Sephardi Jews
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{{Infobox Ethnic group
|image = <div style="margin-top:1px; margin-bottom:1px;">[[Image:Sephardi Jews - mosaic.PNG|300px]]<div style="background-color:#fee8ab"><small><small>
1<sup>st</sup> row: [[Maimonides]]•[[Isaac Abrabanel]]•[[Baruch Spinoza]]•[[David Nieto]]•[[Daniel Mendoza]]•[[David Ricardo]]<br>
2<sup>nd</sup> row: [[Moses Montefiore]]•[[Benjamin Disraeli]]•[[Sabato Morais]]•[[Emma Lazarus]]•[[Benjamin N. Cardozo|Benjamin Cardozo]]•[[David de Sola Pool]]<br>
3<sup>rd</sup> row: [[Basil Henriques]]•[[Pierre Mendès-France]]•[[Sam Costa]]•[[Jacques Derrida]]•[[Shlomo Amar]]•[[Hank Azaria]]</small></small>
|group = Sephardi Jews <br> יהדות ספרד (''Yahadut Sfarad'')
|poptime = '''Sephardi Jews'''<br>'''1.5 - 2.0 million (estimate)'''<br><small>up to 20% of the total 'Jewish World' population
|popplace =
|region1 = {{flagcountry|Israel}}
|pop1 = 673,000-725,000
|region2 = {{flagcountry|France}}
|pop2 = 310,000-350,000
|region3 = {{flagcountry|United States}}
|pop3 = 50,000-80,000
|region4 = {{flagcountry|Argentina}}
|pop4 = 37,500-60,000
|region5 = {{flagcountry|Canada}}
|pop5 = 30,000-60,000
|region6 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}}
|pop6 = 20,000-60,000
|region7 = {{flagcountry|Turkey}}
|pop7 = 25,000-30,000
|region8 = {{flagcountry|Spain}}
|pop8 = 12,000
|region9 = {{flagcountry|Greece}}
|pop9 = > 8,500
|region10 = {{flagcountry|Morocco}}
|pop10 = 5,500
|region11 = {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}}
|pop11 = 5,000
|region12 = {{flagcountry|Colombia}}
|pop12 = <5,000
|region13 = {{flagcountry|Cuba}}
|pop13 = 3,500
|region14 = {{flagcountry|Tunisia}}
|pop14 = 2000
|region15 = {{flagcountry|Guatemala}}
|pop15 = 1,200
|region16 = {{flagcountry|Paraguay}}
|pop16 = 1,000
|region17 = {{flagcountry|Netherlands}}
|pop17 = 1,000
|region18 = {{flagcountry|Portugal}}
|pop18 = 500
|region19 = {{flagcountry|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
|pop19 = 500
|region20 = {{flagcountry|Republic of Macedonia}}
|pop20 = 200
|region21 = {{flagcountry|Egypt}}
|pop21 = unknown
|region22 = {{flagcountry|Italy}}
|pop22 = unknown
|region23 = {{flagcountry|Mexico}}
|pop23 = 40,000
|region24 = {{flagcountry|Venezuela}}
|pop24 = 35,375
|langs = [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Judeo-Portuguese]], [[Catalanic]], [[Shuadit]], local languages
|rels = [[Judaism]]
|related-c =
[[Ashkenazi Jews]], [[Mizrahi Jews]], other [[Jewish ethnic divisions]], [[Arabs]], [[Spaniards]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]].
}}
'''Sephardi Jews''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''ספרדי''', <small>[[Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew|Standard]]</small> ''{{unicode|Səfardi}}'' <small>[[Tiberian vocalization|Tiberian]]</small> ''{{unicode|Səp̄arədî}}''; plural '''ספרדים''', <small>[[Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew|Standard]]</small> ''{{unicode|Səfaradim}}'' <small>[[Tiberian vocalization|Tiberian]]</small> ''{{unicode|Səp̄arədîm}}''; [[Spanish language|Spanish]] '''{{unicode|Sefardí}}''') are a subgroup of [[Jew]]s originating in the [[Iberian Peninsula]], usually defined in contrast to [[Ashkenazi Jews]].
==Definition==
A '''Sephardi''', for the purposes of this article, is a [[Jew]] originating in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] (modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]), including the descendants of those who were ordered to leave [[Spain]] when the [[Catholic Monarchs]] [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] and [[Isabella of Castile|Isabella]] reclaimed Spain from the [[Moors]] who had invaded Spain in 711 CE. (Finkelstein, p. 13) Deportation orders (are codified in the [[Alhambra decree]] of 1492), or from [[Portugal]] by order of King [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] in 1497. In modern times, the term has also been applied to Jews who may not have been born Sephardi (or even Jewish) but attend Sephardic temples and practice Sephardic traditions. Today there are around 12,000 Jewish people in [[Spain]] and 500 in [[Portugal]].<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html 2006 Jewish statistics around the world]</ref>
The name comes from [[Sepharad]] ({{Hebrew Name|ספרד|Səfárad|Səp̄áraḏ / Səp̄āraḏ||nobold}} ; [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Sefarad''), a Biblical location.<ref>[[Obadiah]], [http://bible.cc/obadiah/1-20.htm 1-20]: ''And the captivity of this host of the children of Israel shall possess that of the [[Canaan]]ites, even unto [[Zarephath]]; and the captivity of Jerusalem, which is in Sepharad, shall possess the cities of the south''. ([[KJV]])</ref> This was probably the "Saparda" mentioned in Persian inscriptions: the location of that is disputed, but may have been [[Sardis]] in Asia Minor. "Sepharad" was identified by later Jews as the [[Iberian Peninsula]], and still means "Spain" in [[Hebrew Language#Modern Hebrew|modern Hebrew]].
