno Granichstaedten|Bruno Granichstaedten]], [[Jacques Offenbach]], [[Emmerich Kalman]], [[Sigmund Romberg]], [[Oscar Straus (composer)|Oscar Straus]] and [[Rudolf Friml]]; the latter four eventually moved to the United States and produced their works on the New York stage. One of the [[libretto|librettists]] for [[Georges Bizet|Bizet]]'s ''[[Carmen]]'' (not an operetta proper but rather a work of the earlier [[opera comique]] form) was the Jewish [[Ludovic Halévy]], niece of composer [[Fromental Halévy]] (Bizet himself was not Jewish but he married the elder Halevy's daughter, many have suspected that he was the descendant of Jewish converts to Christianity, and others have noticed Jewish-sounding intervals in his music.<ref>Raphael Mostel, [http://www.forward.com/main/article.php?ref=mostel200405051021 Carmen Comes Home], ''[[The Forward]]'', May 7, 2004. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref>) The Viennese librettist Victor Leon summarized the connection of Jewish composers and writers with the form of operetta: "The audience for operetta wants to laugh beneath tears—and that is exactly what Jews have been doing for the last two thousand years since the destruction of Jerusalem".<ref>Dr. Kenneth Libo Ph. D and Michael Skakun, [http://www.cjh.org/about/Forward/view_Forward.cfm?Forwardid=27 The Persecution of Creativity: Jews, Music and Vienna], Center for Jewish History, April 16, 2004. Accessed 12 February 2006</ref> Another factor in the evolution of musical theatre was [[vaudeville]], and during the early 20th century the form was explored and expanded by Jewish comedians and actors such as [[Jack Benny]], [[Fanny Brice]], [[Eddie Cantor]], [[The Marx Brothers]], [[Anna Held]], [[Al Jolson]], [[Molly Picon]], [[Sophie Tucker]] and [[Ed Wynn]]. During the period when Broadway was monopolized by [[revues]] and similar entertainments, Jewish producer [[Florenz Ziegfeld]] dominated the theatrical scene with his [[Ziegfeld Follies|Follies]]. By 1910 Jews (the vast majority of them immigrants from [[Eastern Europe]]) already composed a quarter of the population of [[New York City]], and almost immediately Jewish artists and intellectuals began to show their influence on the cultural life of that city, and through time, the country as a whole. Likewise, while the modern musical can best be described as a fusion of operetta, earlier American entertainment and [[African-American]] culture and music, as well as Jewish culture and music, the actual authors of the first "book musicals" were the Jewish [[Jerome Kern]], [[Oscar Hammerstein II]], [[George Gershwin|George]] and [[Ira Gershwin]], [[George S. Kaufman]] and [[Morrie Ryskind]]. From that time until the 1980s a vast majority of successful musical theatre composers, lyricists, and book-writers were Jewish (a notable exception is the Protestant [[Cole Porter]], who acknowledged that the reason he was so successful on Broadway was that he wrote what he called "Jewish music").<ref>Michael Billig, [http://www.myjewishlearning.com/culture/Music/AmericanJewishMusicTO/ShowTunes.htm Creating the American Musical]. Originally from ''Rock 'N' Roll Jews'' (Five Leaves Publications), extracted on myjewishlearning.com. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> [[Rodgers and Hammerstein]], [[Frank Loesser]], [[Lerner and Loewe]], [[Stephen Sondheim]], [[Leonard Bernstein]], [[Stephen Schwartz (composer)|Stephen Schwartz]], [[Kander and Ebb]] and dozens of others during the [[Musical theater#The Golden Age (1940s/1950s/1960s)|"Golden Age"]] of musical theatre were Jewish. Since the [[Tony Award for Best Original Score]] was instituted in 1947, approximately 70% of nominated scores and 60% of winning scores were by Jewish composers. Of successful British and French musical writers both in the [[West End theatre|West End]] and Broadway, [[Claude-Michel Schönberg]] and [[Lionel Bart]] are Jewish, among others. One explanation of the affinity of Jewish composers and playwrights to the musical is that "traditional [[Jewish music|Jewish religious music]] was most often led by a single singer, a [[Hazzan|cantor]] while [[Christianity|Christians]] emphasize choral singing."