Social class in the United States
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2008-07-13T20:34:31Z
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i don't see many chileans or spaniards performing migrant labor
[[Image:DSC07505.JPG|thumb|250px|A monument to the working and supporting classes along Market Street in the heart of [[Financial District, San Francisco, California|San Francisco's Financial District]], home to tens of thousands of professional and managerial middle class workers each day.]]
There is considerable controversy regarding '''social class in the United States''', and it remains a concept with many competing definitions.<ref name="Occupation and Class Consciousness in America">{{cite book | last = Eichar | first = Douglas | year = 1989 | title = Occupation and Class Consciousness in America | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Connecticut | id = 0-313-26111-3}}</ref> Many Americans believe in a simple three-class model that includes the "[[Affluence in the United States#Extreme affluence|rich]]", the "[[American middle class|middle class]]", and the "[[Poverty in the United States|poor]]". More complex models that have been proposed describe as many as a dozen class levels;<ref name="The American Class Structure">{{cite book | last = Gilbert | first = Dennis | year = 1998 | title = The American Class Structure | publisher = Wadsworth Publishing | location = New York | id = 0-534-50520-1}}</ref><ref name="Middle class according to The Drum Major Institute for public policy">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/now/politics/middleclassoverview.html|title=Middle class according to The Drum Major Institute for public policy|accessdate=2006-07-25}}</ref> others deny that "[[social class]]" exists in American society.<ref name="What is Social Class in America Lloyd Warner">{{cite book | last = Warner | first = Lloyd | coauthors = Marchia Meeker, Kenneth Eells | year = 1949 | title = What is Social Class in America, Lloyd Warner | publisher = Irvington Publishers | location = New York, NY | id = }}</ref> Most definitions of class structure group people according to [[Wealth in the United States|wealth]], [[Income in the United States|income]], [[Educational attainment in the United States|education]], type of [[occupation]], and membership in a specific subculture or social network.
[[Dennis Gilbert]], William Thompson, Joseph Hickey, and James Henslin have proposed class systems with six distinct social classes. These class models feature an [[American upper class|upper or capitalist class]] consisting of the [[Affluence in the United States#Extreme affluence|rich]] and powerful, an [[American middle class#The Professional/Managerial middle class|upper middle class]] consisting of highly educated and [[Affluence in the United States|well-paid]] professionals, a [[American middle class#Lower middle class|lower middle class]] consisting of semi-professionals, a working class constituted by [[Clerk|clerical]] as well as blue collar employees whose work is highly routinized, and a lower class divided between the working [[Poverty in the United States|poor]] and underclass.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/><ref name="Society in Focus">{{cite book | last = Thompson | first = William | coauthors = Joseph Hickey | year = 2005 | title = Society in Focus
|publisher = Pearson | location = Boston, MA | id = 0-205-41365-X}}</ref><ref name="Marriages Families Intimate Relationships">{{cite book | last = Williams | first = Brian | coauthors = Stacey C. Sawyer, Carl M. Wahlstrom | year = 2005 | title = Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships | publisher = Pearson | location = Boston, MA | id = 0-205-36674-0}}</ref>
==A classless society?==
The idea of a [[classless society]] somewhat persists in the United States, which may explain the notion of the vast majority of Americans who place themselves in the same class, the [[American middle class|middle class]].
Some academics consider American society sociologically and economically fragmented in such a manner that no clear class distinctions can be made. This means that there are no pronounced breaks in socio-economic strata, which makes class division highly subjective and disputable.<ref name="Occupation and Class Consciousness in America">{{cite book | last = Eichar | first = Douglas | year = 1989 | title = Occupation and Class Consciousness in America | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Connecticut | id = 0-313-26111-3}}</ref> Others, such as sociologist Dennis Gilbert, dispute the concept of a well-mixed society, and claim that distinct social networks can be identified for each class. W. Lloyd Warner also asserts the existence of class markers:
{{cquote|1=We are proud of those facts of American life that fit the pattern we are thought but somehow we are often ashamed of those equally important social facts which demonstrate the presence of social class. Consequently, we tend to deny them, or worse, denounce them and by doing so we tend to deny their existence and magically make them disappear from consciousness. |4=[[W. Lloyd Warner]]|5=What Social Class Is In America<ref name="What is Social Class in America Lloyd Warner"/>}}
Warner asserts that social class is as old as civilization itself and has been present in nearly every society from before the [[Roman Empire]], through medieval times, and to the modern-day United States. He believes that complex societies such as the United States need an equally complex social hierarchy.<ref name="What is Social Class in America Lloyd Warner">{{cite book | last = Warner | first = Lloyd | coauthors = Marchia Meeker, Kenneth Eells | year = 1949 | title = What is Social Class in America, Lloyd Warner | publisher = Irvington Publishers | location = New York, NY | id = }}</ref>
==Markers==
[[Image:Class US.png|thumb|350px|Class in the U.S., featuring occupational descriptions by Thompson & Hickey as well as U.S. Census Bureau data pertaining to [[Personal income in the United States|personal income]] and [[Educational attainment in the United States|educational attainment]] for those age 25 or older.]]
Some definitions of class look only at numerical measures such as wealth or income. Others take into account qualitative factors, such as education, culture, and social status. There is no consensus on which of these variables is essential and which are merely common correlates. It is also disputed whether sharp lines can be drawn; one point of view in the debate:
{{Cquote|1=A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among people that are regarded as being higher or lower...it is logically possible for a society to be stratified in a continuous gradation between high and low without any sharp lines...in reality...there is only a limited number of types of occupations... People in similar positions...grow similar in their thinking and lifestyle...they form a pattern, and this pattern creates social class.|4=Dennis Gilbert|5=''The American Class Structure'', 1998<ref name="The American Class Structure"/>
}}
===Social status===
{{cquote|1=It is impossible to understand people's behavior...without the concept of social stratification, because class position has a pervasive influence on almost everything...the clothes we wear...the television shows we watch...the colors we paint our homes in and the names we give our pets... Our position in the social hierarchy affects our health, happiness, and even how long we will live.|4=William Thompson, Joseph Hickey|5=Society in Focus, 2005<ref name="Society in Focus"/>}}
Social class is sometimes presented as a description of how the [[American society|society]] has distributed its members among positions of varying importance, influence, and prestige. In these models, certain occupations are considered to be desirable and influential, while others are considered to be menial, repetitive, and unpleasant. (In some cases, non-occupational roles such as a parent or volunteer mentor, are also considered.<ref name="Society in Focus"/>) Higher-class jobs require more skill and education.