In a broader sense, the term ''Sephardim'' has frequently come to include any Jews of Arabic and Persian background, though many prefer the term [[Mizrahi Jews]] for these. Such Jews may have no historical connection to Iberia except their use of a [[Sephardic Judaism|Sephardic]] style of [[liturgy]], or they may have no historical connection to Iberia at all. For religious purposes, Jews of the former type of community are called "Sephardim", meaning not "Spanish Jews" but "Jews of the Spanish rite". (In the same way, ''[[Ashkenazi]]m'' means "Jews of the German rite", whether or not their families actually originate in Germany.) In the vernacular of modern-day Jews in [[Israel]] and worldwide, especially many Ashkenazi Jews, "Sephardi" has come to be used as an umbrella term for any Jewish person who is not [[Ashkenazi]]. Ashkenazim are descendants of Jews from [[Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Austria]] and [[Eastern Europe]], and have constituted the bulk of the world's Jewish population for several generations. While Sephardi Jews comprise the second most populous group, the Ashkenazic-Sephardic dichotomy should not be considered exhaustive, and many distinct communities of Jews hail from African, Middle Eastern, Indian or other backgrounds.
This article is mostly concerned with Sephardim in the narrower ethnic sense, rather than in this broader [[Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew|Modern Israeli Hebrew]] definition. ''See also:'' '''[[Jewish ethnic divisions]]'''
The term ''Sephardi'' can also describe the ''[[nusach]]'' ([[Hebrew language]], "liturgical tradition") used by Sephardi Jews in their [[Siddur]] (prayer book). A ''nusach'' is defined by a liturgical tradition's choice of prayers, order of prayers, text of prayers and melodies used in the singing of prayers. Sephardim traditionally pray using Minhag Sefarad, which is quite similar to [[Nusach#Sephardi and Mizrahi Nuschaot|Nusach Edot haMizrach]] (liturgy of the Eastern Congregations). For more details of the Sephardic liturgy see '''[[Sephardic Judaism]]'''.''
''Note that the term ''[[Nusach Sefard]]'' or ''Nusach Sfarad'' does not refer to the liturgy generally recited by Sephardim, but rather to an alternative Eastern European liturgy used by many [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidim]].''
==Divisions==
Historically, Sephardim are those Jews associated with the [[Iberian peninsula]].
*The most prominent sub-group consists of the descendants of the Jews expelled from Spain in 1492, who settled in various parts of the [[Ottoman Empire]], in particular [[Thessaloniki|Salonica]] and [[Istanbul]], and whose traditional language is [[Ladino language|Ladino]]. Jews from these communities are sometimes known as "Judaeo-Spanish" or ''Spanyolim''.
*Another branch settled in Northern Morocco, and spoke a variant of [[Ladino language|Ladino]] known as ''[[Haketia]]''.<!-- Most Sephardic [[Jews]], especially those from [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], carry the tradition that they are the direct descendants of [[Pharez]] the son of [[Judah (biblical figure)]].--><!--Can we get a citation for that?-->
*A third sub-group, known as [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews]], consists of Jews whose families remained in Spain and Portugal as ostensible Christians, and later reverted to Judaism in Italy, the Netherlands, England or the New World, particularly Mexico, the Caribbean, and South America.
A variety of non-Ashkenazi Jewish groups are regarded as "Sephardim" for religious purposes, and are so identified in modern Israel, including most Jews of Arabic or Persian backgrounds. The justification for this is that most of these communities (with some exceptions such as the [[Yemenite Jews|Yemenites]]) use the same religious ritual as the Sephardim proper and, like them, base their religious law on the [[Shulchan Aruch]] without the glosses of [[Moses Isserles]].
This nomenclature is often perceived as unsatisfactory, and a variety of other terms have been coined. For example, Jews of Arabic-speaking backgrounds are sometimes referred to as ''[[Musta'arabim]]'' or "[[Arab Jews]]", though for political reasons this last description is disputed. A term in common use for all Jewish communities historically associated with [[Africa]] and [[Asia]] and not of Spanish descent is [[Mizrahi Jews]], which in Hebrew means "Orientals". This is sometimes found confusing because it appears to include the Moroccans, whereas in Arabic the equivalent term (''[[Mashriq]]iyyun'') specifically denotes the inhabitants of the [[Near East]] as opposed to those of [[North Africa]] (''[[Maghreb|Maghrab]]iyyun''). In current use, [[Mizrahi Jews]] is a convenient way to refer collectively to a wide range of Jewish communities, most of which are as unrelated to each other as they are to either the Sephardi (in the narrower sense) or Ashkenazi communities. They include in particular the communities living in, or coming from, [[Arabia|Southern Arabia]] ([[Yemen]]), [[North Africa]], [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Iraq]]), [[Syria]], [[Persia]] ([[Iran]]) and [[India]].
== Distribution ==
Prior to 1492, substantial Jewish populations existed in most Spanish provinces. Among the more prominent were in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and [[Granada]]. Smaller towns such as Ocaña, Guadalajara, Bentrago, and Almazan were founded or inhabited principally by Jews. [[Castile (historical region)|Castile]], [[Aranda]], [[Ávila]], [[Calahorra]], [[Cuellar]], [[Herrera]], [[Medina]], [[Segovia]], [[Soria]], and [[Villalon]] were home to large Jewish communities. [[Aragon]] and [[Catalonia]] had substantial Jewish communities in the famous Calls of [[Girona]], [[Barcelona]], [[Tarragona]], [[Valencia (city in Spain)|Valencia]] and [[Palma de Mallorca]].
Following the 1492 [[Alhambra decree|expulsion]] from [[Spain]], and the subsequent expulsions in [[Portugal]] (1497), these Jews, the nascent Sephardim, settled mainly in [[Morocco]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] (modern-day [[Turkey]], [[Greece]], [[Southwest Asia]], [[North Africa]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]), southern [[France]], [[Italy]], Spanish [[North America]], ([[Southwest United States]] and [[Mexico]]), Spanish [[South America]] and [[the Philippines]] and Portuguese [[Brazil]], as well as the [[Netherlands]] (whence a number of families continued on to the former Dutch possessions of [[Curaçao]], [[Suriname]] and [[Aruba]]), [[England]], [[Germany]], [[Denmark]], [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]].
As a result of the [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]], many of the Sephardim from the [[Middle East]] relocated to either [[Israel]] or [[France]], where they form a significant portion of the Jewish communities today. Other significant communities also exist in [[New York City]] and [[Montreal]], [[Canada]].
