Silla 324217 223240694 2008-07-03T05:35:26Z AlnoktaBOT 3096998 robot Modifying: [[it:Regno di Silla]] {{Refimprove|date=September 2007}} {{otheruses}} {{Infobox Korean name |img=Korea-Silla-Cheonmado-01.jpg |caption=''Cheonmado'' from ''[[Cheonmachong]]'' |hangul=[[:ko:신라|신라]] |hanja=新羅 |rr=Silla |mr=Silla }} '''Silla''' (57 BCE – 935 CE), was one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]]. It began as a [[chiefdom]] in the [[Samhan]] confederacies. Allied with [[China]], Silla eventually conquered the other two kingdoms, [[Baekje]] in 660 and [[Goguryeo]] in 668. Thereafter, it is sometimes called [[Unified Silla]] or [[Unified Silla|Later Silla]], occupying most of the [[Korean Peninsula]], while the northern part re-emerged as [[Balhae]], which was a successor-state of [[Goguryeo]]. After nearly nine hundred years, Silla fragmented into the brief [[Later Three Kingdoms]], and submitted to its successor dynasty [[Goryeo]] in 935.<ref>http://www.shilla.or.kr/shilla_culture/ Retrieved on 2008-03-08</ref> ==Name== {{History of Korea}} {{Silla monarchs 1}} {{Silla monarchs 2}} [[Image:Three Kingdoms of Korea Map.png|150px|left|thumb|Three Kingdoms of Korea, at the end of the 5th century]] From its founding until its growth into a full-fledged kingdom, Silla was recorded with various [[Hanja]] (Chinese characters) phonetically approximating its native Korean name: 斯盧 (사로, saro), 斯羅 (사라, sara), 徐那(伐) (서나(벌), seona(beol)), 徐耶(伐) (서야(벌), seoya(beol)), 徐羅(伐) (서라(벌), seora(beol)), 徐伐 (서벌, seobeol). In [[503]], [[Jijeung of Silla|King Jijeung]] standardized on the characters 新羅(신라), which in Modern Korean are read together as Silla; however, Korean /s/ is often [[palatalization|palatalized]] before /i/, so that the actual phonetic result tends to sound more like "Shilla" to the ear of an English speaker. An etymological hypothesis (there are various other speculations) suggests that, the native name “Seora-beol” might have been the origin of the native word “seo'ul” meaning "capital city" and also the name of the present capital of South Korea, a city which was previously known as Hanseong or Hanyang. The name of the Silla capital, might have been changed into, in the Late Middle Korean form Syeobeul (셔블) meaning "royal capital city," which soon might have altered into Syeo'ul (셔울), and finally resulted in Seo'ul (서울) in the Modern Korean language. The name of either Silla or its capital Seora-beol was also widely used throughout Northeast Asia as the ethnonym for the people of Silla, appearing as "Shiragi" (新羅、しらぎ) or "Shiragi-bito" (新羅人, literally "Silla-people") in the language of the Yamato Japanese and as "Sogol" or "Solho" in the language of the medieval Jurchens and their later descendants, the Manchus respectively. Silla was also referred to as [[Gyerim]] (鷄林, 계림), literally "chicken forest", a name that has its origins in the forest near the Silla capital where by legend the state's founder was hatched from the egg of a [[cockatrice]] (kor. 계룡, literally chicken-dragon). ==History== Scholars have traditionally divided Silla history into three distinct periods: Early (trad. 57 BCE–654 CE), Middle (654–780), and Late (780–935). === Shifting of Power === Silla was ruled by three clans, which were the [[Bak]], [[Seok]], and the [[Kim]]. Historical records do not mention any bloodshed in these shiftings of power, but historians have come to the conclusion that bloodless power shifts could not have happened. The [[Bak]] clan held power for three generations before being faced with a coup by the Seok clan. During the reign of the first Seok ruler, [[Talhae of Silla]], the Kim clan's presence in [[Silla]] is mentioned in the form of [[Kim Alji]] being born from an egg. The Bak and Seok clans constantly fight each other for power and both are eventually overthrown by the Kim clan. The [[Kim]] clan solely rules over Silla for many generations with the