Song Sparrow 341781 210189933 2008-05-04T22:00:13Z Bender4 7036245 added amount of eggs and color {{Taxobox | name = Song Sparrow | status = LC | image = Song Sparrow-27527-2.jpg | image_width = 280px | image_caption = '''''Melospiza melodia melodia''''' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[bird|Aves]] | ordo = [[Passeriformes]] | familia = [[Emberizidae]] | genus = ''[[Melospiza]]'' | species = '''''M. melodia''''' | binomial = ''Melospiza melodia'' | binomial_authority = ([[Alexander Wilson|Wilson]], 1810) | range_map = Melospizamelodia habitat.PNG | range_map_width = 280px | synonyms = ''Melospiza cinerea'' }} The '''Song Sparrow''', '''''Melospiza melodia''''', is a medium-sized [[American sparrow]]. Adults have brown upperparts with dark streaks on the back and are white underneath with dark streaking and a dark brown spot in the middle of the breast. They have a brown cap and a long brown rounded tail. Their face is grey with a streak through the eye. For subspecies, see below. In the field, they are most easily confused with its congener the [[Lincoln's Sparrow]], and the [[Savannah Sparrow]]. The former can be recognized by its shorter, greyer tail and the differently-patterned head, the brown cheeks forming a clear-cut angular patch. The Savannah Sparrow has a forked tail and yellowish flecks on the face when seen up close. Although they are a habitat generalist<ref>[http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=2468221&q=%22song+sparrow%22+%22habitat+generalist%22&uid=792312255&setcookie=yes] Greenberg, R, " Feeding neophobia and ecological plasticity: A test of the hypothesis with captive sparrows." ''Animal Behaviour'', Vol. 39, No. 2, (1990), pp. 375-379.</ref>, their favorite habitat is brushy areas and marshes, including salt marshes, across most of [[Canada]] and the [[United States]]. They also thrive in human areas, such as in suburbs, along edges in agricultural areas, and along roadsides. In southern locations, they are permanent residents. Northern birds [[bird migration|migrate]] to the southern [[United States]] or [[Mexico]], where there is also a local population resident all year round. The Song Sparrow is a very rare vagrant to western [[Europe]], with a few recorded in [[Great Britain]] and [[Norway]]. These birds forage on the ground, in shrubs or in very shallow water. They mainly eat insects and seeds. Birds in salt marshes may also eat small [[crustaceans]]. They nest either in a sheltered location on the ground or in trees or shrubs. ==Eggs== The Song Sparrow lays 3-5 eggs. The egg coloring is a brown spotted greenish-white. ==Song== The male of this species uses its melodious and fairly complex song to declare ownership of its territory and to attract females. The song sparrow's song consists of a combination of repeated notes, quickly passing isolated notes, and trills. The songs are very crisp, clear, and precise, making them easily distinguishable by human ears. A particular song is determined not only by pitch and rhythm but also by the timbre of the trills. Although one bird will know many songs - as many as 20 different tunes with as many as 1,000 improvised variations on the basic theme{{Fact|date=February 2007}} -, unlike [[thrush (bird)|thrushes]], the song sparrow usually repeats the same song many times before switching to a different song. {{listen|filename=Melospiza-melodia-001.ogg|title=Song Sparrow|description=Five calls in a minute.}} Song sparrows typically learn their songs from a handful of other birds that have neighboring territories. They are most likely to learn songs that are shared in common between these neighbors. Ultimately, they will choose a territory close to or replacing the birds that they have learned from. This allows the song sparrows to address their neighbors with songs shared in common with those neighbors. It has been demonstrated that song sparrows are able to distinguish neighbors from strangers on the basis of song, and also that females are able to distinguish (and prefer) their mate's songs from those of other neighboring birds, and they prefer songs of neighboring birds to those of strangers. Other birds such as [[mockingbird]]s are not able to effectively imitate the song sparrow's song.