== Language ==
The traditional language of the majority of Sephardim is [[Jewish languages|Judeo]]-[[Spanish language|Spanish]], also called ''[[Ladino language|Ladino]]''. It is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]] derived mainly from Old [[Castilian language|Castilian]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]), with many borrowings from Turkish, and to a lesser extent from Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, and French.
Until recently, two different dialects of Judeo-Spanish were spoken in the Mediterranean region: Eastern Judeo-Spanish (in various distinctive regional variations) and Western or North African Judeo-Spanish (also known as [[Haketia|{{Unicode|Ḥ}}akitía]]), once spoken, with little regional distinction, in six towns in Northern Morocco and, because of later emigration, also in Ceuta and Melilla (Spanish cities in North Africa), Gibraltar (Great Britain´s colony), Casablanca (Morocco), and Oran (Algeria).
The Eastern dialect is typified by its greater conservatism, its retention of numerous Old Spanish features in phonology, morphology, and lexicon, and its numerous borrowings from Turkish and, to a lesser extent, also from Greek and South Slavic. Both dialects have (or had) numerous borrowings from Hebrew, especially in reference to religious matters, but the number of [[Hebraism]]s in everyday speech or writing is in no way comparable to that found in [[Yiddish]].
The North African dialect was, until the early 20th century, also highly conservative; its abundant Colloquial Arabic loan words retained most of the Arabic phonemes as functional components of a new, enriched Hispano-Semitic phonological system. During the Spanish colonial occupation of Northern Morocco (1912-1956), {{Unicode|Ḥ}}akitía was subjected to pervasive, massive influence from Modern Standard Spanish and most Moroccan Jews now speak a colloquial, Andalusian form of Spanish, with only an occasional use of the old language as a sign of in-group solidarity, somewhat as American Jews may now use an occasional Yiddishism in colloquial speech. Except for certain younger individuals, who continue to practice {{Unicode|Ḥ}}akitía as a matter of cultural pride, this splendid dialect—the most Arabized of the Romance languages—has essentially ceased to exist.
Eastern Judeo-Spanish has fared somewhat better, especially in Israel, where newspapers, radio broadcasts, and elementary school and university programs strive to keep the language alive. But the old regional variations (Bosnia, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Rumania, Greece, Turkey, for instance) are already either extinct or doomed to extinction. The best we can perhaps hope for is that a Judeo-Spanish koiné, now evolving in Israel—similar to that which developed among Sephardic immigrants to the United States early in the 20th century—may somehow prevail and survive into the next generation.<ref>Samuel G. Armistead, "Oral Literature of the Sephardic Jews," [http://www.sephardifolklit.org/flsj/sjjs/orallit/Oral_Lit_Sephardic.html] </ref>
[[Judeo-Portuguese]] ([[Lusitanic]]) has been conserved by the [[crypto-Judaism|crypto-Jewish]] [[marrano]]s of [[Portugal]] and [[Brazil]] and is still spoken by a few of them.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} It is also spoken by Sephardim still remaining in [[Turkey]] and amongst the Sephardi immigrants of Israel of [[Portuguese People|Portuguese]] and [[Brazilian people|Brazilian]] descent.
[[Judeo-Portuguese]] has also been used by Sephardim — especially among the [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews]] of Western Europe. The [[Portuguese Pidgin|pidgin forms of Portuguese]] spoken among slaves and their Sephardic owners were an influence in the development of [[Papiamento]] and the Creole [[Suriname#Demographics|languages of Suriname]].
Other Romance languages with Jewish forms, spoken historically by Sephardim, include [[Judæo-Aragonese]], and [[Catalanic]] (Judæo-[[Catalan language|Catalan]]).
Other languages associated with Sephardic Jews are mostly extinct, ''i.e.'', formerly spoken by some Sephardic communities in Italy. [[Low German]], formerly used as the vernacular by Sephardim around [[Hamburg]] and [[Altona]] in Northern [[Germany]], is also no longer in use as a specifically Jewish [[vernacular]].
==History==
{{main|History of the Jews in Spain|History of the Jews in Portugal}}
===Early history===
The precise origins of the Jewish communities of the Iberian peninsula are unclear. There is fragmentary and inconclusive evidence of a Jewish presence on the Iberian Peninsula dating from pre-Roman times. More substantial references date from the period of Roman occupation.
Evidence which suggests Jewish connections with the Iberian Peninsula includes:
*References in the books of ''[[Book of Isiah|Isaiah]]'', ''[[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]'', ''[[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]'', ''[[First Book of Kings|I Kings]]'', and ''[[Book of Jonah|Jonah]]'' to the country of [[Tarshish]], which is thought by many to have been located in modern southern Spain (in ancient [[Tartessus]]).
*A [[Seal (device)|signet ring]] found at [[Cadiz]], dating from the [[8th century BCE|8th]]-[[7th century BCE]]. The inscription on the ring, generally accepted as [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]], has been interpreted by a few scholars to be "paleo-[[Hebrew language|hebraic]].”
*An [[amphora]] dating from at least the [[1st century|first century CE]] found in [[Ibiza]], which bears imprints of two Hebrew characters.
*Several early Jewish writers wrote that their families had lived in Spain since the destruction of the first temple. The famous Don [[Isaac Abravanel]] (1407-1508) stated that the [[Abravanel]] family had lived on the [[Iberian Peninsula]] for 2,000 years.
It is thought that substantial Jewish immigration probably occurred during the period of Roman occupation of [[Hispania]]. The province came under Roman control with the fall of [[Carthage]] after the [[Second Punic War]] (218-202 BCE). Exactly how soon after this time Jews made their way onto the scene in this context is a matter of speculation. It is within the realm of possibility that they went there under the Romans as free men to take advantage of its rich resources.
Although the spread of Jews into Europe is most commonly associated with the [[Diaspora]] which ensued from the Roman conquest of [[Judea]], emigration from Judea into the greater Roman Mediterranean area antedated the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|destruction of Jerusalem]] at the hands of the Romans under [[Titus]]. Any Jews already in Hispania at this time would have been joined by those who had been enslaved by the Romans under [[Vespasian]] and [[Titus]], and dispersed to the extreme west during the period of the [[First Jewish-Roman War|Jewish Wars]], and especially after the defeat of Judea in [[70|70 CE]] One account placed the number carried off to Hispania at 80,000. Subsequent immigrations came into the area along both the northern African and southern European sides of the Mediterranean.