Bak and Seok clans as nobility, and the [[Bak]] eventually come back to power and ruled for four generations. However, the final ruler of [[Unified Silla|Later Silla]], King [[Gyeongsun of Silla|Gyeongsun]], was a member of the Kim Clan. ===Founding=== During the [[Proto-Three Kingdoms]] period, the city-states of central and southern Korea were grouped into three confederacies called [[Samhan]]. Silla began as Saro-guk, a statelet within the 12-member confederacy called [[Jinhan]]. Saro-guk consisted of six villages and six clans. According to Korean records, Silla was founded by King [[Bak Hyeokgeose of Silla|Bak Hyeokgeose]] in 57 BCE, around present-day [[Gyeongju]]. Hyeokgeose is said to have been hatched from an egg laid from a white horse, and when he turned 13, six clans submitted to him as king and established Saro (or Seona). He is also the progenitor of the Park (박) clan, now one of the most common family names in Korea. The earliest recording of this date is found in the [[Samguk Sagi]], a 12th century Korean history. Current archeological evidence indicates that while a polity may have been established even earlier than this in the Gyeongju region, it is too early to call it a kingdom. The author of the Samguk Sagi, [[Kim Bu-sik]], probably attempted to legitimize Silla rule by giving it historical seniority over its rival kingdoms [[Baekje]] and [[Goguryeo]]. ===Early period=== In the early years, leadership rotated among the three strongest clans, [[Park (Korean name)|Bak]], [[Seok]], and [[Kim (Korean name)|Kim]]. By the 2nd century, Silla existed as a distinct state in the southeastern area of the [[Korean peninsula]]. It expanded its influence over neighboring Jinhan chiefdoms, but through the 3rd century, it was probably no more than the strongest city-state in a loose federation. To the west, [[Baekje]] had centralized into a kingdom by about 250, by overtaking the [[Mahan confederacy]]. To the southwest, [[Byeonhan confederacy|Byeonhan]] was being replaced by the [[Gaya confederacy]]. In northern Korea, [[Goguryeo]], a kingdom by about 50 CE, destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313, and had grown into a threatening regional power. ===Growth into a kingdom=== [[Naemul of Silla|King Naemul]] (356&ndash;402) of the Kim clan established a hereditary monarchy, eliminating the rotating power-sharing scheme, and the leader's now truly royal title became ''Maripgan'' (from the native Korean root ''Han'' or ''Gan'', "leader" or "great", which was previously used for ruling princes in southern Korea, and which may have some relationship with the Mongol/Turkic title [[Khan (title)|Khan]]). In 377, it sent emissaries to China and established relations with [[Goguryeo]]. Facing pressure from [[Baekje]] in the west and Japan in the south[http://muse.jhu.edu/cgi-bin/access.cgi?uri=/journals/korean_studies/v027/27.1allen.pdf], in the later part of the 4th century, Silla allied with [[Goguryeo]]. However, when Goguryeo began to expand its territory southward, moving its capital to [[Pyongyang]] in 427, [[Nulji of Silla|Nulji]] was forced to ally with Baekje. By the time of [[Beopheung of Silla|King Beopheung]] (514&ndash;540), Silla was a full-fledged kingdom, with Buddhism as state religion, and its own [[Korean era name|era name systems]]. Silla absorbed the Gaya confederacy during the [[Gaya - Silla Wars|Gaya–Silla Wars]], annexing [[Geumgwan Gaya]] in 532 and conquering [[Daegaya]] in 562, thereby expanding its borders to the [[Nakdong River]] basin. [[Jinheung of Silla|King Jinheung]] (540&ndash;576) established a strong military force. Silla helped Baekje drive Goguryeo out of the Han River ([[Seoul]]) territory, and then wrested control of the entire strategic region from Baekje in 553, breaching the 120-year Baekje-Silla alliance. also King Jinheung was establishment [[Hwarang]]. The early period ended with the demise of