{{fact|date=December 2007}} [[Image:Melospiza-melodia-001.jpg|thumb|right|284px|Singing ''Song Sparrow'' in [[Whitby%2C_Ontario|Whitby, Ontario]].]] ==Natural enemies== Common predators of the song sparrow include [[cats]], [[hawks]], and [[owls]]. [[Snakes]], [[dogs]], and the [[american kestrel]] are treated ambiguously, suggesting that they are less of a threat. The song sparrow recognizes enemies by both instinctual and learned patterns (including [[cultural learning]]), and adjusts its future behavior based on both its own experiences in encounters, and from watching other birds interact with the enemies. Comparisons of experiments on hand-raised birds to observation of birds in the wild suggest that the fear of owls and hawks is instinctual, but fear of cats is learned.<ref name="enemy">[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0004-8038%28194104%2958%3A2%3C195%3AERBTSS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A] Margaret M. Nice; Joost Ter Pelkwyk, "Enemy Recognition by the Song Sparrow" ''The Auk'', Vol. 58, No. 2. (Apr., 1941), pp. 195-214.</ref> Song sparrows' nests are parasitized by the [[brown-headed cowbird]]. The cowbirds' eggs closely resemble song sparrows' eggs, although the cowbirds' eggs are slightly larger. Song sparrows recognize cowbirds as a threat and attack the cowbirds when they are near the nest. There is some evidence that this behavior is learned rather than instinctual.<ref name="enemy" /> A more recent study found that the behavior of attacking female cowbirds near nests may actually attract cowbird parasitism because the female cowbirds use such behavior to identify female song sparrows that are more likely to successfully raise a cowbird chick.<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/j23p850412p66897/] James N. M. Smith1, Peter Arcese1 and Ian G. McLean, " Age, experience, and enemy recognition by wild song sparrows", ''Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology'', Vol. 14, No. 2 (Feb., 1984) pp. 101-106.</ref> One study found that while cowbird parasitism did result in more nest failure, overall there were negligible effects on song sparrow populations when cowbirds were introduced to an island. The study pointed to a number of explanatory factors including song sparrows raising multiple broods, and song sparrows' abilities to raise cowbird chicks with their own.<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0010-5422%28199411%2996%3A4%3C916%3ABCAAIP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9] James N. M. Smith; Peter Arcese, "Brown-Headed Cowbirds and an Island Population of Song Sparrows: A 16-Year Study", ''The Condor'', Vol. 96, No. 4. (Nov., 1994), pp. 916-934.</ref> ==Subspecies== The Song Sparrow is one of the birds with the most numerous subspecies in [[North America]], and even on a global scale rivals such species as the [[Horned Lark]], the [[Yellow Wagtail]], the [[Golden Whistler]] or the [[Island Thrush]]. 52 [[subspecies]] were named altogether, of which 24 are considered valid nowadays.<ref>Patten (2001), Arcese ''et al.'' (2002)</ref> ===Eastern group=== Small, brownish, long-winged forms with strong black streaks. * ''Melospiza melodia melodia'' <small>(Wilson, 1810)</small>. The [[nominate subspecies]]. Eastern half of North American range except coastal areas south from [[New York State]]. In winter, they migrate southeastwards. Very contrasting, very light with black streaks below, and grey margins to back feathers. This population includes the forms named as ''M. m. juddi'' <small>Bishop, 1896</small>; ''M. m. acadica'' <small>Thayer and Bangs, 1914</small>; ''M. m. beata'' <small>(''non'' Bangs) Todd, 1930</small>; ''M. m. euphonia'' <small>Wetmore, 1936</small>; ''M. m. callima'' <small>Oberholser, 1974</small>; and ''M. m. melanchra'' <small>Oberholser, 1974</small>. * ''Melospiza melodia atlantica'' <small>Todd, 1924</small>. Inhabits the Atlantic Coast salt marshes from New York State southwards; does not migrate. Differs from nominate by a gray back. Includes ''M. m. rossignolii'' <small>Bailey, 1936</small>. * ''Melospiza melodia montana'' <small>Henshaw, 1884</small>. The subspecies west of ''melodia'' to the [[Rocky Mountains]]. Some birds from the northern part of its range migrate to NW Mexico in winter. Similar to nominate, but larger, duller coloration and more slender bill. Includes ''M. m. fisherella'' <small>Oberholser, 1911</small>. ===Northwestern group=== Large, dark, diffuse dark streaks. A study of [[mtDNA]] [[allozyme]] variation of most forms in this group concluded that they are of comparatively recent origin and that island populations are apparently derived independently from each other.