Among the earliest records which may refer specifically to Jews in the Iberian peninsula during the Roman period is [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]'s [[Epistle to the Romans]]. Many{{Who|date=October 2007}} have taken Paul's intention to go to Hispania to preach the [[gospel]] (Romans 15:24, 28) to indicate the presence of Jewish communities there, as well as the fact that [[Herod Antipas]]'s banishment by [[Caligula]] in [[39|39 CE]] may have been to Hispania.<ref>[[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]], ''[[The Wars of the Jews|Wars of the Jews]]'', 2.9.6. However, the place of banishment is identified in Josephus's ''[[Jewish Antiquities|Antiquities of the Jews]]'' as [[Gaul]]; for discussion, see {{cite book |author=Emil Schürer |authorlink=Emil Schürer |others=revised and edited by [[Geza Vermes]], [[Fergus Millar]] and Matthew Black |title=The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ: Volume I |edition=revised English edition |year=1973 |publisher=T&T Clark |location=Edinburgh |isbn=0-567-02242-0 |pages=352 n. 41 }}</ref>
From a slightly later period, ''[[Midrash|Midrash Rabbah]], Leviticus'' 29.2 makes reference to the return of the Diaspora from Hispania by [[165|165 CE]]
Perhaps the most direct and substantial of early references are the several [[decrees]] of the [[Council of Elvira]], convened in the early fourth century, which address proper Christian behavior with regard to the Jews of Hispania.
As citizens of the Roman Empire, the Jews of Hispania engaged in a variety of occupations, including agriculture. Until the adoption of Christianity, Jews had close relations with non-Jewish populations, and played an active role in the social and economic life of the province. The [[edicts]] of the [[Synod of Elvira]], provide evidence of Jews who were integrated enough into the greater community to cause alarm among some: of the Council's 80 [[Canon law|canonic]] decisions, all which pertain to Jews served to maintain a separation between the two communities. It seems that by this time the presence of Jews was of greater concern to christian authorities than the presence of pagans; Canon 16, which prohibited marriage of christians with Jews, was worded more strongly than canon 15, which prohibited marriage with pagans. Canon 78 threatens Christians who commit adultery with Jews with [[ostracism]]. Canon 48 forbade the blessing of christian crops by jews, and canon 50 forbade the sharing of meals by Christians and Jews.
Yet in comparison to Jewish life in [[Byzantium]] and [[Italia (Roman province)|Italy]], life for the early Jews in Hispania and the rest of western Europe was relatively tolerable. This is due in large measure to the difficulty which the Church had in establishing itself in its western frontier. In the west, [[Germanic tribes]] such as the [[Suevi]], the [[Vandals]], and especially the [[Visigoths]] had more or less disrupted the political and [[ecclesiastical]] systems of the Roman empire, and for several centuries western Jews enjoyed a degree of peace which their brethren to the east did not.
[[Germanic Wars|Barbarian invasions]] brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under [[Visigothic]] rule by the early fifth century. Other than in their contempt for Orthodox Christians, who reminded them of the Romans and also because they were [[Arianism|Arians]], the Visigoths did not generally take much of an interest in the religious creeds within their kingdom. It was not until 506, when [[Alaric II]] (484-507) published his ''Brevarium Alaricianum'' ([[Breviary of Alaric]]) (wherein he adopted the laws of the ousted Romans), that a Visigothic king concerned himself with the Jews.
The situation of the Jews changed after the conversion of the Visigothic royal family under [[Recared]] from Arianism to Christianism in 587. In their desire to consolidate the realm under the new religion, the Visigoths adopted an aggressive policy towards Jews. As the king and the church acted in a single interest, the Jews' situation deteriorated. Under successive Visigothic kings and under [[ecclesiastical]] authority, many orders of expulsion, forced conversion, isolation, enslavement, execution, and other punitive measures were made. By 612 - 621 CE, the situation for Jews became intolerable and many left Spain for nearby northern Africa. In 711 CE, thousands of Jews from North Africa accompanied the Moslems who invaded Spain, subsuming Catholic Spain and turning much of it into an Arab state, Al-Andalus. (N.H.Finkelstein, p. 13, 14)
The Jews of Hispania had been utterly embittered and alienated by Catholic rule by the time of the [[Al-Andalus|Muslim invasion]]. To them, the [[Moors]] were perceived as, and indeed were, a liberating force. Wherever they went, the Muslims were greeted by Jews eager to aid them in administering the country. In many conquered towns the garrison was left in the hands of the Jews before the Muslims proceeded further north. Thus were initiated the two centuries of Muslim rule in the Iberian peninsula which became known as the "Golden Age" of Sephardi Jewry.
===Sephardim under Islam===
:''See also [[Al-Andalus]]; [[Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula]]; [[Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula]]
With the victory of [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]] in 711, the lives of the Sephardim changed dramatically. In spite of the stigma attached to being ''[[dhimmis]]'' (non-Muslim members of monotheistic faiths), the coming of the Moors was by-and-large welcomed by the Jews of Iberia.
Both Muslim and Christian sources tell us that Jews provided valuable aid to the invaders. Once captured, the defense of Cordoba was left in the hands of Jews, and [[Granada]], [[Málaga|Malaga]], [[Seville]], and [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] were left to a mixed army of Jews and Moors. Although in some towns Jews may have been helpful to Muslim success, they were of limited impact overall. However it was frequently claimed by Christians in later centuries that the fall of Iberia was due in large part to Jewish [[perfidy]].
In spite of the restrictions placed upon the Jews as ''dhimmis'', life under Muslim rule was one of great opportunity and Jews flourished as they did not under prior Christian Visigoths. Many Jews came to Iberia, seen as a land of tolerance and opportunity, from the Christian and Muslim worlds. Following initial Arab victories, and especially with the establishment of [[Umayyad]] rule by [[Abd-ar-rahman I|Abd al-Rahman I]] in 755, the native Jewish community was joined by Jews from the rest of Europe, as well as from Arab lands, from Morocco to [[Babylon]]. Thus the Sephardim found themselves enriched culturally, intellectually, and religiously by the commingling of diverse Jewish traditions.