the “hallowed bone” ([[Bone rank system|''seonggol'']]) rank with the death of [[Jindeok of Silla|Queen Jindeok]]. ===Later Silla=== {{Main|Unified Silla}} In the 7th century Silla allied itself with the [[China|Chinese]] [[Tang dynasty]]. In 660, under [[Muyeol of Silla|King Muyeol]] (654-661), Silla subjugated Baekje. In 668, under [[King Munmu of Silla|King Munmu]] (King Muyeol's successor) and the General [[Kim Yu-shin]], Silla conquered Goguryeo to its north. Silla then fought for nearly a decade to expel Chinese forces on the peninsula intent on creating Tang colonies there to finally establish a unified kingdom as far north as modern Pyongyang. The northern region of the defunct Goguryeo state later reemerged as [[Balhae]]. Silla's middle period is characterized by the rising power of the monarchy at the expense of the [[Bone rank system|''jingol'']] nobility. This was made possible by the new wealth and prestige garnered as a result of Silla's unification of the peninsula, as well as the monarchy's successful suppression of several armed aristocratic revolts following early upon unification, which afforded the king the opportunity of purging the most powerful families and rivals to central authority. Further, for a brief period of about a century from the late 7th to late 8th centuries the monarchy made an attempt to divest aristocratic officialdom of their landed base by instituting a system of salary payments, or office land (''jikjeon'' 직전, 職田), in lieu of the former system whereby aristocratic officials were given grants of land to exploit as salary (the so–called tax villages, or ''nogeup'' 녹읍, 祿邑). By the late 8th century, however, these royal initiatives had failed to check the power of the entrenched aristocracy. The mid to late 8th century saw renewed revolts led by branches of the Kim clan which effectively limited royal authority. Most prominent of these was a revolt led by Kim Daegong that persisted for three years. One key evidence of the erosion of kingly authority was the rescinding of the office land system and the reinstitution of the former tax village system as salary land for aristocratic officialdom in 757. The middle period of Silla came to an end with the assassination of [[Hyegong of Silla|King Hyegong]] in 780, terminating the kingly line of succession of [[Muyeol of Silla|King Muyeol]], the architect of Silla's unification of the peninsula. Hyegong‘s demise was a bloody one, the culmination of an extended civil war involving most of the kingdom‘s high–ranking noble families. With Hyegong‘s death, during the remaining years of Silla the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead as powerful aristocratic families became increasingly independent of central control. Thereafter the Silla kingship was fixed in the house of [[Wonseong of Silla|King Wonseong]] (785–798), though the office itself was continually contested among various branches of the Kim lineage. Nevertheless, the middle period of Silla witnessed the state at its zenith, the brief consolidation of royal power, and the attempt to institute a Chinese style bureaucratic system. ===Decline and fall=== The final century and a half of the Silla state was one of nearly constant upheaval and civil war as the king was reduced to little more than figurehead and powerful aristocratic families rose to dominance in the countryside. The tail end of this period, called the [[Later Three Kingdoms]], saw the emergence of the kingdoms of [[Later Baekje]] and [[Later Goguryeo]] and Silla's submission to the [[Goryeo]] dynasty. ==Silla Society and Politics== [[Image:Korea-Seoul.National.Museum-Silla-Crown-01.jpg|left|105px|thumb|Silla crown]] From at least the [[6th century]], when Silla acquired a detailed system of law and governance, social status and official advancement were dictated by the [[bone rank system]]. This rigid lineage-based system also dictated clothing, house size and the permitted range of marriage. Since its emergence as a centralized polity Silla society had been characterized by its strict aristocratic makeup. Silla had two royal classes: "sacred bone" (''seonggol'' 성골 聖骨) and "true bone" (''jingol'' 진골 眞骨). Up until the reign of King Muyeol this aristocracy had been divided into "sacred bone" and "true bone" aristocrats, with the former differentiated by their eligibility to attain the kingship. This duality had ended when Queen Jindeok, the last ruler from the "sacred bone" class, died in 654.