Some sociologists consider the higher income and prestige of higher-class jobs to simply be incentives to obtain the skills necessary to perform important work.<ref name="Social Class and Stratification">{{cite book | last = Levine | first = Rhonda | year = 1998 | title = Social Class and Stratification
|publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | location = Lanham, MD | id = 0-8476-8543-8}}</ref> This is an important mechanism in the economic theory of [[capitalism]], and is compatible with the notion that class is mutable and determined by a combination of choices and opportunities.
In other cases, class or status is inherited. For example, being the son or daughter of a [[Affluence in the United States|wealthy individual]], may carry a higher status and different cultural connotations than being a member of [[nouveau riche]] ("new money"). Those taking the functionalist approach to sociology and economics view social classes as components essential for the survival of complex societies such as American society.<ref name="Society in Focus"/>
===Income===
{{main|Personal income in the United States|Household income in the United States}}
{{Income in the US}}
[[Income in the United States]] is most commonly measured by [[U.S. Census Bureau]] in terms of either household or individual and remains one of the most prominent indicators of class status. As 42% of all households, 76% of those in the top [[quintile]]s, had two income earners the discrepancy between household and personal income is quite considerable. In 2005 the top 15% of income earners made $62,500 or more, while 18% of households had incomes over $100,000. Personal income is largely the result of scarcity. As individuals who hold higher status positions tend to possess rare skills or assume positions society deems very essential, have higher incomes. Overall the median household income was $46,326 in 2005<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau household income 2006">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/hhinc/new02_001.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, household income, 2006|accessdate=2007-02-08}}</ref> while the median personal income (including only those above the age of 25) was $32,140.<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau median income of persons age or older">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_001.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, median income of persons, age 25 or older|accessdate=2006-12-09}}</ref>
Per capita household income, the income a household is able to allocate to each member of the household is also an important variable in determining a given household's standard of living. A high household income may be offset by a large household size; thus, resulting in a low per capita household income.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/> In 2005, the median household income per capita was $24,672.<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau household income 2006">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/hhinc/new02_001.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, household income, 2006|accessdate=2007-02-08}}</ref>
{{cquote|1=
It should be stressed...that a position does not bring power and prestige ''because'' it draws a high income. Rather, it draws a high income because it is functionally important and the available personnel are for one reason or another scarce. It is therefore superficial and erroneous to regard high income as the cause of a man's power and prestige, just as it is erroneous to think that a man's fever is the cause of his disease... The economic source of power and prestige is not income primarily, but the ownership of capital goods (including patents, good will, and professional reputation). Such ownership should be distinguished from the possession of consumers' goods, which is an index rather than a cause of social standing. |4=Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore|5=''Principles of Stratification''
}}
As mentioned above, income is one of the most prominent features of social class; it is not one of its causes. In other words, income does not determine the status of an individual or household but rather reflects on that status. Income and prestige are the incentives provided by society in order to fill needed positions with the most qualified and motivated personnel possible.<ref name="Social Class and Stratification"/>
''[[The New York Times]]'' has used income quintiles to define class. It has assigned the quintiles from lowest to highest as [[lower class]], [[lower middle class]], [[middle class]], [[upper middle class]], and [[upper class]].<ref name="New York Times definition of class according to the quintiles">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/national/20050515_CLASS_GRAPHIC/index_01.html|title=New York Times definition of class according to the quintiles|accessdate=2006-07-08}}</ref> These definitions equate class with income, permitting people to move from class to class as their income changes.
====Dual income controversy====
[[Image:Two or more income earners.svg|thumb|200px|Percentage of 2+ income households in each of the quintiles.<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau Income earners by quintile">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032005/hhinc/new05_000.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, Income earners by quintile|accessdate=2006-10-25}}</ref>]]
[[Household income in the United States|Income]] is one of the most commonly used attributes of a household to determine its class status. The relationship between income, which mostly arises from the scarcity of a certain skill, may however, prove to be more complex than initially perceived.<ref name="Social Class and Stratification"/> While the idea is that income reflects status, household income may just be the product of two or more incomes. In 2005, 42% of American households had two income earners. The vast majority (77%) of households in the top [[quintile]] had two or more income earners. This means that the majority of household income in the top quintile are the result of two income earners pooling their resources, establishing a close link between perceived [[Affluence in the United States|affluence]] and the number of income earners in a given household.<ref name="Marriages Families Intimate Relationships">{{cite book | last = Williams | first = Brian | coauthors = Stacey C. Sawyer, Carl M. Wahlstrom | year = 2005 | title = Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships | publisher = Pearson | location = Boston, MA | id = 0-205-36674-0}}</ref> <ref name="U.S. Census Bureau Income earners by quintile">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032005/hhinc/new05_000.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, Income earners by quintile|accessdate=2006-10-25}}</ref>This raises the question of whether or not the combination of incomes results in higher social status. Of course, there is no definite answer as class is a vague sociological concept.<ref name="Society in Focus"/>
{{cquote|1=
The parade of income earners with height representing income suggest that the relationship between the distribution of income and the class structure is... blurred in the middle... we saw dual-income working class marchers looking down on single-income upper-middle class marchers. In sum, the class structure as we have defined it... does not exactly match the distribution of household income. |4=Dennis Gilbert |5=''The American Class Structure'', 1998<ref name="The American Class Structure"/>
}}
Sociologist Dennis Gilbert states that it is possible for households to out-earn other households over higher class standing through increasing their number of income earners. He furthermore states that household size also played an essential role, as the standard of living for two persons living off one upper middle class personal income may very well be higher than that of a household with four members living off two working class personal incomes.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/> The combination of two or more incomes, allow for households to increase their income substantially without moving higher on the occupational ladder or attaining higher [[Educational attainment in the United States|educational degrees]]. Thus it is important to remember that the favorable economic position of households in the top two quintiles is in some cases the result of combined income, rather than demand for a single worker.<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau Income earners by quintile">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032005/hhinc/new05_000.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, Income earners by quintile|accessdate=2006-10-25}}</ref>
===Education===
{{main|Educational attainment in the United States}}
[[Image:Occupation educational attainment.svg|200px|thumb|right|Educational attainment is related to both occupation, as seen above, and income. This graph shows the educational attainment of individuals age 25-64, employed full-time, by occupational field.<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau report on educational attainment in the United States 2003">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-550.pdf|title=U.S. Census Bureau report on educational attainment in the United States, 2003|accessdate=2006-07-31}}</ref>]]
[[Tertiary education]] (or "higher education") is required for many middle-class professions, depending on how the term middle class is to be defined. Tertiary education is rarely free, but the costs vary widely: tuition at elite private colleges often exceeds $120,000 for a four-year program. On the other hand, public colleges and universities typically charge much less (for state residents), and many, such as the [[University of California]] system, rival the elite private schools in reputation and quality. Also, [[scholarship]]s offered by universities and government do exist, and low-interest loans are available. Still, the average cost of education, by all accounts, is increasing. The [[Educational attainment in the United States|attainment of post-secondary and graduate degrees]] is the perhaps most important feature of a [[American middle class|middle and upper middle class]] person with the university being regarded as the most essential institution and gatekeeper of the [[American middle class#The Professional/Managerial middle class|professional middle class]].<ref name="Society in Focus"/><ref name="The Inner Life of the Middle Class">{{cite book | last = Ehrenreich | first = Barbara | year = 1989 | title = Fear of Falling, The Inner Life of the Middle Class | publisher = Harper Collins | location = New York, NY | id = 0-06-0973331}}</ref> [[Educational attainment in the United States|Educational attainment]] is also directly linked to income.