Arabic culture, of course, also made a lasting impact on Sephardic cultural development. General re-evaluation of [[scripture]] was prompted by Muslim anti-Jewish [[polemics]] and the spread of [[rationalism]], as well as the anti-[[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbanite]] polemics of [[Karaite]] [[sectarianism]] (which was inspired by various Muslim schismatic movements). The cultural and intellectual achievements of the Arabs, and much of the scientific and philosophical speculation of [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek culture]], which had been best preserved by Arab scholars, was made available to the educated Jew. The meticulous regard which the Arabs had for grammar and style also had the effect of stimulating an interest in [[philology|philological]] matters in general among Jews. Arabic came to be the main language of Sephardic science, philosophy, and everyday business, as had been the case with Babylonian ''[[geonim]]''. This thorough adoption of the Arabic language also greatly facilitated the assimilation of Jews into Moorish culture, and Jewish activity in a variety of professions, including medicine, commerce, finance, and agriculture increased.
By the ninth century, some members of the Sephardic community felt confident enough to take part in [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] amongst Christians. Most famous were the heated correspondences sent between [[Bishop Bodo|Bodo Eleazar]], a former Christian [[deacon]] who had converted to Judaism in 838, and the [[Bishop]] of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] [[Pablo Alvaro|Paulus Albarus]], who had converted from Judaism to Christianity. Each man, using such [[epithets]] as "wretched compiler", tried to convince the other to return to his former faith, to no avail.
The Golden Age is most closely identified with the reign of [[Abd al-Rahman III]] (882-942), the first independent [[Caliph of Cordoba]], and in particular with the career of his Jewish councilor, [[Hasdai ibn Shaprut]] (882-942). Within this context of cultural [[patronage]], studies in Hebrew, literature, and linguistics flourished.
Hasdai benefitted world Jewry not only indirectly by creating a favorable environment for scholarly pursuits within Iberia, but also by using his influence to intervene on behalf of foreign Jews: in his letter to [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Princess Helena, he requested protection for the Jews under Byzantine rule, attesting to the fair treatment of the Christians of ''al-Andalus'', and perhaps indicating that such was contingent on the treatment of Jews abroad.
One notable contribution to Christian intellectualism is [[Ibn Gabirol]]'s [[Neo-Platonism|neo-Platonic]] ''Fons Vitae'' ("The Source of Life;" "Mekor Hayyim"). Thought by many to have been written by a Christian, this work was admired by Christians and studied in monasteries throughout the Middle Ages, though the work of Solomon Munk in the 19th century proved that the author of ''Fons Vitae'' was the Jewish ibn Gabirol.[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=I&artid=17]
In addition to contributions of original work, the Sephardim were active as translators. Texts were translated between Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, and Latin. In translating the great works of Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek into Latin, Iberian Jews were instrumental in bringing the fields of science and philosophy, which formed much of the basis of [[Renaissance]] learning, into the rest of Europe.
In the early [[11th century]] centralized authority based at Cordoba broke down following the [[Berber people|Berber]] invasion and the ousting of the Umayyads. In its stead arose the independent ''[[taifa]]'' principalities under the rule of local Arab, Berber, or [[Slavic peoples|Slavonic]] leaders. Rather than having a stifling effect, the disintegration of the caliphate expanded the opportunities to Jewish and other professionals. The services of Jewish scientists, doctors, traders, poets, and scholars were generally valued by Christian and Muslim rulers of regional centers, especially as order was restored in recently conquered towns. Rabbi [[Samuel ha-Nagid]] (ibn Naghrela) was the Vizier of [[Granada]]. He was succeeded by his son [[Joseph ibn Naghrela]] who was slain by an incited mob along with most of the Jewish community. The remnant fled to [[Lucena]].
The decline of the Golden Age began before the completion of the Christian ''[[Reconquista]]'', with the penetration and influence of the [[Almoravides]], and then the [[Almohad]]s, from North Africa. These fundamentalist sects abhorred the liberality of the Islamic culture of ''al-Andalus'', including the position of authority which some ''dhimmis'' held over Muslims. When the Almohads gave the Jews a choice of either death or conversion to Islam, many Jews emigrated. Some, such the family of [[Maimonides]], fled south and east to the more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.
Meanwhile the ''Reconquista'' continued in the north throughout the 12th century. As various Arab lands fell to the Christians, conditions for some Jews in the emerging Christian kingdoms became increasingly favorable. As had happened during the reconstruction of towns following the breakdown of authority under the Umayyads, the services of Jews were employed by the victorious Christian leaders. Sephardic knowledge of the language and culture of the enemy, their skills as diplomats and professionals, as well as their desire for relief from intolerable conditions - the very same reasons that they had proved useful to the Arabs in the early stages of the Muslim invasion - made their services very valuable.
However, the Jews from the Muslim south were not entirely secure in their northward migrations. Old prejudices were compounded by newer ones. Suspicions of complicity with the Muslims were alive and well as Jews immigrated, speaking Arabic. However, many of the newly-arrived Jews of the north prospered during the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. The majority of Latin documentation regarding Jews during this period refers to their landed property, fields, and vineyards.
In many ways life had come full circle for the Sephardim of ''al-Andalus''. As conditions became more oppressive during the 12th and [[13th century|13th centuries]], Jews again looked to an outside culture for relief. Christian leaders of reconquered cities granted them extensive autonomy, and Jewish scholarship recovered somewhat and developed as communities grew in size and importance. However, the Reconquista Jews never reached the same heights as had those of the Golden Age.
=== Later history and culture ===
{{Jews and Judaism (sidebar)}}
Among the Sephardim were many who were the descendants, or heads, of wealthy families and who, as ''[[Marranos]]'', had occupied prominent positions in the countries they had left. Some had been state officials, others had held positions of dignity within the Church; many had been the heads of large banking-houses and mercantile establishments, and some were physicians or scholars who had officiated as teachers in high schools.