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://100.empas.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?i=156198|title=성골 [聖骨]|accessdate=2006-08-29|work=Empas Encyclopedia}}</ref> The numbers of "sacred bone" aristocrats had been decreasing, as the title was only conferred to those whose parents were both "sacred bones", whereas children of a "sacred" and a "true bone" parent were considered as "true bones". Following unification Silla began to rely more upon Chinese models of bureaucracy to administer its greatly expanded territory. This was a marked change from pre-unification days when the Silla monarchy stressed Buddhism, and the Silla monarch's role as a "Buddha-king". Another salient factor in post-unification politics were the increasing tensions between the Korean monarchy and aristocracy. ==Culture== The capital of the Silla kingdom was [[Gyeongju]]. A great number of Silla tombs can still be found in the centre of Gyeongju. Silla tombs took the form of a stone chamber which was surrounded by a soil mound. A great number of remains from the Silla period can be found all over Gyeongju. The historic area around Gyeongju was added to the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage]] list in 2000.<ref>[http://www.imaeil.com/sub_news/sub_news_view.php?news_id=10211&yy=2008 매일신문<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Much of it is also protected as part of [[Gyeongju National Park]]. Additionally, two villages near Gyeongju area names of which are Hahoe and Yangdong would be submitted for UNESCO heritages in 2008 or later by related cities and South Korean government.<ref>'하회마을·양동마을 세계문화유산 추진''</ref> The Bronze Bell of [[King Seongdeok the Great of Silla|King Seongdeok the Great]] attracts a large number of tourists. The bell produces a distinctive sound, about which there is a legend. [[Cheomseongdae]] near Gyeongju is the oldest extant [[astronomical observatory]] in East Asia, while some disagree on its exact functions. It was built during the reign of Queen [[Queen Seondeok of Silla|Seondeok]] (623-647). Muslim traders brought the name "Silla" to the world outside the traditional East Asian sphere through the [[Silk Road]]. Geographers of the Arab and Persian world, including [[ibn Khurdadhbih]], [[Masudi|al-Masudi]], [[Dimashiki]], [[al-Nuwairi]], and [[al-Maqrizi]], left records about Silla. ===Buddhism=== [[Image:Mikeswe4.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Gold gilded statues of Buddha in [[Bulguksa]]]] Buddhism was formally adopted by Silla in [[527]] under [[Beopheung of Silla|King Beopheung]], though it had been exposed to the religion for over a century during which the faith had certainly made inroads into the native populace. It was the Buddhist monk [[Ado (monk)|Ado]] who first exposed Silla to Buddhism when he arrived to proselytize from Goguryeo in the mid 5th century.<ref>Buddhism of Silla http://www.shilla.or.kr/shilla_culture/shilla_bulgeo.asp</ref> However, according to legend, the Silla monarchy was convinced to adopt the faith by the martyrdom of the Silla court noble [[Ichadon]], who was executed for his Buddhist faith by the Silla king in 527 only to have his blood flow the color of milk. The importance of [[Buddhism]] in Silla society of the late early period is difficult to exaggerate. From King Beopheung and for the following six reigns Silla kings adopted Buddhist names and came to portray themselves as Buddha–kings.