Sign language
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[[Image:Interp.jpg|thumb|right|Two sign language [[interpreters]] working as a team for a school.]]
A '''sign language''' (also '''signed language''') is a [[language]] which uses [[manual communication]], [[body language]] and lip patterns instead of [[sound]] to convey meaning—simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and movement of the [[hand]]s, [[arm]]s or [[body]], and [[facial expressions]] to express fluidly a speaker's [[thoughts]]. Sign languages commonly develop in [[deaf community|deaf communities]], which can include interpreters and friends and families of deaf people as well as people who are [[deaf]] or [[hard of hearing]] themselves.
Wherever communities of deaf people exist, sign languages develop. In fact, their complex spatial grammars are markedly different from the grammars of spoken languages. Hundreds of sign languages are in use around the world and are at the cores of local [[Deaf culture]]s. Some sign languages have obtained some form of [[Recognition of sign languages|legal recognition]], while others have no status at all.
In addition to sign languages, various signed codes of spoken languages have been developed, such as [[Signed English]] and [[Warlpiri Sign Language]]. These are not to be confused with languages, oral or signed; a signed code of an oral language is simply a signed mode of the language it carries, just as a writing system is a written mode. Signed codes of oral languages can be useful for learning oral languages or for expressing and discussing literal quotations from those languages, but they are generally too awkward and unwieldy for normal discourse. For example, a teacher and deaf student of English in the United States might use Signed English to cite examples of English usage, but the discussion of those examples would be in [[American Sign Language]].
Exemplary of the mature status of sign languages is the growing body of sign language poetry, and other stage performances. The [http://jeroenarendsen.nl/2007/01/sign-language-poetry-and-theatre-from-draadloos/ poetic mechanisms] available to signing poets are not all available to a speaking poet. This offers new, exciting ways for poems to reach and move the audience. [[Image:Sing rap.JPG|thumb|right|Sign language used in [[Edo Maajka|Edo Maajka's]] video "To Što Se Traži" to interpret fast paced rap without losing fluidity.]]
==History of sign language==
{{main|History of sign language}}
[[Image:Arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos.jpg|thumb|Juan Pablo Bonet, {{lang|es|''Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos''}} (Madrid, 1620).]]
The written history of sign language began in the 17th century in Spain. In 1620, [[Juan Pablo Bonet]] published {{lang|es|''Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos''}} (‘Reduction of letters and art for teaching mute people to speak’) in Madrid. It is considered the first modern treaty of Phonetics and Logopedia, setting out a method of oral education for the deaf people by means of the use of manual signs, in form of a manual alphabet to improve the communication of the dumb or deaf people.
From the language of signs of Bonet, [[Abbé de l'Épée|Charles-Michel de l'Épée]] published his alphabet in the 18th century, which has arrived basically unchanged until the present time.
In 1755, Abbé de l'Épée founded the first public school for deaf children in Paris; [[Laurent Clerc]] was arguably its most famous graduate. He went to the United States with [[Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet]] to found the [[American School for the Deaf]] in Hartford, Connecticut.<ref>{{cite web | last=Canlas | first=Loida | title=Laurent Clerc: Apostle to the Deaf People of the New World | publisher=[[Laurent Clerc National Deaf Education Center]] at [[Gallaudet University]] |date=2006-07-10 | url=http://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu/Literacy/MSSDLRC/clerc/ | accessdate=2007-01-06 }}</ref> Gallaudet's son, [[Edward Miner Gallaudet]] founded the first college for the deaf in 1857, which in 1864 became [[Gallaudet University]] in Washington, DC, the only liberal arts university for the deaf in the world.
Generally, each spoken language has a sign language counterpart in as much as each linguistic population will contain Deaf members who will generate a sign language. In much the same way that geographical or cultural forces will isolate populations and lead to the generation of different and distinct spoken languages, the same forces operate on signed languages and so they tend to maintain their identities through time in roughly the same areas of influence as the local spoken languages. This occurs even though sign languages have no relation to the spoken languages of the lands in which they arise. There are notable exceptions to this pattern, however, as some geographic regions sharing a spoken language have multiple, unrelated signed languages. Variations within a 'national' sign language can usually be correlated to the geographic location of residential schools for the deaf.
[[International Sign]], formerly known as Gestuno, is used mainly at international Deaf events such as the [[Deaflympics]] and meetings of the [[World Federation of the Deaf]]. Recent studies claim that while International Sign is a kind of a [[pidgin]], they conclude that it is more complex than a typical pidgin and indeed is more like a full signed language.