Their [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] was a [[lingua franca]] that enabled Sephardim from different countries to engage in commerce and diplomacy.
The Sephardim rarely engaged in [[finance]] (also called ''chaffering'') occupations nor in [[usury]] {{Fact|date=May 2008}}, and they did not often mingle with lower [[social class]]es. With their social equals they associated freely, without regard to [[religion]] and more likely with regard to equivalent or comparative education, for they were generally well read<ref>{{cite 1632|long=1|pp= various|}}</ref> which became a tradition and expectation. They were received at the courts of sultans, kings, and princes, and often were employed as ambassadors, envoys, or agents. The number of Sephardim who have rendered important services to different countries is considerable, from [[Samuel Abravanel]] (or "Abrabanel" — financial councilor to the viceroy of [[Naples]]) to [[Benjamin Disraeli]]. Among other names mentioned are those of [[Belmonte]], [[Joseph Nasi|Nasi]], [[Francisco Pacheco]], [[Pedro de Herrera]], [[Palache]], [[Pimentel]], [[Azevedo]], [[Sasportas]], [[Salvador]], [[Costa (surname)|Costa]], [[Curiel]], [[Cansino]], [[Schonenberg]], [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], [[Toledano]], [[Pereira (surname)|Pereira]] and [[Teixeira]].
The Sephardim have distinguished themselves as physicians and statesmen, and have won the favor of rulers and princes, in both the Christian and the Islamic world. That the Sephardim were selected for prominent positions in every country in which they settled was only in part due to the fact that Spanish had become a world-language through the expansion of Spain into the world spanning Spanish Empire—the cosmopolitan cultural background after long associations with Islamic scholars of the Sephardic families also made them extremely well educated for the [[historical era|times]], even well into the [[Age of Enlightenment|European Enlightenment]].
For a long time the Sephardim took an active part in [[Spanish literature]]; they wrote in prose and in rhyme, and were the authors of theological, philosophical, [[Wiktionary:belletristic|belletristic]] (aesthetic rather than content based writing), pedagogic (teaching), and mathematical works. The rabbis, who, in common with all the Sephardim, emphasized a pure and euphonious pronunciation of Hebrew, delivered their sermons in Spanish or in Portuguese. Several of these sermons have appeared in print. Their thirst for knowledge, together with the fact that they associated freely with the outer world, led the Sephardim to establish new educational systems wherever they settled; they founded schools in which the [[Spanish language]] was the medium of instruction.
Theatre in Istanbul was in Judæo-Spanish since it was forbidden to Muslims.
In Portugal the Sephardim were given important roles in the sociopolitical sphere and enjoyed a certain amount of protection from the Crown (e.g. [[Yahia Ben Yahia]], first "Rabino Maior" of Portugal and supervisor of the public revenue of the first King of Portugal, [[Don (honorific)|D.]] [[Afonso Henriques]]). Even with the increasing pressure from the Catholic Church this state of affairs remained more or less constant and the number of Jews in Portugal grew with those running from Spain. This changed with the marriage of D. [[Manuel I of Portugal]] with the daughter of the [[Catholic Monarchs]] of the newly born Spain. In 1497 the Decree ordering the expulsion or forced conversion of all the Jews was passed, and the Sephardim either fled or went into secrecy under the guise of "Cristãos Novos", i.e. [[New Christians]] (this Decree was symbolically revoked in 1996 by the [[Assembly of the Republic|Portuguese Parliament]]). Those who fled to [[Genoa]] were only allowed to land provided they received baptism. Those who were fortunate enough to reach the [[Ottoman Empire]] had a better fate: the Sultan [[Bayezid II]] sarcastically sent his thanks to Ferdinand for sending him some of his best subjects, thus "impoverising his own lands while enriching his (Bayezid's)". Jews arriving in the Ottoman Empire were mostly resettled in and around [[Selanik]] (''Thessaloniki'' in Greek) and to some extent in [[Istanbul]] and [[İzmir]]. This was followed by a great massacre of Jews in the city of [[Lisbon]] in 1506 and the establishment of the [[Portuguese Inquisition]] in 1536. This caused the flight of the Portuguese Jewish community, which continued until the extinction of the Courts of Inquisition in 1821; by then there were very few Jews in Portugal.
In [[Amsterdam]], where Jews were especially prominent in the [[seventeenth century]] on account of their number, wealth, education, and influence, they established poetical academies after Spanish models; two of these were the ''Academia de los Sitibundos'' and the ''Academia de los Floridos''. In the same city they also organized the first Jewish educational institution, with graduate classes in which, in addition to [[Talmud]]ic studies, instruction was given in the [[Hebrew language]]. The most important synagogue, or [[Synagogue|Esnoga]], as it is usually called amongst Spanish and Portuguese Jews, is the [[Amsterdam Esnoga]] — usually considered the “mother synagogue”, and the historical centre of the Amsterdam [[minhag]].
A sizable Sephardic community had settled in [[Morocco]] and other [[North Africa|Northern African]] countries, which were colonized by [[France]] in the 19th century. Jews in Algeria were given French citizenship in 1870 by the ''décret Crémieux'' (previously Jews and Muslims could apply for French citizenship, but had to renounce the use of traditional religious courts and laws, which many did not want to do). When France withdrew from [[Algeria]] in 1962, the local Jewish communities largely relocated to France. There are some tensions between some of those communities and the earlier French Jewish population (who were mostly [[Ashkenazi Jews]]), and with Arabic-Muslim communities.
Today, the Sephardim have preserved the romances and the ancient melodies and songs of Spain and Portugal, as well as a large number of old [[Portuguese proverbs|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish proverbs]].<ref>For the largest online collection of Sephardic folk literature, visit [http://www.sephardifolklit.org Folk Literature of the Sephardic Jews.]</ref> A number of [[children's play]]s, like, for example, ''El Castillo'', are still popular among them, and they still manifest a fondness for the dishes peculiar to Iberia, such as the ''pastel'', or ''pastelico'', a sort of meat-pie, and the ''pan de España'', or ''pan de León''. At their festivals they follow the Spanish custom of distributing ''dulces'', or ''dolces'', a confection wrapped in paper bearing a picture of the ''[[magen David]]'' (six pointed star).