<ref>Jacob Baron, [http://www.machar.org/bm_jbaron.html Jewish Composers], ''Machar, The Washington Congregation for Secular Humanistic Judaism'', June 2, 2005. Accessed 15 February 2006.</ref> Many of these writers used the musical to explore issues relating to assimilation, the acceptance of the outsider in society, the racial situation in the United States, the overcoming of obstacles through perseverance, and other topics pertinent to Jewish Americans and Western Jews in general, often using subtle and disguised stories to get this point across.<ref>Alan Gomberg, [http://www.talkinbroadway.com/rialto/past/2004/02_16_04.html ''op. cit.'']</ref> For example, Kern, Rodgers, Hammerstein, the Gershwins, [[Harold Arlen]] and [[Yip Harburg]] wrote musicals and operas aiming to normalize societal toleration of minorities and urging racial harmony; these works included ''[[Show Boat]]'', ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'', ''[[Finian's Rainbow]]'', ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]'' and the ''[[The King and I]]''. Towards the end of Golden Age, writers also began to openly and overtly tackle Jewish subjects and issues, such as ''[[Fiddler on the Roof]]'' and ''[[Rags (musical)|Rags]]''; Bart's ''[[Blitz!]]'' also tackles relations between Jews and Gentiles. [[Jason Robert Brown]] and [[Alfred Uhry]]'s ''[[Parade (musical)|Parade]]'' is a sensitive exploration of both [[anti-Semitism]] and historical American [[racism]]. The original concept that became ''[[West Side Story]]'' was set in the [[Lower East Side]] during Easter-Passover celebrations; the rival gangs were to be Jewish and [[Italian-American|Italian]] [[Catholic]].<ref>Arthur Laurents, [http://www.leonardbernstein.com/studio/element.asp?FeatID=8&AssetID=18 Theater: West Side Story; The Growth of an Idea], ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'', August 4, 1957. Reproduced on leonardbernstein.com. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> The ranks of prominent Jewish producers, directors, designers and performers include [[Boris Aronson]], [[David Belasco]], [[Joel Grey]], the Minskoff family, [[Zero Mostel]], [[Joseph Papp]], [[Mandy Patinkin]], the Nederlander family, [[Harold Prince]], [[Max Reinhardt (theatre director)|Max Reinhardt]], [[Jerome Robbins]], the [[Shubert family]] and [[Julie Taymor]]. Jewish playwrights have also contributed to non-musical drama and theatre, both Broadway and regional. [[Edna Ferber]], [[Moss Hart]], [[Lillian Hellman]], [[Arthur Miller]] and [[Neil Simon]] are only some of the prominent Jewish playwrights in American theatrical history. Approximately 21% of the plays and musicals that have won the [[Pulitzer Prize for Drama]] were written and composed by Jewish Americans. ====European theatre==== From their [[Jewish Emancipation|Emancipation]] to [[World War II]], Jews were very active and sometimes even dominant in certain forms of [[Europe]]an theatre, and after the [[Holocaust]] many Jews continued to that cultural form. For example, in pre-Nazi Germany, where [[Nietzsche]] asked "What good actor of today is not Jewish?", acting, directing and writing positions were often filled by Jews; controversial psychologist [[Kevin B. MacDonald]] has reported that in [[Berlin]] 80% of [[theatre director|theatrical directors]] were Jewish and 75% of plays produced were by Jewish playwrights.<ref>Cited at http://www.jewishtribalreview.org/lapin2.htm (accessed 12 February 2006). Both MacDonald and Jewish Tribal Review would generally be counted as anti-Semitic sources, but reasonably careful in their factual claims.</ref> "In Imperial Berlin, Jewish artists could be found in the forefront of the performing arts, from high drama to more popular forms like [[cabaret]] and [[revue]], and eventually [[film]]. Jewish audiences patronized innovative theater, regardless of whether they approved of what they saw."<ref>[http://www.thejewishmuseum.org/site/pages/content/exhibitions/special/berlin/berlin_cabaret.html Berlin Metropolis: Jews and the New Culture, 1890–1918], on the site of The Jewish Museum, New York. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> The British historian [[Paul Johnson (writer)|Paul Johnson]], commenting on Jewish contributions to European culture at the [[fin de siècle]], writes that <blockquote>The area where Jewish influence was strongest was the theatre, especially in Berlin. Playwrights like [[Carl Sternheim]], [[Arthur Schnitzler]], [[Ernst Toller]], [[Erwin Piscator]], [[Walter Hasenclever]], [[Ferenc Molnar]] and [[Carl Zuckmayer]], and influential producers like [[Max Reinhardt (theatre director)|Max Reinhardt]], appeared at times to dominate the stage, which tended to be modishly [[left-wing]], [[Republicanism|pro-republican]], experimental and sexually daring. But it was certainly not revolutionary, and it was cosmopolitan rather than Jewish.<ref>Johnson, Paul (1987). ''A History of the Jews'', pg. 479. New York: Harper Perennial.</ref></blockquote> Jews also made similar, if not as massive, contributions to theatre and drama in Austria, Britain, France, and Russia (in the national languages of those countries). Jews in Vienna, Paris and German cities found [[cabaret]] both a popular and effective means of expression, as German cabaret in the [[Weimar Republic]] "was mostly a Jewish art form".<ref>Suzanne Weiss, [http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/4555/format/html/displaystory.html Jewish cabaret singer brings songs of Berlin to Berkeley], ''The Jewish News Weekly of Northern California'', September 27, 1996. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> The involvement of Jews in Central European theatre was halted during the rise of the Nazis and the purging of Jews from cultural posts, though many emigrated to [[Western Europe]] or the [[United States]] and continued working there. ====Hebrew and Israeli theatre==== The earliest known [[Hebrew language]] drama was written around 1550 by a [[History of the Jews in Italy|Jewish-Italian]] writer from [[Mantua]].<ref>Shimon Levy, [http://www.jewish-theatre.com/visitor/article_display.aspx?articleID=199 The Development of Israeli Theatre– a brief overview]. Credited to Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Jerusalem, 2000. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> A few works were written by [[rabbis]] and [[Kabbalah|Kabbalists]] in 17th century [[Amsterdam]], where Jews were relatively free from persecution and had both flourishing religious and secular Jewish cultures.<ref>[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=467&letter=D], ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''. ''Could not access 12 February 2006.''</ref> All of these early Hebrew plays were about Biblical or mystical subjects, often in the form of [[Talmud]]ic [[parable]]s. During the post-Emancipation period in 19th century Europe, many Jews translated great [[History of theatre#Western Theatre History|European plays]] such as those by [[Shakespeare]], [[Molière]] and [[Schiller]], giving the characters Jewish names and transplanting the plot and setting to within a Jewish context. Modern Hebrew theatre and drama, however, began with the development of [[Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew|Modern Hebrew]] in Europe (the first Hebrew theatrical ''professional performance'' was in [[Moscow]] in 1918)<ref>Shimon Levy, [http://www.jewish-theatre.com/visitor/article_display.aspx?articleID=199 ''op. cit.'']</ref> and was "closely linked with the Jewish national renaissance movement of the twentieth century. The historical awareness and the sense of primacy which accompanied the Hebrew theatre in its early years dictated the course of its artistic and aesthetic development".<ref>Orna Ben-Meir, [http://www.tau.ac.il/arts/publications/ASSAPHTH11/BEN-MEIR.html Biblical Thematics in Stage Design for the Hebrew Theatre], ''Assaph'', Section C, no. 11 (July 1999), p. 141 ''et. seq.''. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> These traditions were soon transplanted to [[Culture of Israel#Film and theatre|Israel]]. Playwrights such as [[Natan Alterman]], [[Hayyim Nahman Bialik]], [[Leah Goldberg]], [[Ephraim Kishon]], [[Hanoch Levin]], [[Aharon Megged]], [[Moshe Shamir]], [[Avraham Shlonsky]], [[Yehoshua Sobol]] and [[A. B. Yehoshua]] have written Hebrew-language plays. Themes that are obviously common in these works are the [[Shoah|Holocaust]], the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], the meaning of Jewishness, and contemporary secular-religious tensions within Jewish Israel. The most well-known Hebrew theatre company and Israel's national theatre is the [[Habima Theater|Habima]] (meaning "the stage" in Hebrew), which was formed in 1913 in [[Lithuania]], and re-established in 1917 in [[Russia]]; another prominent Israeli theatre company is the [[Cameri Theater|Cameri Theatre]], which is "is Israel's first and leading repertory theatre".<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/hebrewtheatre/history.html History of Israeli Theatre], on a [[Geocities]] site, credits [http://www.habima.org.il www.habima.org.il] and [http://www.cameri.co.il www.cameri.co.il].</ref> ===Film=== [[Image:Satz His Wifes Lover.jpg|frame|Poster for ''[[His Wife's Lover]]'' (1931), starring [[Ludwig Satz]]]] In the era when Yiddish theatre was still a major force in the world of theatre, over 100 films were made in Yiddish. Many are now lost. Prominent films included ''[[Shulamith]]'' (1931), the first Yiddish musical on film ''[[His Wife's Lover]]'' (1931), ''[[A Daughter of Her People]]'' (1932), the anti-Nazi film ''[[Wandering Jew|The Wandering Jew]]'' (1933), ''The [[Yiddish King Lear (film)|Yiddish King Lear]]'' (1934), ''[[Shir Hashirim (film)|Shir Hashirim]]'' (1935), the biggest Yiddish film hit of all time ''[[Yidl Mitn Fidl]]'' (1936), ''[[Where Is My Child?]]'' (1937), ''[[Green Fields]]'' (1937), ''[[The Dybbuk (play)|Dybuk]]'' (1937), ''[[The Singing Blacksmith]]'' (1938), ''[[Tevye]]'' (1939), ''[[Mirele Efros]]'' (1939), ''[[Lang ist der Weg]]'' (1948), and ''[[God, Man and Devil]]'' (1950). The roster of Jewish entrepreneurs in the English-language American film industry is legendary: [[Samuel Goldwyn]], [[Louis B. Mayer]], [[the Warner Brothers]], [[David O. Selznick]], [[Marcus Loew]], and [[Adolph Zukor]], to name just a few, and continuing into recent times with such industry giants as super-agent [[Michael Ovitz]], [[Michael Eisner]], [[Lew Wasserman]], [[Jeffrey Katzenberg]], [[Steven Spielberg]], [[Stanley Kubrick]], and [[David Geffen]]. However, few of these brought a specifically Jewish sensibility either to the art of film or, with the sometime exception of Spielberg, to their choice of subject matter. A much more specifically Jewish sensibility can be seen in the films of the [[Marx Brothers]], [[Mel Brooks]], or [[Woody Allen]]; other examples of specifically Jewish films from the Hollywood film industry are the [[Barbra Streisand]] vehicle ''[[Yentl]]'' (1983), or [[John Frankenheimer|John Frankenheimer's]] ''[[The Fixer (film)|The Fixer]]'' (1968). Jewish [[film score|film composers]] have also written scores to a large amount of the great films of the 20th century. Among the most prolific have been [[Elmer Bernstein]], [[Danny Elfman]], [[Elliot Goldenthal]], [[Jerry Goldsmith]], [[Bernard Herrmann]], [[Alan Menken]], [[Alfred Newman]], [[Randy Newman]], [[Marc Shaiman]], [[Lalo Schifrin]], the [[Sherman Brothers]], [[Howard Shore]], [[Max Steiner]], and [[Dimitri Tiomkin]]. Another notable Jewish music composer for entertainment media, specifically television, is the award winning [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0505725/ Stewart Levin]. ===Radio and television=== The first radio chains, the [[RCA|Radio Corporation of America]] and the [[Columbia Broadcasting System]], were created by the [[American Jews|Jewish-American]] [[David Sarnoff]] and [[William S. Paley]], respectively. These Jewish innovators were also among the first producers of [[television]]s, both black-and-white and [[color television|color]].<ref>Johnson, ''op. cit.' p. 462-463.