Shipbuilding
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2008-07-17T00:40:17Z
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:''See also [[Shipbuilding (song)]].''
[[Image:Pizarroshipbuilding.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Men from [[Francisco de Orellana]]'s expedition building a small [[brigantine]], the ''San Pedro'', to be used in the search for food]]
'''Shipbuilding''' is the construction of [[ship]]s. It normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a [[shipyard]]. '''Shipbuilders''', originally called '''shipwrights''', follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to before recorded history.
Shipbuilding and ship repairs, both commercial and military, are referred to as the "naval sector". The dismantling of ships is called [[ship breaking]]. The construction of [[boat]]s is a similar activity called [[boat building]].<br /><!--spacing, please do not remove-->
== History ==
Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived on [[New Guinea]] at least 60,000 years ago, probably by sea from [[Southeast Asia]] during an [[ice age]] period when the sea was lower and distances between islands shorter. (See [[History of Papua New Guinea]].) The ancestors of [[Australian Aborigine]]s and [[New Guinea]]ns went across the [[Lombok Strait]] to [[Sahul]] by boat over 50,000 years ago.
Evidence from [[ancient Egypt]] shows that the early [[Egyptians]] already knew how to assemble [[plank]]s of [[wood]] into a [[hull (ship)|ship hull]] as early as 3000 BC. The [[Archaeological Institute of America]] reports<ref name="AIA">Ward, Cheryl. "World's Oldest Planked Boats," in ''[[Archaeology (magazine)|Archaeology]]'' (Volume 54, Number 3, May/June 2001). [[Archaeological Institute of America]], [http://www.archaeology.org/0105/abstracts/abydos3.html].</ref> that the oldest ships yet unearthed, a group of 14 discovered in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], were constructed of wooden planks which were "[[sewn]]" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor ([[New York University]]),<ref name="AIA2">Schuster, Angela M.H. "This Old Boat," Dec. 11, 2000. [[Archaeological Institute of America]], [http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/abydos.html].</ref> woven [[strap]]s were found to have been used to lash the planks together,<ref name="AIA" /> and [[Cyperus papyrus|reeds]] or [[grass]] stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams.<ref name="AIA" /> Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to [[Khasekhemwy|Pharaoh Khasekhemwy]],<ref name="AIA2" /> originally they were all thought to have belonged to him. But one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC,<ref name="AIA2" /> and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating.<ref name="AIA2" /> The ship dating to 3000 BC was 75 feet long<ref name="AIA2" /> and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh.<ref name="AIA2" /> According to professor O'Conner the 5000 year old ship may have even belonged to [[Hor-Aha|Pharaoh Aha]].<ref name="AIA2" />
Early [[Egyptians]] also knew how to assemble planks of wood with [[treenail]]s to fasten them together and [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] for [[caulking]] the [[seam]]s. The "[[Khufu ship]]", a 43.6 m long vessel sealed into a pit in the [[Giza pyramid complex]] at the foot of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] in the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]] around 2,500 BC, is a full-size surviving example which may have fulfilled the symbolic function of a [[solar barque]]. Early [[Egyptians]] also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with [[mortise and tenon]] joints.<ref name="AIA" />
The ships of [[Ancient Egypt]]'s [[Eighteenth Dynasty]] were typically about 25 meters (80 ft) in length, and had a single [[mast (sailing)|mast]], sometimes consisting of two poles lashed together at the top making an "A" shape. They mounted a single square [[sail]] on a [[yard]], with an additional [[spar]] along the bottom of the sail. These ships could also be [[oar]] propelled.<ref>{{citebook|title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World|author= Robert E. Krebs, Carolyn A. Krebs|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood PressScience|url= http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0313313423&id=0H0fjBeseVEC&pg=RA1-PA338&lpg=RA1-PA335&dq=Shipbuilding+history&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html&sig=d8ZeuiMqLZ2Uch9uEz8ss4a-GqY|id=ISBN 0313313423}}</ref>
The ships of [[Phoenicia]] seems to have been of a similar design. The [[ancient Greece|Greek]]s and probably others introduced the use of multiple banks of oars for additional speed, and the ships were of a light construction for speed and so they could be carried ashore.