[[Amada]].
In Mexico, the Sephardim community numbers approximately 5,500 and they originated mainly from [[Turkey]], [[Greece]] and [[Bulgaria]]. In 1942 the ''[[Cologio Hebreo Tarbut]]'' was founded in collaboration with the [[Ashkenazi]] family and instruction was in [[Yiddish]]. In 1944 the Sephardim community established a separate "Colegio Hebreo Sefaradí Tarbut" with 90 students where instruction was in Hebrew and complemented with classes on Jewish customs. By 1950 there were 500 students. In 1968 a group of young Sephardim created the group ''Tnuat Noar Jinujit Dor Jadash'' in support for the creation of the state of Israel. In 1972 the ''Majazike Tora'' institute is created aiming to prepare young male Jews for their [[Bar Mitzva]] ([http://www.sefaradi.org.mx/PaginaWebCHS/Presentacion_Institucional/ComunidadSefaradi4.htm History of the Sephardim Community in Mexico]).
While the majority of [[American Jews]] today are Ashkenazim, in Colonial times Sephardim made up the majority of the Jewish population. For example, the 1654 Jews who arrived in [[New Amsterdam]] fled from the colony of [[Recife]], [[Brazil]] after the Portuguese seized it from the Dutch. Through most of the 18th Century, American synagogues conducted and recorded their business in Portuguese, even if their daily language was English. It was not until widespread German immigration to the United States in the 19th Century that the tables turned and Ashkenazim (initially from Germany but by the 20th Century from Eastern Europe) began to dominate the American Jewish landscape.
== Names ==
The Sephardim usually followed the general rules for [[Spanish and Portuguese names]]. They generally bear Portuguese and Spanish names. Many of the names are associated with non-Jewish (Christian) families and individuals, and are by no means exclusive to Jews. After [[1492]], many [[marranos]] changed their names to hide their Jewish origins and avoid persecution. It was common to choose the name of the Parish Church where they have been baptised into the Christian faith, such as Santa Cruz or the common name of the word "Messiah" ([[Salvador]]), or adopted the name of their Christian [[godparent]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Roth|first=Cecil|title=A History of the Marranos|publisher=Schocken Books|ISBN=978-0805204636}}</ref>
In contrast to Ashkenazic Jews, who do not name newborn children after living relatives, Sephardic Jews often name their children after the children's grandparents, even if they are still alive. The first son and daughter are traditionally named after the paternal grandparents, and then the maternal parent's names are next up in line for the remaining children. After that, additional children's names are "free", so to speak, meaning that one can choose whatever name, without any more "naming obligations." The only instance in which Sephardic Jews will not name after their own parents when one of the spouses shares a common first name with a mother/father-in-law (since Jews will not name their children after themselves.) There are times though when the "free" names are used to honor the memory of a deceased relative who died young or childless. These conflicting naming conventions can be troublesome when children are born into mixed Ashkenazic-Sephardic households.
A notable exception to the distinct Ashkenazi and Sephardi naming traditions is found among [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands|Dutch Jews]], where Ashkenazim have for centuries followed the tradition otherwise attributed to Sephardim. See [[Chuts]].
=== Other Sephardic pedigrees ===
*[[Abravanel]]
*[[Carneiro]]
*[[Alcalay]]
*[[Alvarez]]
*[[Cardozo]]
*[[seixas]]
*[[Almeida]]
*[[Abulafia]]
*[[Cardozo]]
*[[Gershom]]
*[[Mendes]]
*[[Fonseca]]
*[[Rivera]]
*[[Saavedra]]
*[[Harari]]
:''See also [[List of Jewish surnames]], [[Spanish and Portuguese names]], [[List of Sephardic People]]''
== Congregations ==
Great authority was given to the president of each congregation. He and the rabbinate of his congregation formed the "ma'amad," without whose approbation (often worded in Spanish, Portuguese, or Italian) no book of religious content might be published. The president not only had the power to make authoritative resolutions with regard to congregational affairs and to decide communal questions, but he had also the right to observe the religious conduct of the individual and to punish anyone suspected of heresy or of trespassing against the laws.
== Sephardic Chief Rabbis in Israel ==
:'''''(also styled Rishon Le-Zion)'''''
:* [[Ya'akov Meir]] : (23 Feb 1921 - 1939)
:* [[Benzion Meir Chai Uziel]] : (1939 - 1954)
:* [[Yitzhak Nissim]] : (1955 - 1972)
:* [[Ovadiah Yosef]] : (1972 - 1983)
:* [[Mordechai Eliyahu]] : (1983 - 1993)
:* [[Eliyahu Bakshi-Doron]] : (1993 - 3 Apr 2003)
:* [[She'ar-Yashuv Cohen]] (acting) : (3 Apr 2003 - 14 Apr 2003)
:* [[Shlomo Amar]] : (14 Apr 2003 - present)
== Medicine ==
There is a higher incidence of certain [[hereditary disease]]s and [[inherited disorder]]s in Sephardi Jews. The most important ones are:
* [[Thalassemia|Beta-Thalassemia]]
* [[Familial Mediterranean fever]]
* [[Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency]] and [[Gilbert's Syndrome]]
* [[Glycogen storage disease type III]]
See also [http://www.jewishgeneticscenter.org Jewish Genetics Center] about testing.
== See also ==
*[[Judaism]]
*[[Jewish ethnic divisions]]
*[[Sephardic Judaism]]
*[[Sephardi Hebrew language]]
*[[Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula]]
*[[Spanish and Portuguese Jews]]
*[[Cuisine of the Sephardic Jews]]
*[[Judeo-Portuguese]]
*[[Portuguese Inquisition]]
*[[Ladino]]
*[[Sephardic music]]
*[[Baruch Spinoza]]
*[[Isaac de Pinto]]
*[[Maimonides]]
*[[The Spanish Inquisition]]
*[[The Alhambra Decree]]
*[[History of the Jews in India]]
*[[History of the Jews in Greece]]
*[[History of the Jews in Turkey]]
*[[History of the Jews in Morocco]]
*[[Jews of the Bilad el-Sudan (West Africa)]]
*[[Pizmonim]]
*[[Baqashot]]
*[[Elias Canetti]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
== Bibliography ==
* Ashtor, Eliyahu, ''The Jews of Moslem Spain, Vol. 2'', Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America (1979)
* Assis, Yom Tov, ''The Jews of Spain: From Settlement to Expulsion'', Jerusalem: Hebrew University of Jerusalem|The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (1988)
* Baer, Yitzhak. ''A History of the Jews of Christian Spain''. 2 vols. Jewish Publication Society of America (1966).