In 2005, the vast majority of those with [[Educational attainment in the United States|doctorate and professional degrees]] were among the nation's top 15% of [[Personal income in the United States|income earners]].<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau income distribution of individuals employed full-time year round age 25-64 2006">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_028.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, income distribution of individuals, employed full-time, year round, age 25-64, 2006|accessdate=2006-12-27}}</ref> Those with [[Educational attainment in the United States|bachelor degrees]] had [[Personal income in the United States|incomes]] considerably above the national median while the median income for those with some [[Educational attainment in the United States|college education]] remained near the national median. According to [[U.S. Census Bureau]], 9% of persons aged 25 or older had a graduate degree, 27.9% had a Bachelor's degree or more with 53% having attended college.<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau income distribution of individuals employed full-time year round age 25-64 2006">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_028.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, income distribution of individuals, employed full-time, year round, age 25-64, 2006|accessdate=2006-12-27}}</ref><ref name="U.S. Census Bureau 2005 data published on Infoplease">{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908670.html|title=U.S. Census Bureau, 2005, data published on Infoplease.com|accessdate=2007-01-12}}</ref> With 85% of the population having graduated high school, it becomes apparent that the [[Average Joe|average American]] does not have a college degree, but is likely to have attended college for some time and has graduated high school. Overall, educational attainment serves as the perhaps most essential class feature of most Americans, being directly linked to [[Personal income in the United States|income]] and occupation.<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau report on educational attainment in the United States 2003">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-550.pdf|title=U.S. Census Bureau report on educational attainment in the United States, 2003|accessdate=2006-01-12}}</ref>
{| class=wikitable
!Year 2005
!Less than 9<sup>th</sup> grade
!No high school diploma
!High school graduate
!Some college
!Associates degree
!Bachelor's degree or more
!Bachelor's degree
!Graduate degree
!Masters degree
!Professional degree
!Doctorate
|-
|Percentage in Group||6.1%||8.4%||31.7%||16.7%||8.73%||27.9%||18.3%||9.7%||6.8%||1.6%||1.3%
|-
|Median personal income||$17,422||$20,321||$26,505||$31,054||$35,009||$49,303||$43,143||X||$52,390||$82,473||$70,853
|-
|}
'''SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, 2005'''<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau educational attainment and income age 25 2006">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_001.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, educational attainment and income, age 25+, 2006|accessdate=2007-01-13}}</ref>
===Culture===
Social classes feature their own sub-cultures and have therefore developed slightly different manners of socializing their offspring.<ref name="Society in Focus"/> Due to class mobility individuals may also assimilate to the culture of another class when ascending or descending in the social order. One does however need to remember that all social classes in the United States, except the [[American upper class|upper class]], consist of tens of millions of people. Thus social classes form [[social group]]s so large that they feature considerable diversity within and any statement regarding a given social class' culture needs to be seen as a broad generalization. Since 1970, sociologists such as Paula LeMasters and Melvin Kohl have set out repeatedly to research class based cultures. Class culture has been shown to have a strong influence on the mundane lives of people, affecting everything from the manner in which they raise their children, initiation and maintenance of romantic relationship to the color in which they paint their houses.<ref name="Society in Focus"/> The strongest cultural differences seem to run along the [[American middle class#The professional/Managerial middle class|professional middle class]]-[[American middle class#Working class majority|working class]] divide. A recent increase in residential class segregation and the overall tendency of individual to associate mostly with those of equal standing as themselves has further strengthened class differences.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/><ref name="What's Class Got To Do With It, American Society in the Twenty-First Century">{{cite book | last = Zweig | first = Michael | year = 2004 | title = What's Class Got To Do With It, American Society in the Twenty-First Century | publisher = Cornell University Press | location = New York, NY | id = 0-8014-8899-0}}</ref>
Parental views are the perhaps most essential factor in determining the socialization process which shapes new members of society.<ref name="Society in Focus"/> The values and standards used in child rearing are commonly closely related to the parent's occupational status.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/> Parents from the [[American middle class#The Professional/Managerial middle class|professional class]] tend to raise their children to become curious independent thinkers, while working class parents raise their children to have a more communal perspective with a strong respect for authority.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/> Middle class parents tend to emphasize internal standards and values while working class parents emphasize external values.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/> Sociologist Dennis Gilbert uses a list of values identified by Melvin Kohn to be typical of the [[American middle class#Professional/Managerial middle class|professional middle]] and working class. Middle class parents values for their children and themselves included: "Consideration of Others, Self-Control, Curiosity, Happiness, Honesty, Tolerance of [[Nonconformity]], Open to Innovation... Self-Direction." This contrasted with surveyed working class individuals, who reported: "Manners, Obedience... Neatness, Cleanliness, Strong Punishment of Deviant Behavior, Stock to Old Ways, People not Trustworthy... Strict Leadership" as values for themselves and their children. There is a strong correlation between these values and the occupational activities of the respondents. The job characteristics of middle class respondents included: ''"Work Independently, Varied Tasks, Work with People or Data,"'' versus working class parents of reported ''"Close Supervision and Repetitive Work..."''<ref name="The American Class Structure"/>
{{cquote
|Not once in a professional middle-class home did I see a young boy shake his father's hand in a well-taught ''manly'' gesture... Not once did I hear a middle-class parent scornfully-or even sympathetically-call a crying boy a sissy or in any way reprimand him for his tears... even as young as six or seven, the working class boys seemed more emotionally controlled-more like miniature men-than those in the middle-class families. |4=Sociologist Lillian Rubin in Gilbert, 1998}}
[[Gender roles]] are also viewed differently by those in the higher and lower social classes. [[American middle class|Middle class]] individuals, who were more open towards "nonconformity" and emphasized individual self-direction as well as critical thinking, were also less stringent in their application of gender roles. Working class individuals, on the other hand, emphasized gender roles. While working class people have more and more assimilated to middle class culture regarding their view and application of gender roles, differences remain. Professional class people are more likely to have an egalitarian distribution of work in their household with both spouses being equals in heterosexual marriages. According to Dennis Gilbert, "College life, generally a prologue to upper-middle class careers, delays marriage and encourages informal, relatively egalitarian association between men and women."<ref name="The American Class Structure"/><ref name="Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships">{{cite book | last = Williams | first = Brian | coauthors = Stacey C. Sawyer, Carl M. Wahlstrom | year = 2005 | title = Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships | publisher = Pearson | location = Boston, MA | id = 0-205-36674-0}}</ref>
==Academic models==
The following are reported income, education and occupation based terms for specific classes commonly used by sociologists.