The world's first tidal dock was built in [[Lothal]] around 2500 BC during the [[Harappan civilisation]] at [[Lothal]] near the present day Mangrol harbour on the [[Gujarat]] coast in [[India]]. Other ports were probably at [[Balakot]] and [[Dwarka]]. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade.<ref>[[Gregory Possehl|Possehl, Gregory]]. Meluhha. in: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996, 133–208</ref> Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>(eg Lal 1997: 182–188)</ref> Shipbuilding and boatmaking may have been prosperous industries in ancient India.<ref name=Tripathi/> Native labourers may have manufactured the flotilla of boats [[Alexander the Great]] used to navigate across the [[Hydaspes]] and even the [[Indus]], under [[Nearchos]].<ref name=Tripathi>Tripathi, page 145</ref> The Indians also exported [[teak]] for shipbuilding to ancient [[Persia]].<ref name=Hourani&Carswel/> Other references to Indian timber used for shipbuilding is noted in the works of [[Ibn Jubayr]].<ref name=Hourani&Carswel> Hourani & Carswel, page 90</ref>
The [[naval history of China]] stems back to the [[Spring and Autumn Period]] (722 BC–481 BC) of the ancient [[China|Chinese]] [[Zhou Dynasty]]. The Chinese built large rectangular barges known as 'castle ships', essentially floating fortresses complete with multiple decks with guarded [[rampart]]s. They also built [[ramming]] vessels like in the [[Greco-Roman]] tradition of the [[trireme]], although [[oar]]-steered ships in China lost their favor very early on since it was in 1st century China that the [[stern]]-mounted [[rudder]] was first developed. This was dually met with the introduction of the [[Han Dynasty]] [[Junk (ship)|junk ship]] design in the same century. The shipbuilding industry in [[Imperial China]] reached its height during the [[Song Dynasty]], [[Yuan Dynasty]], and early [[Ming Dynasty]]. During the Song period (960–1279 AD), the onset of establishing China's first official standing navy in 1132 AD and the enormous increase in maritime trade abroad (from [[Heian period|Heian]] [[Japan]] to [[Fatimid]] [[Egypt]]) allowed the shipbuilding industry in provinces like [[Fujian]] to thrive like never before. Some of the largest [[seaport]]s in the world existed in China during this era, including [[Guangzhou]], [[Quanzhou]], and [[Xiamen]].
Viking [[longship]]s developed from an alternate tradition of [[clinker (boat building)|clinker]]-built hulls fastened with [[leather]] thongs. Sometime around the 12th century, northern European ships began to be built with a straight [[sternpost]], enabling the mounting of a [[rudder]], which was much more durable than a [[steering oar]] held over the side. Development in the [[Middle Ages]] favored "[[round ship]]s", with a broad beam and heavily curved at both ends.
The introduction of [[cannon]]s onto ships encouraged the development of [[tumblehome]], the inward slant of the abovewater hull, for additional stability{{Fact|date=July 2008}}, as well as techniques for strengthening the internal frame.
These considerations, as well as the demand for ships capable of operating safely in the open ocean, led to the documentation of design and construction practice in what had previously been a secretive trade, and ultimately the field of [[naval architecture]]. Even so, construction techniques changed only very gradually; the ships of the [[Spanish Armada]] were internally very similar to those of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] over two centuries later.
[[Iron]] was gradually adopted in ship construction, initially in small areas needing greater strength, then throughout, although initially copying wooden construction. [[Isambard Brunel]]'s [[SS Great Britain|''Great Britain'']] of 1843 was the first radical new design; built entirely of iron, using [[stringer]]s for strength, inner and outer hulls, and [[Bulkhead (partition)|bulkheads]] to form multiple watertight compartments. Despite her success, many yards only went so far to use [[composite construction]], with wooden timbers laid over an iron frame (the ''[[Cutty Sark]]'' is so constructed). [[Steel]] supplanted [[wrought iron]] when it became readily available in the latter half of the 19th century.
Wood continued to be favored for the decks, and is still the rule as deckcovering for modern [[cruise ship]]s.
== Modern shipbuilding ==
Design work, also called [[naval architecture]], may be conducted using a [[ship model basin]]. Modern ships, since roughly 1940, have been produced almost exclusively of [[welding|welded]] [[steel]]. Early welded steel ships used steels with inadequate [[fracture toughness]], which resulted in some ships suffering catastrophic [[brittle fracture]] structural cracks (see [[problems of the Liberty ship]]). Since roughly 1950, specialized steels such as [[ABS Steels]] with good properties for ship construction have been used.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align=center; border=1; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|align=center colspan=5|'''World shipbuilding completions by countries (2005)'''<ref>Source : Lloyd's Register of Shipping, World Fleet Statistics.</ref>
|-
! Rank !! Country !! No. of ships !! 1,000 [[Gross tonnage|GT]] !! %
|-
| 1 || {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[South Korea]] || align=right | 326 || align=right | 17,689 || align=right | 37.7%
|-
| 2 || {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Japan]] || align=right | 469 || align=right | 16,434 || align=right | 35.0%
|-
| 3 || {{flagicon|China}} [[China]] || align=right | 420 || align=right | 6,466 || align=right | 13.8%
|-
| 4 || {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Germany]] || align=right | 67 || align=right | 1,236 || align=right | 2.6%
|-
| 5 || {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Poland]] || align=right | 55 || align=right | 787 || align=right | 1.7%
|-
| 6 || {{flagicon|Taiwan}} [[Taiwan]] || align=right | 19 || align=right | 629 || align=right | 1.3%
|-
| 7 || {{flagicon|Croatia}} [[Croatia]] || align=right | 24 || align=right | 546 || align=right | 1.2%
|-
| 8 || {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Denmark]] || align=right | 7 || align=right | 493 || align=right | 1.0%
|-
| 9 || {{flagicon|United States}} [[United States]] || align=right | 46 || align=right | 431 || align=right | 0.9%
|-
| 10 || {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Italy]] || align=right | 18 || align=right | 356 || align=right | 0.8%
|}{{clr}}
Modern shipbuilding makes considerable use of prefabricated sections; entire multi-deck segments of the hull or [[Superstructure#Ships|superstructure]] will be built elsewhere in the yard, transported to the building dock or slipway, then lifted into place. This is known as Block Construction. The most modern shipyards pre-install equipment, pipes, electrical cables, and any other components within the blocks, to minimize the effort needed to assemble or install components deep within the hull once it is welded together.