<ref>Hare & Shields (1992)</ref> [[Image:Melospiza melodia 01450t.JPG|thumb|284px|Taken at [[Springfield, Oregon]] in early April, this photo probably shows ''M. m. cleonensis'' or a "''phaea''" hybrid.]] * ''Melospiza melodia maxima'' <small>Gabrielson & Lincoln, 1951</small>, '''Giant Song Sparrow'''. W [[Aleutian Islands]] ([[Attu Island|Attu]] to [[Atka Island]]), resident. The largest subspecies, about the size of the [[California Towhee]]. Very gray overall, long, diffuse streaks. Bill long and slender. * ''Melospiza melodia sanaka'' <small>McGregor, 1901</small>, '''Aleutian Song Sparrow'''. Aleutians from [[Seguam Island]] east to [[Stepovak Bay]], [[Alaska]], and islands to the south of [[Alaskan Peninsula]]; resident. Similar to ''maxima''; grayer still and bill even more slender. Includes the '''Semidi Song Sparrow''', ''M. m. semidiensis'' <small>Brooks, 1919</small>, which may be a distinct subspecies however<ref>Gabrielson & Lincoln (1951)</ref>. Also includes the population from [[Amak Island]]<ref>Pruett ''et al.'' (2004)</ref> named ''M. m. amaka'' <small>Gabrielson & Lincoln, 1951</small> ('''Amak Song Sparrow''') which was extirpated due to habitat destruction, apparently disappearing in the weeks around New Year's Eve, 1980/1981 (there were unconfirmed sightings in [[1987]] and [[1988]]). * ''Melospiza melodia insignis'' <small>Baird, 1869</small>, '''Bischoff Song Sparrow'''. [[Kodiak Island|Kodiak]], [[Afognak]], [[Sitkalidak]], and [[Raspberry Island, Alaska|Raspberry Island]]s, and [[Kukak]] and [[Katmai National Park and Preserve|Katmai]] on Alaska Peninsula; many migrate south in winter. A darkish grey, medium-sized form. * ''Melospiza melodia kenaiensis'' <small>Ridgway, 1900</small>, '''Kenai Song Sparrow'''. Resident; Pacific coast of [[Kenai Peninsula]] and [[Prince William Sound]] islands; some resident, some migrant. Smaller and browner than ''insignis''. * ''Melospiza melodia caurina'' <small>Ridgway, 1899</small>, '''Yakutat Song Sparrow'''. Northern [[Gulf of Alaska]] coast, many migrate to [[Pacific Northwest]] in winter. A smaller version of ''kenaiensis''. * ''Melospiza melodia rufina'' <small>(Bonaparte, 1850)</small>, '''Sooty Song Sparrow'''. Outer islands of [[Alexander Archipelago]] and [[Queen Charlotte Island]]; most are resident. A very dark, rufous, and small form. Includes ''M. m. kwaisa'' <small>Cumming, 1933</small>. * ''Melospiza melodia morphna'' <small>Oberholser, 1899</small>. Coastal region of central [[British Columbia]] south to NW [[Oregon]]; resident. Lighter, more rufous than ''rufina''. Previously ''M. m. cinerea'' <small>(''non'' Gmelin) (Audubon, 1839)</small>; ''M. m. phaea'' <small>Fisher, 1902</small> are Central Oregon hybrids between this subspecies and ''M. m. cleonensis''. * ''Melospiza melodia merrilli'' <small>Brewster, 1896</small>. Occurs between the ranges of ''morphna'' and ''montana'' south to N [[Nevada]]; some migrate south in winter. Includes ''M. m. ingersolli'' <small>McGregor, 1899</small> and ''M. m. inexspectata'' <small>Riley, 1911</small> ('''Riley Song Sparrow'''; ''inexpectata'' is a common ''[[lapsus]]''). Doubtfully distinct; intermediate between ''morphna'' and ''montana'' in appearance also and may be hybrid birds. * ''Melospiza melodia cleonensis'' <small>McGregor, 1899</small>. SW Oregon west of [[Cascade Mountains]] south to NW [[California]]. Brownish-buffish, notably on the flanks; no grey on back; underside with somewhat diffuse chestnut streaks. ===Cismontane California group=== Small, well-marked and short-winged brownish forms. All resident, except occasional birds from upland populations. * ''Melospiza melodia gouldii'' <small>Baird, 1858</small>. Coastal