{{Social class in the US}}
===Upper class===
{{see|American upper class}}<br />
[[Image:Robert Kennedy Jr. speech 1.jpg|250px|[[Robert Kennedy, Jr.]] is a member of America's upper class|thumb]]
This term is applied to a wide array of elites that exist in the United States. The term commonly includes all "blue bloods" (multi-generational wealth combined with leadership of high society) such as the [[Astor family|Astor]] or [[Roosevelt family|Roosevelt families]]. There is disagreement over whether the "[[nouveau riche]]" should be included as members of the upper class or whether this term should exclusively be used for established families. Twentieth century sociologist W. Lloyd Warner divided the [[upper class]] into two sections: the "upper-upper class" and "lower-upper class". The former includes established upper-class families while the latter includes those with [[Billionaire|great wealth]]. As there is no defined lower threshold for the upper class it is difficult, if not outright impossible, to determine the exact number or percentage of American households that could be identified as being members of the upper-class(es).
[[Household income in the United States|Income]] and [[Wealth in the United States|wealth]] statistics may serve as a helpful guideline as they can be measured in a more objective manner. In 2005, approximately one and half percent (1.5%) of households in the United States had incomes exceeding $250,000 with the top 5% having incomes exceeding $157,000.<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau, income quintile and Top 5%, 2004">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032005/hhinc/new05_000.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, income quintiles and [[Income quintiles|Top 5%]], 2004|accessdate=2006-07-08}}</ref> Furthermore only 2.6% of household held assets (excluding home equity) of more than one-million dollars. One could therefore fall under the assumption that less than five percent of American society are members of rich households.
Members of the upper class control and own significant portions of the corporate America and may exercise indirect power through the investment of capital. In recent years the salaries and, especially, the potential wealth through [[stock options]], has greatly increased for the "corporate elite". Inherited wealth leading to idleness is held in low regard and people who have it usually have prestigious occupations.<ref>Peter W. Cookson and Caroline Hodges Persell, ''Preparing for Power: America's Elite Boarding Schools'' (1987)</ref>
Yet another important feature of the upper class is that of inherited privilege. While most Americans, including those in the [[American middle class#The Professional/Managerial middle class|upper-middle class]] need to actively maintain their status, upper class persons do not need to work in order to maintain their status. Status tends to be passed on from generation to generation without each generation having to re-certify its status.<ref name="The Inner Life of the Middle Class"/> Overall, the upper class is the financially best compensated and one of the most influential socio-economic classes in American society.
====Corporate elite====
[[Image:Steve Ballmer.JPG|250px|[[Steve Ballmer]], [[chief executive officer]] of [[Microsoft]], is a member of America's corporate elite.|thumb]]
The high salaries and, especially, the potential wealth through stock options, has supported the term ''corporate elite''. Top executives, including [[Chief Executive Officer]]s, are among the financially best compensated occupations in the United States. The [[Median income|median annual earnings]] for a CEO in the United States were $140,350<ref name="Median annual earnings of CEOs according to the U.S. Department of Labor">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos012.htm|title=Median annual earnings of CEOs according to the U.S. Department of Labor|accessdate=2006-08-29}}</ref> (exceeding the income of more than 90% of U.S. households). ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reports the median compensation for CEOs of 350 major corporations was $6,000,000 in 2005 with most the money coming from stock options.<ref name="Income sources of top corporate personnel">{{cite web|url=http://www.careerjournal.com/salaryhiring/industries/seniorexecs/20060411-lublin.html|title=Income sources of top corporate personnel|accessdate=2006-08-28}}</ref> In New York City in 2005, the median income (including bonuses) of a corporate "[[chief operating officer]]" (the #2 job) was $377,000.<ref name="Salaries for top level corporate personnel">{{cite web|url=http://salaryexpert.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=Free_Salary_NA.Report&CobrandID=95&job=2&zip=&area=365600&GetReport.x=81&GetReport.y=9&JobAvailabilitySourceVar=42|title=Salaries for top level corporate personnel|accessdate=2006-08-28}}</ref> The total compensation for a "top IT officer" in charge of information technology in New York City was $218,000.<ref name="Salaries of CEOs">{{cite web|url=http://salaryexpert.com/seco/index.cfm?Action=DisplayNAInput&CobrandID=95&area=360000|title=Salaries of CEOs|accessdate=2006-08-28}}</ref> Thus even below the CEO level of [[Fortune 500|top corporations]], financial compensation will usually be sufficient to propel a households with a mere one income earner in the top 1%. In 2005 only 1.5% of American households had incomes above $250,000 with many reaching this level only through having two income earners.<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau, income quintile and Top 5%, 2004">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032005/hhinc/new05_000.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, income quintiles and Top 5%, 2004|accessdate=2006-07-08}}</ref><ref name="U.S. Census 2005 Economic Survey, income data">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032005/hhinc/new06_000.htm|title=U.S. Census 2005 Economic Survey, income data|accessdate=2006-06-29}}</ref><ref name="Salaries of politicians lower than that of top-level corporate personnel">{{cite web|url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/ooh9899/115.htm|title=Salaries of politicians lower than that of top-level corporate personnel|accessdate=2006-08-28}}</ref>
{{cquote|1=
Top executives are among the highest paid workers in the U.S. economy. However, salary levels vary substantially depending on the level of managerial responsibility; length of service; and type, size, and location of the firm. For example, a top manager in a very large corporation can earn significantly more than a counterpart in a small firm.