</ref> Among the Jewish immigrant communities of America there was also a thriving [[Yiddish language]] radio, with its "golden age" from the 1930s to the 1950s. Although there is little specifically Jewish television in the United States ([[National Jewish Television]], largely religious, broadcasts only three hours a week), Jews have been involved in American television from its earliest days. From [[Sid Caesar]] and [[Milton Berle]] to [[Joan Rivers]], [[Gilda Radner]], and [[Andy Kaufman]] to [[Billy Crystal]] to [[Jerry Seinfeld]], Jewish stand-up comedians have been icons of American television. Other Jews that held a prominent role in early radio and television were [[Eddie Cantor]], [[Al Jolson]], [[Jack Benny]], [[Walter Winchell]] and [[David Susskind]]. In the analysis of [[Paul Johnson (writer)|Paul Johnson]], <blockquote>The Broadway musical, radio and TV were all examples of a fundamental principle in [[Jewish diaspora]] history: Jews opening up a completely new field in business and culture, a ''[[tabula rasa]]'' on which to set their mark, before other interests had a chance to take possession, erect [[guild]] or [[professional]] fortifications and deny them entry.<ref>Johnson, ''op. cit.'' p. 462-463.</ref></blockquote> One of the first televised [[situation comedy|situation comedies]], ''[[The Goldbergs]]'' was set in a specifically Jewish milieu in [[the Bronx]]. While the overt Jewish milieu of ''The Goldbergs'' was unusual for an American television series—one of the few other examples being ''[[Brooklyn Bridge (TV series)|Brooklyn Bridge]]'' (1991–1993). Jews have also played an enormous role among the creators and writers of television comedies: [[Woody Allen]], [[Mel Brooks]], [[Selma Diamond]], [[Larry Gelbart]], [[Carl Reiner]], and [[Neil Simon]] all wrote for Sid Caesar; Reiner's son [[Rob Reiner]] worked with [[Norman Lear]] on ''[[All in the Family]]'' (which often engaged [[anti-semitism]] and other issues of [[prejudice]]); [[Larry David]] and [[Jerry Seinfeld]] created the hit sitcom ''[[Seinfeld]]'', [[Lorne Michaels]], [[Al Franken]], [[Rosie Shuster]], and [[Alan Zweibel]] of ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' breathed new life into the [[variety show]] in the 1970s. ===Music=== {{main|Secular Jewish music}} Jewish musical contributions also tend to reflect the cultures of the countries in which Jews live, the most notable examples being [[European classical music|classical]] and [[popular music]] in the [[United States]] and [[Europe]]. ''(See: [[Secular Jewish Music and Dance#Jews in Classical Music|Jews in Classical Music]] and [[Secular Jewish Music and Dance#Jews in Mainstream and Jazz music|Jews in Mainstream and Jazz]])''. Some music, however, is unique to particular Jewish communities, such as [[Music of Israel|Israeli music]], [[Music of Israel#National/Folk Music|Israeli Folk music]], [[Klezmer]], [[Sephardic music|Sephardic and Ladino music]], and [[Mizrahi music]]. ===Dance=== {{main|Jewish dance}} Deriving from Biblical traditions, Jewish dance has long been used by Jews as a medium for the expression of joy and other communal emotions. Each [[Jewish diaspora|Jewish diasporic]] community developed its own dance traditions for wedding celebrations and other distinguished events. For [[Ashkenazi Jews]] in [[Eastern Europe]], for example, dances, whose names corresponded to the different forms of [[klezmer]] music that were played, were an obvious staple of the wedding ceremony of the [[shtetl]]. Jewish dances both were influenced by surrounding [[Gentile]] traditions and Jewish sources preserved over time. "Nevertheless the Jews practiced a corporeal expressive language that was highly differentiated from that of the non-Jewish peoples of their neighborhood, mainly through motions of the hands and arms, with more intricate legwork by the younger men."<ref> [http://borzykowski.users.ch/EnglYidDance.htm Yiddish, Klezmer, Ashkenazic or 'shtetl' dances], Le Site Genevois de la Musique Klezmer. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> In general, however, in most religiously traditional communities, members of the opposite sex dancing together or dancing at times other than at these events was frowned upon. ===Humor=== {{main|Jewish humor}} Jewish humor is the long tradition of humor in Judaism dating back to the [[Torah]] and the [[Midrash]], but generally refers to the more recent stream of verbal, self-deprecating and often anecdotal humor originating in Eastern Europe and which took root in the [[United States]] over the last hundred years. Beginning with [[vaudeville]], and continuing through radio, stand-up, film, and television, a significant number of American comedians have been Jewish. ===Visual arts=== :''See also [[List of Jews in the visual arts]].'' [[Image:Book cover by El Lissitzky c1918.jpg|thumb|Cover of the [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] [[children's book]] ''Yingl Tzingl Khvat'' (The Mischievous Boy) by [[El Lissitzky]], c.1918.]] Compared to music or theater, there is less of a specifically Jewish tradition in the [[visual arts]]. The most likely and accepted reason is that, as has been previously shown with Jewish music and literature, before [[Jewish Emancipation|Emancipation]] Jewish culture was dominated by religious tradition. As most [[Rabbi]]nical authorities believed that the [[Ten Commandments#Jewish interpretation|Second Commandment]] prohibited much visual art that would qualify as "graven images", Jewish artists were relatively rare until they lived in assimilated European communities beginning in the late 18th century.<ref>Ismar Schorsch, [http://learn.jtsa.edu/topics/parashah/5755/vayakhel.shtml Shabbat Shekalim Va-Yakhel 5755], commentary on [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 35:1 - 38:20. February 25, 1995. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref><ref>Velvel Pasternak, [http://www.judaism.com/12paths/music&art.htm Music and Art], part of "12 Paths" on Judaism.com. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> It should be noted however, that despite fears by early religious communities of art being used for idolatrous purposes, Jewish ''sacred'' art is recorded in the [[Tanakh]] and extends throughout Jewish [[ancient history|Antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]]. The [[Tabernacle]] and the two [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temples in Jerusalem]] form the first known examples of "Jewish art". During the first centuries of the [[Common Era]], Jewish religious art also was created in regions surrounding the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] such as [[Syria]] and [[Greece]], including [[frescoes]] on the walls of [[synagogue]]s,<ref>Jessica Spitalnic Brockman, [http://www.myjewishlearning.com/culture/Art/TO_ArtOverview/ArtHistory.htm A Brief History of Jewish Art] on MyJewishLearning.com. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> as well as the Jewish [[Catacombs of Rome|catacombs]] in [[Rome]].<ref>Michael Schirber, [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8644832 Did Christians copy Jewish catacombs?], MSNBC, July 20, 2005. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref><ref>Jona Lendering, [http://www.livius.org/di-dn/diaspora/rome.html The Jewish diaspora: Rome]. Livius.org. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> [[Jews in the Middle Ages|Middle Age]] [[Rabbinical literature|Rabbinical]] and [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]] literature also contain textual and graphic art, most famously the illuminated haggadahs. However, in the [[Ghetto#Jewish ghettos in Europe|ghettos of Europe]] it was even illegal for Jews to create art.<ref>Roza Bieliauskiene and Felix Tarm, [http://www.jewishartnetwork.com/JewishArt/history.asp Brief History of Jewish Art], Jewish Art Network. Archived October 23, 2004.</ref> Johnson again summarizes this sudden change from small amount of participation of Jews in visual art (as in many other arts) to a large entry of them into this branch of European cultural life: <blockquote>Again, the arrival of the Jewish artist was a strange phenomenon. It is true that, over the centuries, there had been many animals (though few humans) in Jewish art: lions on [[Torah]] curtains, owls on Judaic coins, animals on the [[Capernaum]] capitals, birds on the rim of the fountain-basis in the [[Fifth century|fifth-century]] [[Naro]] [[synagogue]] in [[Tunis]]; there were carved animals, too, on timber synagogues in [[eastern Europe]] - indeed the Jewish [[woodcarving|wood-carver]] was the prototype of the modern Jewish [[Plastic arts|plastic artist]]. A book of Yiddish folk-[[ornament]], printed at [[Vitebsk]] in 1920, was similar to Chagall's own [[bestiary]]. But the resistance of pious Jews to portraying the living image was still strong at the beginning of the twentieth century.