[[Image:Hyundai Shipyard.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Hyundai Heavy Industries]] shipyard in [[Ulsan]], [[South Korea]]]]
Shipbuilding (which encompasses the shipyards, the marine equipment manufacturers and a large number of service and knowledge providers) is an important and strategic industry in a number of countries around the world. This importance stems from:
* The large number of trade persons required directly by the shipyard and also by the supporting industries such as steel mills, engine manufacturers, etc.
* A nation's need to manufacture and repair its own Navy and vessels that support its primary industries.
Historically, the industry has suffered from the absence of global rules and a tendency of (state-supported) over-investment due to the fact that shipyards offer a wide range of technologies, employ a significant number of workers and generate foreign currency income (as the shipbuilding market is dollar-based and a global one). Shipbuilding is therefore an attractive industry for developing nations. Japan used shipbuilding in the 1950s and 1960s to rebuild its industrial structure, Korea made shipbuilding a strategic industry in the 1970s and China is now in the process to repeat these models with large state-supported investments in this industry. As a result the world shipbuilding market suffers from over-capacities, depressed prices (although the industry experienced a price increase in the period 2003–2005 due to strong demand for new ships which was in excess of actual cost increases), low profit margins, trade distortions and wide-spread subsidisation. All efforts to address the problems in the OECD have so far failed, with the 1994 international shipbuilding agreement never entering into force and the 2003–2005 round of negotiations being paused in September 2005 after no agreement was possible.
Where state subsidies have been removed and domestic policies do not provide support, in high cost nations shipbuilding has usually gone into steady, if not rapid, decline. The British shipbuilding industry is one of many examples of this. From a position in the early 1970s where British yards could still build the largest types of sophisticated merchant ships, British shipbuilders today have been reduced to a handful specialising in defence contracts and repair work. In the U.S.A., the [[Merchant Marine Act of 1920|Jones Act]] (which places restrictions on the ships that can be used for moving domestic cargoes) has meant that merchant shipbuilding has continued, but such protection has failed to penalise shipbuilding inefficiencies. The consequence of this is newbuilding contract prices that are far higher than those of any other nation building oceangoing ships.
Thanks to the productivity of its shipyards, South Korea is the world's largest shipbuilding nation in terms of tonnage and numbers of vessels built, in spite of high labour costs. China is currently the third largest shipbuilding country and poised to overtake Japan in the near future.
==See also==
* [[Finnish Maritime Cluster]]
* [[Marine engineering]]
* [[Naval architecture]]
* [[Paddle steamer]]
* [[List of shipbuilders and shipyards]]
==References==
<references/>
* {{cite book | last = Tripathi| first = Rama Shankar| title = History of Ancient India| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass| date = 1967 | pages = 145| isbn = 8120800184}}
* {{cite book | last = Hourani| first = George Fadlo | coauthors= Carswel, John| authorlink = George Fadlo Hourani| title = Arab Seafaring: In the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times| publisher = Princeton University Press| date = 1995 | pages = 90| isbn = 0691000328}}
==External links==
*[http://www.vinamaso.net Vietnam Shipbuilding news] — Breaking news from Vietnam shipbuilding.
*[http://shipbuilding.firmafrance.com/ Shipbuilding from france] — French construction of cruise ships and large yachts.
*[http://www.coltoncompany.com U.S. Shipbuilding] — extensive collection of information about the U.S. shipbuilding industry, including over 500 pages of U.S. shipyard construction records
*[http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/nof/docks Trading Places] — interactive history of European dockyards
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/shipyard.htm Shipyards] United States — from GlobalSecurity.org
*[http://www.mi.mun.ca/mi-net/shiptech/shipbldg.htm Shipbuilding in Canada]
*[http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P4_1_EN.html North Vancouver's Wartime Shipbuilding]
*[http://www.clarksons.net] — Shipbuilding statistics for sale from the research department of the world's largest shipbrokers.
*[http://www.marinelog.com] — Shipbuilding news and features
*[http://www.marinelink.com/Story/Shipbuilding Shipbuilding News]
*[http://www.aa42.com/BlaydesSummary.htm Ship-building in Hull, and especially the history of the Blaydes family]
[[Category:Shipbuilders| ]]
[[Category:Shipwrights| ]]
[[Category:Commercial item transport and distribution]]
[[Category:Ship construction]]
[[Category:Naval architecture]]
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