Median annual earnings of general and operations managers in May 2004 were $77,420. The middle 50% earned between $52,420 and $118,310. Because the specific responsibilities of general and operations managers vary significantly within industries, earnings also tend to vary considerably...the Median annual earnings of chief executives in May 2004 were $140,350; although chief executives in some industries earned considerably more...the median income of chief executive officers in the nonprofit sector was $88,006 in 2005, but some of the highest paid made more than $700,000. |4=U.S. Department of Labor |5={{Fact|date=August 2007}}
}}
Many politically powerful people make money before coming to office, but in general the political power elite have official incomes in the $150,000 to $185,000 range; members of Congress are paid $165,000, and are effectively required to have a residence in their district as well as one in Washington.<ref name="Economic statutes pertaining to congressmen">{{cite web|url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/ooh9899/116.htm|title=Economic statutes pertaining to congressmen|accessdate=2007-02-15}}</ref>
====Upper middle====
{{see|American middle class#The Professional/Managerial middle class}}
[[Image:Nrc-bri-bioprocess-lr.jpg|thumb|right|300px|In the United States, [[Engineering|engineers]] often belong to the upper middle class]]
This class consists of highly educated salaried professionals whose work is largely self-directed. Many have graduate degrees with educational attainment serving as the main distinguishing feature of this class. Household incomes commonly may exceed [[us dollar|$]]100,000 ([[Euro|€]]65,866 or [[pound sterling|£]]50,413), with some smaller one-income earners household having incomes in the high 5-figure range.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/><ref name="Society in Focus"/> Salaries are commonly in the high five-figure range. Members of this class commonly hold advanced academic degrees and are often involved with [[professional organization]]s. Due to the nature of professional and managerial occupations, the upper middle class tends to have great influence over the course of society.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/> Occupations which are essential to the forming of public opinion such as journalists, authors, commentators, professors, scientists, and advertisers are largely upper middle class.<ref name="The Inner Life of the Middle Class"/> The very well-educated, are seen as trend setters with movements such as the anti-smoking movement, pro-fitness movement, organic food movement, and environmentalism being largely indigenous to this particular socio-economic grouping. Education serves as perhaps the most important value and also the most dominant entry barrier of the upper middle class.<ref name="Society in Focus"/><ref name="What's Class Got To Do With It, American Society in the Twenty-First Century">{{cite book | last = Zweig | first = Michael | year = 2004 | title = What's Class Got To Do With It, American Society in the Twenty-First Century | publisher = Cornell University Press | location = New York, NY | id = 0-8014-8899-0}}</ref>
Sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert, Willam Thompson, and Joseph Hickey estimate the upper middle class to constitute roughly 15% of the population (or roughly three in every twenty persons). The main hallmark and most distinguishing feature of this class is its high educational attainment. Using the 15% figure one may conclude that the American upper middle class consist of professionals making more than [[us dollar|$]]67,500 ([[Euro|€]]44,468 or [[pound sterling|£]]34,029) who often, but not always, reside in households with a six-figure income.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/><ref name="Society in Focus"/><ref name="U.S. Census Bureau, income quintile and top 5% household income distribution and demographic characteristics, 2006">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/hhinc/new05_000.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, income quintile and top 5% [[Household income in the United States|household income distribution]] and demographic characteristics, 2006|accessdate=2006-12-28}}</ref><ref name="U.S. Census Bureau, distribution of personal income, 2006">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new01_001.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, distribution of personal income, 2006|accessdate=2006-12-09}}</ref>
===Middle class===
{{main|American middle class}}
[[Image:Teacher.jpg|thumb|Many primary and secondary level [[teacher]]s in the United states are in the [[American middle class|middle class]].]]
The [[American middle class|middle class]] is perhaps the mostly vaguely defined of the social classes.<ref name="Middle class according to The Drum Major Institute for public policy"/> The term can be used either to describe a relative elite of professionals and managers<ref name="The Inner Life of the Middle Class"/> (also called the upper middle class) or it can be used to describe those in-between the extremes of wealth, disregarding considerable differences in income, culture, [[Educational attainment in the United States|educational attainment]], influence, and occupation. As with all the social classes in the U.S. there are no definite answers as to what is and what is not middle class. Sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert, James Henslin, William Thompson, and Joseph Hickey have brought forth class models in which the middle class is divided into two sections that combined constitute 47% to 49% of the population. The upper middle or professional class constitutes the upper end of the middle class which consists of highly educated, well-paid professionals with considerable work autonomy. The lower end of the middle class, called either lower middle class or just middle class consists of semi-professionals, craftsmen and salesmen who often have just some college education and are more closely supervised.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/><ref name="Society in Focus"/><ref name="Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships">{{cite book | last = Williams | first = Brian | coauthors = Stacey C. Sawyer, Carl M. Wahlstrom | year = 2005 | title = Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships | publisher = Pearson | location = Boston, MA | id = 0-205-36674-0}}</ref>
{{cquote|1=
Everyone wants to believe they are middle class. For people on the bottom and the top of the wage scale the phrase connotes a certain Regular Joe cachet. But this eagerness to be part of the group has led the definition to be stretched like a bungee cord. |4=Dante Chinni, the ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]''|5=<ref name="The Christian Science Monitor, What is middle class?">{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0510/p09s01-codc.html|title=The Christian Science Monitor, What is middle class?|accessdate=2006-08-28}}</ref>
}}
Although income thresholds cannot be determined since social classes lack distinct boundaries and tend to overlap, sociologists and economist have put forward certain income figures they find indicative of middle class households. Sociologist [[Leonard Beeghley]] identifies a husband making roughly $57,000 and a wife making roughly $40,000 with a household income of roughly $97,000 as a typical middle class family.<ref name="The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States">{{cite book | last = Beeghley | first = Leonard | year = 2004 | title = The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States | publisher = Pearson | location = New York, NY | id = 0-205-37558-8}}</ref> Sociologists William Thompson and Joseph Hickey identify household incomes between $35,000 and $75,000 as typical for the lower middle and $100,000 or more as typical for the upper middle class.<ref name="Society in Focus"/> Though it needs to be noted that household income distribution neither relfects standard of living nor class status with complete accuracy.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/>
====Traditional middle class====
{{see|Average Joe|American middle class#Statistical middle class}}