central California, except [[San Francisco Bay]]. A very brown and clear-marked subspecies; buffish (not light grey) fringes of upper back. ''M. m. santaecrucis'' <small>Grinnell, 1901</small> are hybrids with birds from southwards and Central Valley populations. * ''Melospiza melodia samuelis'' <small>(Baird, 1858)</small>, '''San Pablo Song Sparrow'''. N San Francisco Bay and [[San Pablo Bay]] saltmarshes. A small, tiny-billed subspecies with dirty olive upperpart background. * ''Melospiza melodia maxillaris'' <small>Grinnell, 1909</small>, '''Suisun Song Sparrow'''. [[Suisun Bay]] marshes. Dark upperparts; brown with grey mantle edges; plump bill base. * ''Melospiza melodia pusillula'' <small>Ridgway, 1899</small>, '''Alameda Song Sparrow'''. E San Francisco Bay saltmarshes. Yellowest subspecies, paler than ''samuelis'' and clear yellow hue below. * ''Melospiza melodia heermanni'' <small>Baird, 1858</small>. Central coastal California and [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]] south to N [[Baja California]]. Similar in color to ''maxillaris'' but medium-sized mainland subspecies. Some N-S variation with birds becoming blacker on backs, local populations once separated as ''M. m. cooperi'' <small>Ridgway, 1899</small> and ''M. m. mailliardi'' <small>Grinnell, 1911</small>. The latter, occurring around Modesto, may be distinct. * ''Melospiza melodia graminea'' <small>Townsend, 1890</small>. Described from [[Santa Barbara Island]], [[California Channel Islands]]. A smaller, pale-grey version of ''heermanni''. Originally called '''Santa Barbara Song Sparrow'''; birds from the [[Coronado Islands]] were described as ''M. m. coronatorum'' <small>Grinnell and Daggett, 1903</small>, those from [[San Miguel Island]] as ''M. m. micronyx'' <small>Grinnell, 1928</small> and those from [[San Clemente Island|San Clemente]], [[Santa Rosa Island, California|Santa Rosa]] and [[Anacapa Island]]s as ''M. m. clementae'' <small>Townsend, 1890</small>. Hybrid population with ''heermanni'' on [[Santa Cruz Island]]. Extirpated on Santa Barbara (and possibly San Clemente) by feral cats, c.[[1967]]-[[1970]]. ===Southwestern group=== Small, pale, streaks rufous; all resident. * ''Melospiza melodia fallax'' <small>(Baird, 1854)</small>, '''Desert Song Sparrow'''. [[Sonoran Desert|Sonoran]] and parts of [[Mojave Desert]]s to E [[Arizona]]. A pale ruddy desert form. Synonyms are ''M. m. saltonis'' <small>Grinnell, 1909</small>, ''M. m. virginis'' <small>Marshall and Behle, 1942</small> and ''M. m. bendirei'' <small>Phillips, 1943</small>. * ''Melospiza melodia rivularis'' <small>Bryant, 1888</small>. Central Baja California. Similar to ''fallax'', lightly streaked breast and long slender bill. * ''Melospiza melodia goldmani'' <small>Nelson, 1899</small>. Not yet found outside El Salto<!-- Someone please gazetteer this --> area, [[Sierra Madre Oriental]]. Dark reddish brown back with brownish streaks just as in ''morphna''. ===Mexican Plateau group=== Black-spotted, white throats; all resident. * ''Melospiza melodia adusta'' <small>Nelson, 1899</small>. [[Río Lerma]] drainage from [[Zacapú]] to Lago [[Yuriria]]. Bold black pattern on belly and back, clear white throat. Birds become less ruddy brown going east. * ''Melospiza melodia villai'' <small>Phillips and Dickerman, 1957</small>. Headwaters of Río Lerma near [[Toluca]]. Darker and duller brown than ''adusta'', distinctly large. * ''Melospiza melodia mexicana'' <small>Ridgway, 1874</small>. [[Hidalgo (Mexico)|Hidalgo]] to [[Puebla]]. Duller and paler than ''adusta'', birds becoming greyish going south. Includes ''M. m. azteca'' <small>Dickerman, 1963</small> and ''M. m. niceae'' <small>Dickerman, 1963</small>. "M. m. pectoralis" <small>(''ex'' von Müller, 1865)</small> cannot be assigned to a known Song Sparrow population.<!-- Please someone check Ridgway, Birds N. Middle Am. I (Bull.U.S.Natl.Mus.50) --> ==Conservation status== Seen as a whole, the Song Sparrow is widespread and common to be classified as Species of Least Concern by the [[IUCN]]. The taxa ''mailliardi'', ''maxillaris'', ''samuelis'' (all Category 3), ''pusillula'' (Category 2) and ''graminea'' (Category 1) are listed as '''Species of Special Concern''' in [[California]].