==Linguistics of sign==
In linguistic terms, sign languages are as rich and complex as any oral language, despite the common misconception that they are not "real languages". Professional [[linguistics|linguists]] have studied many sign languages and found them to have every linguistic component required to be classed as true languages.
Sign languages are not [[pantomime]] - in other words, signs are conventional, often arbitrary and do not necessarily have a visual relationship to their referent, much as most spoken language is not [[onomatopoeic]]. While [[iconicity]] is more systematic and wide-spread in sign languages than in spoken ones, the difference is not categorical.<ref>[http://homepage.mac.com/trevor.a.johnston/.Public/PhDChp6.pdf Johnston, Trevor, 1989. Auslan: the Sign Language of the Australian Deaf Community]</ref> Nor are they a visual rendition of an oral language. They have complex [[grammar]]s of their own, and can be used to discuss any topic, from the simple and concrete to the lofty and abstract.
Sign languages, like oral languages, organize elementary, meaningless units ([[phoneme]]s; once called [[chereme]]s in the case of sign languages) into meaningful [[semantic]] units. The elements of a sign are '''H'''andshape (or Handform), '''O'''rientation (or Palm Orientation), '''L'''ocation (or Place of Articulation), '''M'''ovement, and Non-manual markers (or Facial '''E'''xpression), summarised in the [[acronym]] '''HOLME'''.
Common linguistic features of deaf sign languages are extensive use of [[Classifier (linguistics)|classifiers]], a high degree of [[inflection]], and a [[Topic-comment language|topic-comment]] [[syntax]]. Many unique linguistic features emerge from sign languages' ability to produce meaning in different parts of the visual field simultaneously. For example, the recipient of a signed message can read meanings carried by the hands, the facial expression and the body posture in the same moment. This is in contrast to oral languages, where the sounds that comprise words are mostly sequential (tone being an exception).
===Sign languages' relationships with oral languages===
A common misconception is that sign languages are somehow dependent on oral languages, that is, that they are oral language spelled out in gesture, or that they were invented by hearing people. Hearing teachers in deaf schools, such as [[Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet]], are often incorrectly referred to as “inventors” of sign language.
[[Manual alphabet]]s (fingerspelling) are used in sign languages, mostly for proper names and technical or specialised vocabulary borrowed from spoken languages. The use of fingerspelling was once taken as evidence that sign languages were simplified versions of oral languages, but in fact it is merely one tool among many. Fingerspelling can sometimes be a source of new signs, which are called lexicalized signs.
On the whole, deaf sign languages are independent of oral languages and follow their own paths of development. For example, [[British Sign Language]] and [[American Sign Language]] are quite different and mutually unintelligible, even though the hearing people of Britain and America share the same oral language.
Similarly, countries which use a single oral language throughout may have two or more sign languages; whereas an area that contains more than one oral language might use only one sign language. [[South Africa]], which has 11 official oral languages and a similar number of other widely used oral languages is a good example of this. It has only one sign language with two variants due to its history of having two major educational institutions for the deaf which have served different geographic areas of the country.
===Spatial grammar and simultaneity===
Sign languages exploit the unique features of the visual medium.
Oral language is linear. Only one sound can be made or received at a time. Sign language, on the other hand, is visual; hence a whole scene can be taken in at once. Information can be loaded into several channels and expressed simultaneously. As an illustration, in English one could utter the phrase, "I drove here". To add information about the drive, one would have to make a longer phrase or even add a second, such as, "I drove here along a winding road," or "I drove here. It was a nice drive." However, in American Sign Language, information about the shape of the road or the pleasing nature of the drive can be conveyed simultaneously with the verb 'drive' by inflecting the motion of the hand, or by taking advantage of non-manual signals such as body posture and facial expression, at the same time that the verb 'drive' is being signed. Therefore, whereas in English the phrase "I drove here and it was very pleasant" is longer than "I drove here," in American Sign Language the two may be the same length.
In fact, in terms of syntax, ASL shares more with spoken [[Japanese grammar|Japanese]] than it does with English.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}(Karen Nakamura,1995)
==Use of signs in hearing communities==
[[Gesture]] is a typical component of spoken languages. More elaborate systems of [[manual communication]] have developed in places or situations where speech is not practical or permitted, such as [[monastery|cloistered religious communities]], [[scuba diving]], [[Television studio|television recording studios]], loud workplaces, [[stock exchange]]s, [[baseball]], hunting (by groups such as the Kalahari [[bushmen]]), or in the game [[Charades]]. In [[Rugby Union]] the Referee uses a limited but defined set of signs to communicate his/her decisions to the spectators. Recently, there has been a movement to teach and encourage the use of sign language with toddlers before they learn to talk, because such young children can communicate effectively with signed languages well before they are physically capable of speech. This is typically referred to as [[Baby Sign]]. There is also movement to use signed languages more with non-deaf and non-hard-of-hearing children with other causes of speech impairment or delay, for the obvious benefit of effective communication without needless dependence on speech.