Those households more or less at the center of society may be referred to as being part of the American middle or middle-middle class in vernacular language use. In the academic models featured in this article, however, the middle class does not constitute a strong majority of the population. Those in the middle of the socio-economic strata—the proverbial [[Average Joe]]—are commonly in the area where the working and lower middle class overlap. The most prominent academic models split the middle class into two sections. Yet, it remains common for the term middle class to be applied for anyone in between either extreme of the socio-economic strata. The middle class is then often sub-divided into an upper-middle, middle-middle, and lower-middle class. In colloquial descriptions of the class system the middle-middle class may described as consisting of those in the middle of the social strata. Politicians and news anchors such as Lou Dobbs can be seen using the term middle class in this manner, especially when discussing the middle class squeeze.<ref name="Middle class according to The Drum Major Institute for public policy"/><ref name="Middle income can't buy Middle class lifestyle">{{cite web|url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2003/10.30/19-bankruptcy.html|title=Middle income can't buy Middle class lifestyle|accessdate=2006-07-25}}</ref> The wide discrepancy between the academic models and public opinions that lump highly educated professionals together in the same class with secretaries, may lead to the conclusion that public opinion on the subject has become largely ambiguous.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/>
====Lower middle class====
The lower middle class is, as the name implies, generally defined as those less privileged than the middle class. People in this class commonly work in supporting occupations and seldom hold advanced academic degrees. There is also considerable debate of whether or not this class is truly part of the middle class and whether or not its members should be identified as being working class or even poor instead of middle class.<ref name="The Christian Science Monitor, What is middle class?">{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0510/p09s01-codc.html|title=The Christian Science Monitor, What is middle class?|accessdate=2006-08-28}}</ref>
Sociologists Dennis Gilbert, William Thompson, and Joseph Hickey, however, only divide the middle class into two groups. In their class modes the middle class only consists of an upper and lower middle class. The upper middle class, as described above, constitutes roughly 15% of the population with highly educated white collar professionals who commonly have salaries in the high 5-figure range and household incomes in the low six figure range. Semi-professionals with Bachelor's degrees and some college degrees constitute the lower middle class. Their class models show the lower middle class positioned slightly above the middle of the socio-economic strata. Those in [[blue-collar|blue]] and [[pink-collar worker|pink collar]] as well as clerical occupations are referred to as working class in these class models.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/><ref name="Society in Focus"/>
===Working class===
[[Image:Waitress2k7.jpg|Wait staff at restaurants often belong to the working class or working poor|thumb]]
The working class in the United States is as vaguely defined as the middle class with whom it overlaps according to some definitions. Sociologists estimate that anywhere from 32% to 45% of households are working class.<ref name="The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States">{{cite book | last = Beeghley | first = Leonard | year = 2004 | title = The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States | publisher = Pearson | location = New York, NY | id = 0-205-37558-8}}</ref> While some might argue that the working class is synonymous with the lower middle class, it may also be argued that the working class constitutes the majority of the American population (or the "silent majority").<ref name="The Inner Life of the Middle Class"/><ref name="The Working Class Majority: America's Best Kept Secret">{{cite book| last = Zweig | first = Michael | year = 2001 | title= The Working Class Majority: America's Best Kept Secret | publisher = IRL Press | location = New York, NY | id = 0801487277}}</ref> A distinctive feature of this class may include that fact that workers from this class merely take orders and are neither compensated for their ideas nor are they involved in the decision-making process of the organization for which they work.<ref name="The Inner Life of the Middle Class"/> Yet another more dated definition is that the working class commonly consists of [[blue-collar workers]], while non-professional [[White-collar|white-collar workers]] are lower middle class. The guideline stating that working class workers are not paid to think, but rather perform tasks, persists however through many ideologies regarding this class. Much like the lower middle class (which may be the same class according to some theories) the working class has little economic security and is extremely susceptible to fluctuations in the economy. Out-sourcing and cost-cutting related lay-offs are much more a pressing issues for persons of this class, than in the higher classes.<ref name="Social Class and Stratification"/>
{{cquote|1=
Laborers, who must sell themselves piecemeal, are a commodity, like every other article of commerce, and are consequently exposed to...all the fluctuations of the market...owing to the...division of labor, the work of proletarians has lost all individual character...the workman...becomes an appendage of the...easily acquired knack, that is required of him.|4=Karl Marx, 1848}}
While [[Karl Marx]]'s statement may be over one-hundred fifty years old, it still relates to modern society in that working class persons are very much prone to economic downturns. While the actual persons are not a commodity themselves, their labor is. Labor is one of the primary factors of production alongside land, capital, and entrepreneurship.<ref name="Factors of production">{{cite web|url=http://economics.about.com/od/factorsofproduction/|title=Factors of production|accessdate=2006-08-29}}</ref> Unlike professionals, who are paid to conceptualize, create, think, and advise, working class employees usually complete assigned tasks, as they often lack the proper training necessary for more influential positions. Today, however, this division of labor is largely due to the fact that the direction of resources requires expertise that often cannot be gained without a college education. As working class persons tend to lack higher education they are commonly not qualified to design, create, or advise.<ref name="The Inner Life of the Middle Class"/> Thus today's market labor division arose from necessity not political reasons. It should also be noted, that the modern working class works less than the upper middle class or the top 5%. While 81% of persons in the top quintile worked more than fifty hours a week, only two-thirds of those in the second quintile worked more than fifty hours a week.<ref name="U.S. Census Bureau, income quintile and Top 5%, 2004">{{cite web|url=http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032005/hhinc/new05_000.htm|title=U.S. Census Bureau, income quintiles and [[Income quintiles|Top 5%]], 2004|accessdate=2006-07-08}}</ref>
===Lower class===
[[Image:Homeless anchorage.jpg|A homeless man in [[Anchorage, Alaska]]|thumb]]