<ref>CDFG (2006)</ref> ==Footnotes== {{Reflist}} ==References==<!-- WilsonBull18:47 (compare to current Ohio checklist http://www.ohiobirds.org/publications/OBRClist.pdf). ZoolJLinnSoc122:427. --> * {{aut|Arcese, P.; Sogge, M.K.; Marr, A.B. & Patten, M.A.}} (2002): Song Sparrow (''Melospiza melodia''). ''In:'' Poole, A. & Gill, F.: ''The Birds of North America'' '''704'''. The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. * {{aut|Beecher, M.D.; Campbell, S.E. & Stoddard, P.K.}} (1994): Correlation of Song Learning and Territory Establishment Strategies in the Song Sparrow. ''[[PNAS|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA]]'' '''91'''(4): 1450-1454. [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/91/4/1450.pdf PDF fulltext] * {{IUCN2006|assessors={{aut|BirdLife International}}|year=2004|id=53546|title=Melospiza melodia|downloaded=12 May 2006}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern * {{aut|California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG)}} (2006): California Bird Species of Special Concern.<!-- [http://www.dfg.ca.gov/hcpb/bsscrevu/bsscindex.shtml Linked PDf fulltext] [requires password?] --> * {{aut|Gabrielson, Ira N. & Lincoln, Frederick C.}} (1951): The Races of Song Sparrows in Alaska. ''[[Condor (journal)|Condor]]'' '''53'''(5): 250-255. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v053n05/p0250-p0255.pdf PDF fulltext] * {{aut|Hare, M.P. & Shields, G.F.}} (1992): Mitochondrial-DNA variation in the polytypic Alaskan song sparrow. ''[[Auk (journal)|Auk]]'' '''109'''(1): 126-132. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v109n01/p0126-p0132.pdf PDF fulltext] * {{aut|O'Loghlen, A.L. & Beecher; M.D.}} (1997): Sexual preferences for mate song types in female song sparrows. ''Animal Behavior'' '''53'''(4): 835-841. [http://faculty.washington.edu/beecher/O&B1-ab97.pdf PDF fulltext] * {{aut|Patten, M.A.}} (2001): The roles of habitat and signalling in speciation: evidence from a contact zone of two Song Sparrow (''Melospiza melodia'') subspecies. Ph.D. diss., Univ. of California, Riverside. * {{aut|Pruett, Christin; Gibson, Daniel D. & Winker, Kevin}} (2003): Amak Island Song Sparrows (''Melospiza melodia amaka'') are not evolutionarily significant. ''Ornithological Science'' '''3''': 133–138. {{DOI|10.2326/osj.3.133}} [http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/osj/3/2/133/_pdf PDF fulltext] * {{aut|Stoddard, Beecher, M.D.; Horning, C.L. & Campbell, S.E.}} (1991): Recognition of individual neighbors by song in the song sparrow, a species with song repertoires. ''Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology'' '''29'''(3): 211-215. ==External links== {{Commons|Melospiza melodia|Song Sparrow}} * Interesting Song Sparrow Facts donated by [http://www.birdhouses101.com/song-sparrow.asp BirdHouses101.com] * [http://audubon-print.com/song-sparrow.html Song Sparrow by John Audubon] * [http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Song_Sparrow.html Song Sparrow Species Account] - Cornell Lab of Ornithology * [http://www.sdakotabirds.com/species/song_sparrow_info.htm Song Sparrow Information and Photos] - South Dakota Birds and Birding * [http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/id/framlst/i5810id.html Song Sparrow ''Melospiza melodia''] USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter * [http://ibc.hbw.com/ibc/phtml/especie.phtml?idEspecie=9609 Song Sparrow videos] on the Internet Bird Collection * [http://vireo.acnatsci.org/search.html?Form=Search&SEARCHBY=Common&KEYWORDS=song+sparrow&showwhat=images&AGE=All&SEX=All&ACT=All&Search=Search&VIEW=All&ORIENTATION=All&RESULTS=24 Song Sparrow photo gallery] VIREO [[Category:Melospiza]] [[Category:Birds of North America|Sparrow, Song]] [[Category:Birds of Canada|Sparrow, Song]] [[Category:Birds of the United States|Sparrow, Song]] [[Category:Native birds of Alaska|Sparrow, Song]] [[Category:Birds of Mexico|Sparrow, Song]] [[Category:Fauna of Northern Mexico|Sparrow, Song]] [[Category:North American migratory birds|Sparrow, Song]] [[de:Singammer]] [[fr:Melospiza melodia]] [[nl:Zanggors]] [[ja:ウタスズメ]] [[no:Sangspurv]] [[pl:Pasówka śpiewna]] [[fi:Laulusirkku]]