[[Image:Jw signs convention.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] Convention in ''[[Chilean Sign Language]]''.]]
On occasion, where the prevalence of deaf people is high enough, a deaf sign language has been taken up by an entire local community. Famous examples of this include [[Martha's Vineyard Sign Language]] in the [[USA]], [[Kata Kolok]] in a village in [[Bali]], [[Adamorobe Sign Language]] in [[Ghana]] and [[Yucatec Maya sign language]] in [[Mexico]]. In such communities deaf people are not socially disadvantaged.
Many [[Australian Aboriginal sign languages]] arose in a context of extensive speech taboos, such as during mourning and initiation rites. They are or were especially highly developed among the [[Warlpiri Sign Language|Warlpiri]], [[Warumungu]], [[Dieri]], [[Kaytetye]], [[Arrernte]], [[Warlmanpa]], and are based on their respective spoken languages.
A [[pidgin]] sign language arose among tribes of [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]] in the [[Great Plains]] region of [[North America]] (see [[Plains Indian Sign Language]]). It was used to communicate among tribes with different spoken [[language]]s. There are especially users today among the [[Crow tribe|Crow]], [[Cheyenne]], and [[Arapaho]]. Unlike other sign languages developed by hearing people, it shares the spatial grammar of deaf sign languages.
==Home sign==
{{Unreferenced|date=January 2008}}
{{main|Home sign}}
Sign systems are sometimes developed within a single family. For instance, when hearing parents with no sign language skills have a deaf child, an informal system of signs will naturally develop, unless repressed by the parents. The term for these mini-languages is [[home sign]] (sometimes homesign or kitchen sign).
Home sign arises due to the absence of any other way to communicate. Within the span of a single lifetime and without the support or feedback of a community, the child is forced to invent signals to facilitate the meeting of his or her communication needs. Although this kind of system is grossly inadequate for the intellectual development of a child and it comes nowhere near meeting the standards linguists use to describe a complete language, it is a common occurrence. No type of Home Sign is recognized as an official language.
==Classification of sign languages==
{{See also|List of sign languages}}
Although deaf sign languages have emerged naturally in deaf communities alongside or among spoken languages, they are unrelated to spoken languages and have different grammatical structures at their core. A group of sign "languages" known as [[manually coded language]]s are more properly understood as signed ''modes'' of spoken languages, and therefore belong to the language families of their respective spoken languages. There are, for example, several such [[Manually Coded English|signed encodings of English]].
There has been very little historical linguistic research on sign languages, and few attempts to determine genetic relationships between sign languages, other than simple comparison of [[lexicon|lexical data]] and some discussion about whether certain sign languages are dialects of a language or languages of a family. Languages may be spread through migration, through the establishment of deaf schools (often by foreign-trained educators), or due to political domination.
[[Language contact]] is common, making clear family classifications difficult — it is often unclear whether lexical similarity is due to borrowing or a common parent language. Contact occurs between sign languages, between signed and spoken languages ([[Contact Sign]]), and between sign languages and [[gesture|gestural systems]] used by the broader community. One author has speculated that [[Adamorobe Sign Language]] may be related to the "gestural trade jargon used in the markets throughout West Africa", in vocabulary and [[areal feature]]s including prosody and phonetics.
* [[British Sign Language|BSL]], [[Auslan]] and [[NZSL]] are usually considered to belong to a language family known as [[BANZSL]].
* [[Japanese Sign Language]], [[Taiwanese Sign Language]] and [[Korean Sign Language]] are thought to be members of a [[Japanese Sign Language family]].
* There are a number of sign languages that emerged from [[French Sign Language]] (LSF), or were the result of language contact between local community sign languages and LSF. These include: [[French Sign Language]], [[Quebec Sign Language]], [[American Sign Language]], [[Irish Sign Language]], [[Russian Sign Language]], [[Dutch Sign Language]], [[Flemish Sign Language]], [[Belgian-French Sign Language]], [[Spanish Sign Language]], [[Mexican Sign Language]], [[Brazilian Sign Language]] and others.
** A subset of this group includes languages that have been heavily influenced by American Sign Language (ASL), or are regional varieties of ASL. [[Bolivian Sign Language]] is sometimes considered a dialect of ASL. [[Thai Sign Language]] is a [[mixed language]] derived from ASL and the native sign languages of Bangkok and Chiang Mai, and may be considered part of the ASL family. Others possibly influenced by ASL include [[Ugandan Sign Language]], [[Kenyan Sign Language]], [[Philippine Sign Language]] and [[Malaysian Sign Language]].