<ref>Johnson, ''op.cit.'', p. 411.</ref></blockquote> [[Image:Image-Chagall Fiddler.jpg|thumb|''The Fiddler'' by [[Marc Chagall]]]] There were few Jewish ''secular'' artists in Europe prior to the [[Jewish Emancipation|Emancipation]] that spread throughout Europe with the Napoleonic conquests. There were exceptions, and [[Salomon Adler]] was a prominent portrait painter in eighteenth century [[Milan]]. The delay in participation in the visual arts parallels the lack of Jewish participation in European classical music until the nineteenth century, and which was progressively overcome with the rise of [[Modernism (art)|Modernism]] in the 20th century. There were many Jewish artists in the 19th century, but Jewish artistic activity boomed during the end of [[World War I]]. According to Nadine Nieszawer, "Until 1905, Jews were always plunged into their books but from the first Russian Revolution, they became emancipated, committed themselves in politics and became artists. A real Jewish cultural rebirth".<ref>Rebecca Assoun, [http://www.ejpress.org/article/culture/1788 Jewish artists in Montparnasse]. European Jewish Press, 19 July 2005. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> Individual Jews figured in the modern artistic movements of Europe— [[Art Deco]] ([[Tamara de Lempicka]]<ref name="half">With the exception of those living in isolated Jewish communities, most Jews listed here as contributing to secular Jewish culture also participated in the cultures of the peoples they lived with and nations they lived in. In most cases, however, the work and lives of these people did not exist in two distinct cultural spheres but rather in one that incorporated elements of both. This person had one Jewish parent and one non-Jewish parent, and therefore exemplified this phenomenon ''par excellence''.</ref>), [[Bauhaus]] ([[Mordecai Ardon]], [[László Moholy-Nagy]]), [[Constructivism (art)|Constructivism]] ([[Boris Aronson]], [[El Lissitzky]]), [[Cubism]] ([[Nathan Altman]], [[Jacques Lipchitz]], [[Louis Marcoussis]], [[Max Weber (artist)|Max Weber]], [[Ossip Zadkine]]<ref name="half"/>), [[Expressionism]] ([[Erich Kahn]], [[Jack Levine]], [[Jules Pascin]],<ref name="half"/> [[Chaim Soutine]]), [[Impressionism (art)|Impressionism]] ([[Max Liebermann]], [[Leonid Pasternak]], [[Camille Pissarro]]<ref name="half"/>), [[Minimalism]] ([[Richard Serra]]<ref name="half"/>), [[Orphism]] ([[Sonia Delaunay]]), [[Realism (arts)|Realism]] ([[Raphael Soyer]]), [[Social Realism]] ([[Leon Bibel]], [[Ben Shahn]], [[Raphael Soyer]]), [[Surrealism (art)|Surrealism]] ([[Victor Brauner]], [[Marc Chagall]], [[Méret Oppenheim]] and [[Man Ray]]), the [[Vienna School of Fantastic Realism]] ([[Arik Brauer]], [[Ernst Fuchs (artist)|Ernst Fuchs]]<ref name="half"/>) and [[Vorticism]] ([[David Bomberg]], [[Jacob Epstein]]), as well as some not necessarily affiliated with a single movement ([[Balthus]],<ref name="half"/> [[Eduard Bendemann]], [[Mark Gertler]], [[Maurycy Gottlieb]], [[Nahum Gutman]], [[Menashe Kadishman]], [[Moise Kisling]], [[R. B. Kitaj]], [[Mane-Katz]], [[Isidor Kaufman]], [[Michel Kikoine]], [[Pinchus Kremegne]], [[Amedeo Modigliani]], [[Elie Nadelman]], [[Felix Nussbaum]], [[Charlotte Salomon]], [[Boris Schatz]], [[George Segal (artist)|George Segal]], [[Anna Ticho]], [[William Rothenstein]])— and have been particularly prominent in the post-World War II United States and UK— [[Lucian Freud]], [[Frank Auerbach]], the [[pop art]]ist [[Roy Lichtenstein]], and [[Judy Chicago]]. During the early 20th century Jews figured particularly prominently in the [[Montparnasse]] movement, and after [[World War II]] among the [[abstract expressionism|abstract expressionists]]: [[Helen Frankenthaler]], [[Adolph Gottlieb]], [[Philip Guston]], [[Al Held]], [[Franz Kline]], [[Lee Krasner]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[Milton Resnick]], [[Mark Rothko]], and [[Louis Schanker]] as well as the [[Postmodern art|Postmodernists]].