The term lower class is commonly applied to those at the bottom of the social hierarchy. Definitions of this term vary greatly. While Lloyd Warner found the vast majority of the American population to be in either the upper-lower class or lower-lower class in 1949, modern-day experts such as Michael Zweig, an economist for [[State University of New York at Stony Brook|SUNY–Stony Brook]], argue that the working class constitutes most of the population.<ref name="The Working Class Majority: America's Best Kept Secret">{{cite book| last = Zweig | first = Michael | year = 2001 | title= The Working Class Majority: America's Best Kept Secret | publisher = IRL Press | location = New York, NY | id = 0801487277}}</ref> Dennis Gilbert places 13% of households among the "working poor" with 12% being in the "underclass". Thompson & Hickey place roughly 17% to 20% of households in the lower classes. The lower classes constituting roughly a fifth to a quarter of American society consists mainly of low-rung retail and service workers as well as the frequently unemployed and those not able to work.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/><ref name="Society in Focus"/><ref name="Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships">{{cite book | last = Williams | first = Brian | coauthors = Stacey C. Sawyer, Carl M. Wahlstrom | year = 2005 | title = Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships | publisher = Pearson | location = Boston, MA | id = 0-205-36674-0}}</ref> Overall, 13% of the population fall below the [[poverty threshold]]. Hunger and food insecurity were present in the lives of 3.9% of American households, while roughly twenty-five million Americans (ca. 9%) participated in the [[food stamp]] program.<ref name="Results, Center on Hunger and Poverty, hunger and poverty statistics for the United State">{{cite web|url=http://www.results.org/website/article.asp?id=350|title=Results, Center on Hunger and Poverty, hunger and poverty statistics for the United State|accessdate=2006-08-29}}</ref>
==Agriculture==
{{See|Agricultural history of the United States |Social class in American history}}
===Farmworkers===
Before industrialization, "yeoman farmers"—self-sufficient, politically independent landowners—made up a large portion of the country's population. [[Jeffersonian democracy]] and [[Jacksonian democracy]] successfully expanded the political rights of the yeomen, and the geographical extent of the nation to provide them farms. This culminated in the [[Homestead Act]] of 1862 which provided hundreds of thousands of free farms. Before 1865 large southern plantations used [[history of slavery in the United States|slaves]]. After [[emancipation]], a system of [[sharecropping]] and [[tenant farming]] for both whites and blacks in the [[Southern United States|South]] provided a semi-independent status for farmers who did not own their land. In contemporary times, migrant agricultural workers—mostly [[Mexican]]s—perform field and packing work.<ref> John L. Shover. ''First Majority, Last Minority: The Transforming of Rural Life in America'' (1976)</ref>
===Farmers===
Only 0.7% of the population of the United States is employed in the agricultural sector.<ref name="CIA factbook, U.S. labor force by economic sector">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html#Econ|title=CIA factbook, U.S. labor force by economic sector|accessdate=2007-02-15}}</ref> Most are proprietors of independent farms. Once the dominant American social class, this group diminished in overall numbers during the 20th century, as farm holdings grew more consolidated, farming operations became more mechanized, and most of the population migrated to urban areas.<ref name="The American Class Structure"/> Today, the agricultural sector has essentially taken on the characteristics of business and industry generally. In contemporary usage, a "farmer" is someone who owns and operates a farm, which more often than not will be a sizable business enterprise; "agricultural workers" or "farm workers", who perform the actual work associated with farming, typically come out of the lower classes; indeed, they are often near-destitute [[immigrant]]s or [[migrant farm worker]]s. In this respect, farming mirrors big business: like any enterprise, a farm has owners (who may be a family or a corporation), salaried managers, supervisors, foremen and workers. With the number of farms steadily diminishing, the stereotypical humble homestead is increasingly the exception, for viable farming now means agribusiness; the large amounts of capital required to operate a competitive farm require large-scale organization. The large landowners in [[California|California's]] [[California Central Valley|Central Valley]], [[Coachella Valley]] and [[Imperial Valley (California)|Imperial Valley]] fall squarely within the upper class. Among farmers, "income" in the conventional sense is not an accurate standard of wealth measurement, because farmers typically keep their official income low by placing their assets into farming corporations rather than drawing the money directly. The stereotypical poor, marginal farmer "eking out a living" from the soil, an image deeply ingrained in most Americans' minds by folklore, films, and even history texts, has now been largely displaced by agribusiness, which has bought them out and consolidated their holdings.<ref> R. Douglas Hurt, ''American Agriculture: A Brief History'' (2002); John T Schlebecker. ''Whereby we thrive: A history of American farming, 1607-1972'' (1972) (ISBN 0-8138-0090-0)
</ref>
== Class mobility ==
Class ascendancy—namely that each successive generation will have a higher standard of living than its predecessor—is a central theme in [[American literature]] and [[American culture|culture]] and plays a key role in the [[American dream]]. While social class in the United States is largely based on achievement, climbing the social ladder is more difficult for those born into less advantageous positions.<ref name="Society in Focus"/><ref name="The Inner Life of the Middle Class"/> Occupation (perhaps the most important class component), educational attainment, and income can be increased through a lifetime. However, factors such as wealth inheritance and local education system—which often provides lower quality education to those in poor school districts<ref>[http://www.asu.edu/educ/epsl/EPRP/EPRP-0206-102-EPRP.htm "What Research Says About Unequal Funding for Schools in America"] Bruce Biddle and David C. Berliner. Winter 2002. "URL accessed [[21 August]] [[2006]]."</ref>—may make rising out of poverty a challenge. Class mobility in the United States decreased between the 1970s and the 1990s.<ref>[http://www.bos.frb.org/economic/nerr/rr2002/q4/issues.pdf Are Lifetime Incomes Growing More Unequal? Looking at New Evidence on Family Income Mobility<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
==Class and politics==
[[Image:04 election results by educational attainment.png|thumb|250px|CNN 2004 election poll.<ref name="CNN, the demographics of voters in 2004">{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/pages/results/states/US/P/00/epolls.0.html|title=CNN, the demographics of voters in 2004|accessdate=2006-12-13}}</ref>]]
{{see|Household income in the United States|Personal income in the United States|Educational attainment in the United States}}
Income remains one of the main indicators of class, as it commonly reflects high educational attainment as well as a prestigious occupation.<ref name="Social Class and Stratification">{{cite book | last = Levine | first = Rhonda | year = 1998 | title = Social Class and Stratification | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | location = Lanham, MD | id = 0-8476-8543-8}}</ref> Today there remains a strong correlation, if not causation, between political activism as well as political representation and [[Household income in the United States|household income]]. Furthermore, a discrepancy in the political attitudes can be found among individuals residing in households with differing incomes.<ref name="Society in Focus">{{cite book | last = Thompson | first = William | coauthors = Joseph Hickey | year = 2005 | title = Society in Focus | publisher = Pearson | location = Boston, MA | id = 0-205-41365-X}}</ref> During the 2000 election, voter turnout among those in the top 26% with [[Household income in the United States|household incomes]] exceeding $75,000 were 27% more likely to vote than the average.<ref name="Voting Registration in the Election of 2000. ''Current Population Reports''">{{cite book | last = U.S. Census Bureau | year=2002 | title=Voting Registration in the Election of 2000. ''Current Population Reports'' | publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office | location=Washington D.C. | id=}}</ref> Some rather controversial issues such as race were impacted by [[Household income in the United States|household income]].<ref name="American Demographics, June 2000">{{cite book| last=The Gallup Organization | year=2000 | title=American Demographics, June 2000 | publisher=The Gallup Organization | location=Princeton, NJ | id= }}</ref> With higher voter turnout and affiliation with professional organizations and other popular political lobbies such as the [[AARP]] or [[NAACP]], those with higher incomes were more likely to be represented in the political process with the government being more attuned to their needs.