* Anecdotal evidence suggests that [[Finnish Sign Language]], [[Swedish Sign Language]] and [[Norwegian Sign Language]] belong to a [[Scandinavian Sign Language family]].
* [[Icelandic Sign Language]] is known to have originated from [[Danish Sign Language]], although significant differences in vocabulary have developed in the course of a century of separate development.
* According to a [http://www.sil.org/silesr/abstract.asp?ref=2005-026 SIL report], the sign languages of Russia, Moldova and Ukraine share a high degree of lexical similarity and may be dialects of one language, or distinct related languages. The same report suggested a "cluster" of sign languages centered around [[Czech Sign Language]], [[Hungarian Sign Language]] and [[Slovakian Sign Language]]. This group may also include [[Romanian Sign Language|Romanian]], [[Bulgarian Sign Language|Bulgarian]], and [[Polish Sign Language|Polish]] sign languages.
* Known isolates include [[Nicaraguan Sign Language]], [[Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language]], and [[Providence Island Sign Language]].
* Sign languages of Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, and Iraq (and possibly Saudi Arabia) may be part of a [[sprachbund]], or may be one dialect of a larger [[Eastern Arabic Sign Language]].
==Written forms of sign languages==
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image: Signwriting_vgt_fotomodel.png |thumb|A sign for ''"photo model"'' using [[SignWriting]] in the dictionary of the [[Flemish Sign Language]]]] -->
Sign language differs from oral language in its relation to writing. The [[phoneme|phonemic]] systems of oral languages are primarily ''sequential'': that is, the majority of phonemes are produced in a sequence one after another, although many languages also have non-sequential aspects such as tone. As a consequence, traditional phonemic writing systems are also sequential, with at best [[diacritic]]s for non-sequential aspects such as stress and tone.
Sign languages have a higher non-sequential component, with many "phonemes" produced simultaneously. For example, signs may involve fingers, hands, and face moving simultaneously, or the two hands moving in different directions. Traditional writing systems are not designed to deal with this level of complexity.
Partially because of this, sign languages are not often written. Most deaf signers read and write the oral language of their country. However, there have been several attempts at developing scripts for sign language. These have included both "phonetic" systems, such as [http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/Projects/HamNoSys.html HamNoSys] (the Hamburg Notational System) and [[SignWriting]], which can be used for any sign language, and "phonemic" systems such as the one used by [[William Stokoe]] in his [[1965]] ''Dictionary of American Sign Language'', which are designed for a specific language.
These systems are based on [[iconic]] [[symbol]]s. Some, such as SignWriting and HamNoSys, are [[pictograph]]ic, being conventionalized pictures of the hands, face, and body; others, such as the [[Stokoe notation]], are more iconic. Stokoe used letters of the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals to indicate the handshapes used in fingerspelling, such as 'A' for a closed fist, 'B' for a flat hand, and '5' for a spread hand; but non-alphabetic symbols for location and movement, such as '[]' for the trunk of the body, '×' for contact, and '^' for an upward movement. David J. Peterson has attempted to create a phonetic transcription system for signing that is ASCII-friendly known as the [http://dedalvs.free.fr/slipa.html Sign Language International Phonetic Alphabet (SLIPA)].
SignWriting, being pictographic, is able to represent simultaneous elements in a single sign. The Stokoe notation, on the other hand, is sequential, with a conventionalized order of a symbol for the location of the sign, then one for the hand shape, and finally one (or more) for the movement. The orientation of the hand is indicated with an optional diacritic before the hand shape. When two movements occur simultaneously, they are written one atop the other; when sequential, they are written one after the other. Neither the Stokoe nor HamNoSys scripts are designed to represent facial expressions or non-manual movements, both of which SignWriting accommodates easily, although this is being gradually corrected in HamNoSys.
==Animals that use sign language==
{{Expand-section|date=July 2008}}
There have been several notable examples of scientists teaching non-human primates basic signs in order to communicate with humans. Notable examples are:-
* Chimpanzees: [[Washoe (chimpanzee)|Washoe]] and [[Loulis (chimpanzee)|Loulis]]
* Gorillas: [[Michael (gorilla)|Michael]] and [[Koko (gorilla)|Koko]].
==Media==
[[Image:LSF Vocab demander.ogg|thumb|A demonstration of the [[French Sign Language]] word {{lang|fr|''[[wiktionary:Demander#French|demander]]''}} (verb ''to ask'').]]