* Bartlett, John R., ''Jews in the Hellenistic World: Josephus, Aristeas, The Sibylline Oracles, Eupolemus'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1985)
* Bowers, W. P. ''"Jewish Communities in Spain in the Time of Paul the Apostle"'' in Journal of Theological Studies'' Vol. 26 Part 2, October 1975, pp. 395-402
* Dan, Joseph, "The Epic of a Millennium: Judeo-Spanish Culture's Confrontation" in ''Judaism'' Vol. 41, No. 2, Spring 1992
* Encyclopaedia Judaica Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, Ltd. (1971)
* Finkelstein, Norman H. "The Other 1492: Jewish Settlement in the New World." Beech Tree Books (1989)
* Gampel, Benjamin R., "Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Medieval Iberia: ''Convivencia'' through the Eyes of Sephardic Jews," in ''Convivencia: Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain'', ed. Vivian B. Mann, Thomas F. Glick, and Jerrilynn D. Dodds, New York: George Braziller, Inc. (1992)
* Graetz, Professor H. ''History of the Jews, Vol. III'' Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America (1894)
* Halkin, Abraham, "The Medieval Jewish Attitude toward Hebrew," in ''Biblical and Other Studies'', ed. Alexander Altmann, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press (1963)
* Kaplan, Yosef, ''An Alternative Path to Modernity: The Sephardi Diaspora in Western Europe''. Brill Publishers (2000). ISBN 9004117423
* Katz, Solomon, ''Monographs of the Mediaeval Academy of America No. 12: The Jews in the Visigothic and Frankish Kingdoms of Spain and Gaul'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Society of America (1937)
* Kedourie, Elie, editor. ''Spain and the Jews: The Sephardi Experience 1492 and After''. Thames & Hudson (1992).
* Lacy, W. K. and Wilson, B. W. J. G., trans., ''Res Publica: Roman Politics and Society according to Cicero'', Oxford: Oxford University Press (1970)
* Laeuchli, ''Samuel Power and Sexuality: The Emergence of Canon Law at the Synod of Elvira'', Philadelphia: Temple University Press (1972)
* Leon, Harry J., ''The Jews of Ancient Rome'' Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America (1960)
* Mann, Jacob Texts and Studies in Jewish History and Literature I Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press (1931)
* Raphael, Chaim, The Sephardi Story: A Celebration of Jewish History London: Valentine Mitchell & Co. Ltd. (1991)
* Sarna, Nahum M., "Hebrew and Bible Studies in Medieval Spain" in Sephardi Heritage, Vol. 1 ed. R. D. Barnett, New York: Ktav Publishing House, Inc. (1971)
* Sassoon, Solomon David, "The Spiritual Heritage of the Sephardim," in The Sephardi Heritage, Vol. 1 ed. R. D. Barnett, New York: Ktav Publishing House Inc. (1971)
* Scherman, Rabbi Nosson and Zlotowitz, Rabbi Meir eds., ''History of the Jewish People: The Second Temple Era'', Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, Ltd. (see ArtScroll) (1982)
* Stillman, Norman, "Aspects of Jewish Life in Islamic Spain" in Aspects of Jewish Culture in the Middle Ages ed. Paul E. Szarmach, Albany: State University of New York Press (1979)
* Stillman, Norman. ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. Jewish Publication Society of America, (1979)
* Swetschinski, Daniel. ''Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam''. Litmann Library of Jewish Civilization, (2000)
* Whiston, A. M., trans., ''The Life and Works of Flavius Josephus'' Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Company (19??)
* Zolitor, Jeff, "The Jews of Sepharad" Philadelphia: Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations (CSJO) (1997) ("[http://www.csjo.org/pages/essays/essaysephard.htm The Jews of Sepharad]" reprinted with permission on CSJO website.)
== External links ==
* [http://www.sefarad.org European Sephardic Institute]
* [http://www.isef.org/ International Sephardic Education Foundation ]
* [http://sephardicjournal.org International Sephardic Journal]
* [http://www.sephardiccouncil.org International Sephardic Leadership Council]
* [http://www.radiosefarad.com Radio Sefarad] an internet radio broadcasting from Madrid; includes Huellas, a weekly program for those looking for the origins of their Sephardic surnames
* [http://www.sephardim.org/ Sephardic Jews in Jamaica]
* [http://www.salom.com.tr/ Turkish Sephardi Şalom Newspaper]
* [http://www.pizmonim.org/ Sephardic Pizmonim Project]
* [http://www.sephardicdate.com/ Sephardic Dating Project]
* [http://www.meforum.org/article/707 Meyrav Wurmser: Post-Zionism and the Sephardi Question]
*[http://www.sephardim.com/html/translated_names.html Sephardic names translated into English]
*[http://www.toplumpostasi.net/index.php/cat/1/col/85/art/956/PageName/Ana_sayfa From Andalusian Orangeries to Anatolia]
*[http://www.americansephardifederation.org/PDF/sources/ASF_Timeline.pdf Sephardic Jewish History - Iberian Peninsula] (American Sephardi Federation)
* [http://www.downhomeradioshow.com/2006/11/songs-of-the-sephardic-jewish-women-of-morocco/ Songs of the Sephardic Jewish Women of Morocco] Internet Radio Show featuring field recordings of Sephardic Jewish Women in Tangier & Tetuan, 1954 w/ song texts translated into English.
*[http://www.radiojai.com.ar/OnLine/notiDetalle.asp?id_Noticia=28363 Pascua Marrana. Surname Rojas/Shajor/black sefardim]
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