<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/artists.html Jewish Artists], Jewish Virtual Library, 2005. Accessed 12 February 2006.</ref> Many [[History of the Jews in Russia|Russian Jews]] were prominent in the art of [[scenic design]], particularly the aforementioned Chagall and Aronson, as well as the revolutionary [[Léon Bakst]], who like the other two also painted. One [[List of Mexican Jews|Mexican Jewish]] artist was [[Pedro Friedeberg]]; it was once thought the [[Frida Kahlo|Frida Kahlo's]] father was Jewish, but historians have determined that he was not. [[Gustav Klimt]] was not Jewish, but nearly all of his patrons and several of his models were. Among major artists Chagall may be the most specifically Jewish in his themes. But as art fades into [[graphic design]], Jewish names and themes become more prominent: [[Leonard Baskin]], [[Al Hirschfeld]], [[Ben Shahn]], [[Art Spiegelman]] and [[Saul Steinberg]]. And in the [[golden age of comics|Golden]] and [[silver age of comics|Silver ages]] of American comic books, the Jewish role was overwhelming: [[Joe Shuster]] and [[Jerry Siegel]], creators of ''[[Superman]]'', were Jewish, as were [[Bob Kane]] (''né'' Robert Cohen), [[Will Eisner]], [[Martin Goodman (publisher)|Martin Goodman]], [[Joe Simon]], [[Jack Kirby]], and [[Stan Lee]] of [[Marvel Comics]]; and [[William Gaines]] and [[Harvey Kurtzman]], founders of ''[[Mad (magazine)|Mad]]'', to name only a small sample. Many of those involved in the later ages of comics are also Jewish, such as [[Julius Schwartz]], [[Jenette Kahn]], [[Len Wein]], [[Peter David]], [[Neil Gaiman]], and [[Brian Michael Bendis]]. ==Food== {{main|Jewish cuisine}} [[Image:Paris marais magasin juif.jpg|thumb|right|Jewish shop ([[Le Marais]], [[Paris]])]] Jewish [[cooking]] combines the food of many cultures in which Jews have traveled, including Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, Spanish, German and Eastern European styles of cooking, all influenced by the need for food to be [[kosher]]. Thus, "Jewish" foods like [[hummus]], [[stuffed cabbage]], and [[blintz]]es all come from various other cultures. The amalgam of these foods, plus uniquely Jewish contributions like [[bagels]], [[tzimmis]], [[cholent]], [[gefilte fish]] and [[matzah balls]], make up Jewish cuisine. ==See also== * [[Culture of Israel]] *[[Israeli hip hop]] *[[Humanistic Judaism]] *[[The Holocaust in art and literature]] ==Notes and references== <!-- How to add a footnote: NOTE: There is a new reference system on Wikipedia, which should be easier to use. For details, please see "Wikipedia:Footnotes" and http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cite.php--> <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> <references/> </div> ==References== * The section on banking is drawn largely from the article [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=58&letter=U "Usury"] in the [[public domain]] ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]'' (1901–1906). The citation of Théodore Reinach is theirs. * Măciucă, Constantin, preface to [[Israil Bercovici|Bercovici, Israil]], ''O sută de ani de teatru evriesc în România'' ("One hundred years of Yiddish/Jewish theater in Romania"), 2nd Romanian-language edition, revised and augmented by Constantin Măciucă. Editura Integral (an imprint of Editurile Universala), Bucharest (1998). ISBN 973-98272-2-5. ''See the [[Israil Bercovici|article on the author]] for further information.'' * Johnson, Paul (1987). ''A History of the Jews''. New York: Harper Perennial. * Landa, M.J. (1926). ''The Jew in Drama''. New York: Ktav Publishing House (1969). * Melamed, S.M., "The Yiddish Stage", ''New York Times'', [[September 27]], [[1925]] (X2) ==External links== *[http://www.csjo.org/ Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations] *[http://www.jewishmuseum.info/ Global Directory of Jewish Museums] {{Jews and Judaism}} [[Category:Jewish history]] [[Category:Jewish political status]] [[Category:Secular Jewish culture| ]] [[de:Jüdische Kultur]] [[id:Kebudayaan Yahudi]] [[he:יהדות כתרבות]] [[ms:Budaya Yahudi sekular]] [[pt:Cultura judaica]] [[ru:Литература на иврите]] [[ta:யூத பண்பாடு]]