{{clear}}
==See also==
*[[Baby sign]] (teaching infants sign language before they have the ability to speak)
*[[Body language]]
*[[Cherology]]
*[[Chinese number gestures]]
*[[Gesture]]
*[[Intercultural competence]]
*[[Legal recognition of sign languages]] (status per country/region)
*[[List of sign languages]]
*[[Metacommunicative competence]]
*[[Nonverbal communication]]
*[[Sign language glove]]
==References==
<references/>
==Further reading ==
* Branson, J., D. Miller, & I G. Marsaja. (1996). "Everyone here speaks sign language, too: a deaf village in Bali, Indonesia." In: C. Lucas (ed.): Multicultural aspects of sociolinguistics in deaf communities. Washington, Gallaudet University Press, pp. 39-5
* Emmorey, Karen; & Lane, Harlan L. (Eds.). (2000). ''The signs of language revisited: An anthology to honor Ursula Bellugi and Edward Klima''. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-3246-7.
* Groce, Nora E. (1988). ''Everyone here spoke sign language: Hereditary deafness on Martha's Vineyard''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-27041-X.
* Kendon, Adam. (1988). ''Sign Languages of Aboriginal Australia: Cultural, Semiotic and Communicative Perspectives.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Klima, Edward S.; & Bellugi, Ursula. (1979). ''The signs of language''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-80795-2.
* Krzywkowska, Grazyna (2006). [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hallatlan_article_final_Grazyna_Krzywkowska_2006.pdf "Przede wszystkim komunikacja"], an article about a dictionary of Hungarian sign language on the internet {{pl icon}}.
* Lane, Harlan L. (Ed.). (1984). ''The Deaf experience: Classics in language and education''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-19460-8.
* Lane, Harlan L. (1984). ''When the mind hears: A history of the deaf''. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-50878-5.
* Padden, Carol; & Humphries, Tom. (1988). ''Deaf in America: Voices from a culture''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-19423-3.
* Poizner, Howard; Klima, Edward S.; & Bellugi, Ursula. (1987). ''What the hands reveal about the brain''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
* Sacks, Oliver W. (1989). ''Seeing voices: A journey into the land of the deaf''. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06083-0.
* Sandler, Wendy; & Lillo-Martin, Diane. (2001). Natural sign languages. In M. Aronoff & J. Rees-Miller (Eds.), ''Handbook of linguistics'' (pp. 533-562). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-20497-0.
* Stiles-Davis, Joan; Kritchevsky, Mark; & Bellugi, Ursula (Eds.). (1988). ''Spatial cognition: Brain bases and development''. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-0046-8; ISBN 0-8058-0078-6.
* Stokoe, William C. (1960). ''Sign language structure: An outline of the visual communication systems of the American deaf''. Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8). Buffalo: Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo.
== External links ==
{{commonscat|Sign language}}
{{Wikibooks|American Sign Language}}
''Note: the articles for [[List of sign languages|specific sign languages]] (e.g. [[American Sign Language|ASL]] or [[British Sign Language|BSL]]) may contain further external links, e.g. for learning those languages.''
* [http://www.johnlubotsky.com/deafcinema/ Deaf Cinema List] Films in ASL and other sign languages
* [http://deafwiki.org A DeafWiki free-content encyclopedia of deaf and hard hearing]
* [http://www.dictionaryofsign.com/ Dictionary of Sign] A wiki style user compiled dictionary of sign language (Various Countries)
* [http://listserv.linguistlist.org/archives/slling-l.html List Serv for Sign Language Linguistics]
* [http://www.musslap.zcu.cz/en/about-project/ The MUSSLAP Project] Multimodal Human Speech and Sign Language Processing for Human-Machine Communication.
* [http://www.bu.edu/asllrp/publications.html Publications of the American Sign Language Linguistics Research Project]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17451/17451-h/17451-h.htm Sign language among North American Indians compared with that among other peoples and deaf-mutes], by Garrick Mallery from [[Project Gutenberg]]. A first annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the [[Smithsonian Institution]], 1879–1880
*Pablo Bonet, J. de (1620) [http://bibliotecadigitalhispanica.bne.es:80/webclient/DeliveryManager?application=DIGITOOL-3&owner=resourcediscovery&custom_att_2=simple_viewer&pid=180918 {{lang|osp|''Reduction de las letras y Arte para enseñar á ablar los Mudos''}}], {{lang|es|Biblioteca Digital Hispánica}} (BNE).
[[Category:Sign languages| ]]
[[Category:Language]]
[[Category:Deafness]]
[[Category:Deaf culture]]
[[Category:Speech-language pathology]]
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