<ref>http://www.koreandb.net/Buddhism/buddhist1-main2.htm Retrieved on 2008-03-08</ref> Buddhism in Silla was, more so than in the case of Baekje and Goguryeo, an officially sponsored faith. Its state–protection aspects were emphasized. The [[Hwarang]] corps, an elite corps of youthful warriors that would play a central role in Silla unification of the peninsula, had strong connections to Buddhism, particularly the worship of the [[Maitreya]] Buddha. The late early period of Silla saw Buddhism‘s apogee there. A great number of temples were built, often financed and sponsored by high ranking nobility, the most notable being [[Hwangyongsa]], [[Bulguksa]] and [[Seokguram]]. Hwangyongsa (Imperial Dragon) temple in particular emphasized the power of the monarchy and Buddhism‘s role in state protection and aggrandizement. The nine stories of its wooden pagoda, perhaps the tallest manmade structure in East Asia of the period, were said to symbolize the nine nations destined to submit to Silla rule. Silla attached great importance to the pagoda, building them of stone as well as wood. With Silla unification Buddhism came to play a less perceptible role in politics as the monarchy attempted to adopt Chinese Confucian institutions of statecraft to govern an enlarged state and to curb the power of the aristocratic families. Nevertheless, Buddhism still enjoyed a central place in larger Silla society. Hundreds of Silla monks traveled to Tang China in search of education and for the procurement of much needed Buddhism sutras. Silla‘s strong Buddhist nature is also reflected by the thousands of remnant Buddhist stone figures and carvings, mostly importantly on [[Namsan (Gyeongju)|Namsan]]. ==Gallery== {{Commonscat|Silla kingdom}} <center> <gallery> Image:SillaCrownGuimet.jpg|A [[Crown of Silla]], 5-6th century Image:SillaDagger5thcenturyCE.jpg|A Silla dagger, 5th century Image:Korea_south_silla_bell.jpg|The Bronze Bell of King Seongdeok the Great Image:Korea_south_silla_pagoda.jpg|Stone pagoda on [[Namsan (Gyeongju)|Mt. Namsan]] near Gyeongju Image:Korea_south_silla_stone_buddha.jpg|Buddha relief carved into stone on Mt. Namsan near Gyeongju Image:Buddhistswastika.jpg|Buddhist temple showing ancient jumonji at Gyeongju Image:Bifyu_5.jpg|gold ornament from early Silla Image:Ddol-mangD.jpg|reliquary from 7th century Image:National Museum 5.jpg|A monkey warrior statue of Silla at the [[National Museum of Korea]]. Image:Dragon figure tile.JPG|Dragon figure tile in Unified Silla period. Image:SillaBrickDecoration.jpg|Decorated brick, 8th century, Silla kingdom. Image:SillaDecoratedSlab.jpg|Decorated slab, 8th century, Silla kingdom. </gallery></center> ==Notes== <references/> ==See also== *[[List of Korea-related topics]] *[[History of Korea]] *[[Three Kingdoms of Korea]] *[[Rulers of Korea]] *[[Hwarang]] *[[Crown of Silla]] *[[List of monarchies]] *[[Silla language]] ==External links== *[http://gyeongju.museum.go.kr/ Gyeongju National Museum] *[http://www.kallery.net/Q_get_pddng.php?g_clss=forum&g_prcss=thrd&g_tmplt=&g_brd=20&g_thrd=1508 The Myths of Millenium<!-- PLEASE NOTE that "Millenium" is deliberately spelled incorrectly here, reflecting the mistake on the external page. --> Kingdom, Silla] [[Category:Silla| ]] [[Category:Ancient peoples]] [[Category:Former countries in Korean history]] [[Category:History of Korea]] [[Category:Korean culture]] [[Category:50s BC establishments]] [[Category:935 disestablishments]] [[ar:مملكة شيلا]] [[bs:Sila kraljevstvo]] [[de:Silla]] [[es:Silla (Corea)]] [[eo:Silla]] [[fr:Silla (Corée)]] [[zh-classical:新羅]] [[ko:신라]] [[id:Silla]] [[it:Regno di Silla]] [[lv:Silla]] [[lt:Silla]] [[nl:Silla (Korea)]] [[ja:新羅]] [[nds:Silla]] [[pl:Silla]] [[ru:Силла]] [[sk:Silla]] [[sh:Sila kraljevstvo]] [[sv:Silla]] [[vi:Tân La]] [[uk:Сілла]] [[zh:新罗]]