Education also has an effect on voting record. Generally, the more educated a person is, the more likely he or she is to vote with those having graduate degrees being more likely to vote Democrat. While a rise in income generally increases the likelihood of a person voting Republican, many upper middle class professionals with [[Educational attainment in the United States|post-graduate degrees]] are more likely to vote [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]. The presence of upper middle class liberals as households with incomes exceeding $100,000 and those with graduate degrees were the only demographics where Ralph Nader won 1% of the vote. Even though those with post-graduate degrees only constituted 8.9% of the general population, they constituted 16% of all voters. This means that the most highly educated 16% of voters were expected to vote Democrat even though most of their similarly high paid but lesser educated counterparts did not.<ref name="CNN, the demographics of voters in 2004">{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/pages/results/states/US/P/00/epolls.0.html|title=CNN, the demographics of voters in 2004|accessdate=2006-12-13}}</ref>
==Class and health==
[[Income in the United States|Income]] also had a significant impact on health as those with higher [[Income in the United States|incomes]] had better access to health care facilities, higher [[life expectancy]], lower [[infant mortality rate]] and increased health consciousness. While the United States lacks [[socialized medicine]] similar to that found in many other post-industrialized developed nations across Europe and Asia, 85% of the U.S. population were insured in 2005. Yet, discrepancies seem to remain beyond the difference between insured and uninsured. In 2006, Harvard researchers divided the U.S. into "eight Americas."<ref name="DCA, Harvard study concerning health in the 8 Americas">{{cite web|url=http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/0002418/42/|title=DCA, Harvard study concerning health in the 8 Americas|accessdate=2006-12-13}}</ref> Life expectancy ranges from 84.9 years for the 10,400,000 Asian Americans who had an average [[per capita income]] of $21,566. Urban [[African American]]s with an [[average]] [[per capita income]] of a mere $14,800 had a [[life expectancy]] of merely 71.1 years, although this does not control for natural longevity differences among race.<ref name="DCA, Harvard study concerning health in the 8 Americas">{{cite web|url=http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/0002418/42/|title=DCA, Harvard study concerning health in the 8 Americas|accessdate=2006-12-13}}</ref> Furthermore, the United States like other [[post-industrial society|post-industrial nations]] saw increased health consciousness among persons of higher social status. Persons of higher status are less likely to smoke, more likely to exercise regularly and be more conscious of their diet.<ref name="Health and social class">{{cite web|url=http://jech.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/57/6/440|title=Health and social class|accessdate=2006-12-13}}</ref> Additionally, poor Americans are more likely to consume lower quality, processed foods. One can therefore conclude that low socio-economic status contributes to a person's likelihood of being obese.<ref name="Bad diet and income">{{cite web|url=http://www.frac.org/html/hunger_in_the_us/hunger&obesity.htm|title=Bad diet and income|accessdate=2006-12-14}}</ref><ref name="Socioeconomic status and obesity">{{cite web|url=http://www.cherp.research.med.va.gov/cherpdocs/issuebriefs/Policy%20Brief_Fall2005.pdf|title=Socioeconomic status and obesity|accessdate-2006-12-14}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Income inequality in the United States]]
*[[Social class in American history]]
*[[Social stratification]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
* Leonard Beeghley; ''The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States'' Pearson, 2004
* Dennis Gilbert; ''The American Class Structure'' Wadsworth, 2002
* Rhonda Levine; ''Social Class and Stratification'' Rowman & Littlefield, 1998
* Michael Zweig; ''What's Class Got To Do With It?'' Cornell University Press, 2003
* Christopher Beach; ''Class, Language, and American Film Comedy'' Cambridge University Press, 2002
* Harold J. Bershady ed; ''Social Class and Democratic Leadership: Essays in Honor of E. Digby Baltzell'' 1989
* Daniel Bertaux, and Paul Thompson; ''Pathways to Social Class: A Qualitative Approach to Social Mobility'' Clarendon Press, 1997
* Barbara Ehrenreich. ''Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America'' (2002), author disguises herself as working class
* David B. Grusky (Editor) ''Social Stratification: Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological Perspective'' (2000)
* Alan C. Kerckhoff; ''Socialization and Social Class'' 1972, textbook
* Jim Lardner, James Lardner, David A. Smith, editors, ''Inequality Matters: The Growing Economic Divide In America And Its Poisonous Consequences'', WW Norton (January, 2006), hardcover, 224 pages, ISBN 1-56584-995-7
* Erik Olin Wright. ''Classe'' (1997) - a detailed Marxian guide to define working class/middle class etc.
* David Popenoe, ''Sociology'', (ninth edition, Prentice Hall, 1993 ISBN 0-13-819798-9 ) pb. pp. 232–236,
* [http://sociology.ucsc.edu/whorulesamerica/power/wealth.html Wealth, Income, and Power] - wealth distribution in the U.S. from a Power Structure Research perspective
* [http://www.korpios.org/resurgent/L-mobility.htm Myth: Income mobility makes up for income inequality] - analysis from Liberal point of view
* Kalra, Paul (1996). ''The American Class System: Divide and Rule''. ISBN 0-96-471735-2.
* Kay Hymowitz / ''Marriage and Caste in America: Separate and Unequal Families in a Post-Marital Age'' (2006) ISBN 1566637090
==External links==
*[http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/incomestats.html U.S. Census Bureau's official online income statistics forum]
*[http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/hhinc/new06_000.htm Income distribution and income by race, U.S. Census Bureau 2005]
*[http://www.census.gov/hhes/income/histinc/h13.html Household income by educational attainment, U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.census.gov/hhes/income/histinc/p16.html Personal income in 2004, U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/medincsizeandstate.html Median Family Income by Family Size] (in 2004 inflation-adjusted dollars) from Census.gov
*[http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/medincearnersandstate.html Median Family Income by Number of Earners in Family] (in 2004 inflation-adjusted dollars) from Census.gov
*[http://www.classmatters.org/working_definitions.php Working Definitions] ClassMatters.com
*[http://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/national/20050515_CLASS_GRAPHIC/index_01.html How Class Works], The New York Times
{{Socialclass}}
{{Life in the United States}}
{{Demographics of the United States}}
{{United States topics}}
[[Category:Social class in the United States| ]]