Soybean 62784 225868394 2008-07-15T19:51:06Z BillFlis 846916 /* Protein, Vitamins, and Minerals */ format, caps {{redirect|Soy}} {{Refimprove|date=May 2008}} {{limited}} {{Expert-verify|date=May 2008}} {{Taxobox | name = Soybean | image = Soybean.USDA.jpg | image_width = 240px | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | phylum = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Fabales]] | familia = [[Fabaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Faboideae]] | genus = ''[[Glycine (plant)|Glycine]]'' | species = '''''G. max''''' | binomial = ''Glycine max'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Elmer Drew Merrill|Merr.]] }} The '''soybean''' ([[American English|U.S.]]) or '''soya bean''' ([[British English|UK]]) (''Glycine max'') is a species of [[legume]] native to [[East Asia]]. It is an [[annual plant]] that may vary in growth, habit, and height. It may grow prostrate, not growing higher than 20 cm (7.8 inches), or even up to 2 meters (6.5 feet) in height. The pods, stems, and leaves are covered with fine brown or gray hairs. The [[leaf|leaves]] are trifoliolate, having 3 to 4 leaflets per leaf, and the leaflets are 6&ndash;15 cm (2&ndash;6 inches) long and 2&ndash;7 cm (1&ndash;3 inches) broad. The leaves fall before the seeds are mature. The big, inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers are borne in the axil of the leaf and are white, pink or purple. The [[fruit]] is a hairy [[legume|pod]] that grows in clusters of 3&ndash;5, with each pod 3&ndash;8 cm (1&ndash;3 inches) long and usually containing 2&ndash;4 (rarely more) [[seed]]s 5&ndash;11 mm in diameter. == Overview == Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultural variety (a [[cultigen]]) with a very large number of [[cultivar]]s. The genus Glycine [[Willd.]] is divided into two subgenera (species), Glycine and Soja. The subgenus Soja(Moench) includes the cultivated Soybean, ''G. max'' (L.) Merrill, and the wild soybean, ''G. soja'' Sieb.& Zucc. Both species are [[annual]]. The soybean grows only under cultivation while ''G. soja'' grows wild in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Russia. ''Glycine soja'' is the wild ancestor of the soybean: the wild progenitor. At present, the subgenus Glycine consists of at least 16 wild [[perennial]] species: for example, ''Glycine canescens'', and ''G. tomentella'' Hayata found in Australia, Europe, and Papua New Guinea<ref>http://www.nsrl.uiuc.edu/news/nsrl_pubs/sbr1995/ArticleID.pdf</ref> Beans are classed as [[pulses]] whereas soybeans are classed as [[oilseeds]]. It is a versatile bean, having a diverse range of uses. The English word ''soy'' is derived from the [[Japanese language|Japanese]] pronunciation of 醤油 (しょうゆ, ''shōyu''), the Japanese word for soy sauce; ''soya'' comes from the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] adaptation of the same word.<ref>[http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50231920 soy, n.¹] The Oxford English Dictionary: Second Edition. 1989. Accessed December 14, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50231922 soya, n.] The Oxford English Dictionary: Second Edition. 1989. Accessed December 14, 2007.</ref> == Physical characteristics == Soybeans occur in various sizes, and in many [[husk|hull]] or seed coat colors, including black, brown, blue, yellow, green and mottled. The hull of the mature bean is hard, water resistant, and protects the [[cotyledon]] and [[hypocotyl]] (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is cracked the seed will not [[germinate]]. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of oil. Remarkably, seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of [[soy protein|protein]] can undergo [[desiccation]] yet survive and revive after water absorption. A. Carl Leopold, son of [[Aldo Leopold]], began studying this capability at the [[Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research]] at [[Cornell University]] in the mid 1980s. He found soybeans and corn to have a range of soluble [[carbohydrate]]s protecting the seed's cell viability.<ref>{{cite journal | quotes = | last = Blackman first = SA | authorlink = | coauthors = Obendorf RL, Leopold AC | date = | year = 1992 | month = Sept | title = Maturation Proteins and Sugars in Desiccation Tolerance of Developing Soybean Seeds | journal = Plant Physiol. | volume = 100 | issue = 1 | pages = 225&ndash;30 | doi = | id = {{PMC|1075542}} | url = http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1075542 | format = 1.2M PDF, or scanned pages | accessdate = 2006-10-21 | pmid = 16652951 }}</ref> Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting "biological membranes" and proteins in the dry state. Compare to [[tardigrades]]. ==Chemical composition of the seed== The oil and protein content together account for about 60% of dry soybeans by weight; protein at 40% and oil at 20%. The remainder consists of 35% carbohydrate and about 5% [[Ash (analytical chemistry)|ash]]. Soybean cultivars comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% [[cotyledons]] and 2% [[hypocotyl]] axis or germ. The majority of [[soy protein]] is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. This heat stability enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as [[tofu]], soymilk and textured vegetable protein (soy flour) to be made. The principal soluble [[carbohydrates]], saccharides, of mature soybeans are the disaccharide [[sucrose]] (range 2.5&ndash;8.2%), the trisaccharide [[raffinose]] (0.1&ndash;1.0%) composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of [[galactose]], and the tetrasaccharide [[stachyose]] (1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose. While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation (see above section on physical characteristics) they are not digestible sugars and therefore contribute to [[flatulence]] and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals; compare to the disaccharide [[trehalose]]. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, methane, etc. Since [[soluble]] soy carbohydrates are found mainly in the [[whey]] and are broken down during fermentation, soy concentrate, [[soy protein]] isolates, [[tofu]], soy sauce, and sprouted soybeans are without flatus activity. On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging indigenous [[bifidobacteria]] in the colon against [[putrefactive bacteria]]. The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides [[cellulose]], [[hemicellulose]], and [[pectin]]. The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to [[dietary fiber]]. ==Cultivation== [[Image:Soybeanvarieties.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Varieties of soybeans are used for many purposes.]] Soybeans are an important global crop, providing oil and protein. The bulk of the crop is solvent-extracted for vegetable oil and then defatted soy meal is used for animal feed. A small proportion of the crop is consumed directly by humans. Soybean products do appear in a large variety of processed foods. Soybeans was a crucial crop in eastern [[Asia]] long before written records, and they remain a major crop in [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]] . Prior to fermented products such as [[soy sauce]], [[tempeh]], [[natto]], and [[miso]], soy was considered sacred for its use in crop rotation as a method of fixing nitrogen. The plants would be plowed under to clear the field for food crops.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} Soy was first introduced to [[Europe]] in the early 1700s and what is now the [[United States]] in 1765, where it was first grown for hay. [[Benjamin Franklin]] wrote a letter in 1770 mentioning sending soybeans home from England. Soybeans did not become an important crop outside of Asia until about 1910. In America, soy was considered an industrial product only and not utilized as a food prior to the 1920s. Soy was introduced in Africa from China in the late 19th Century and is now widespread across the continent. Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20 °C to 30 °C (68°F to 86°F); temperatures of below 20 °C and over 40 °C (68 °F, 104 °F) retard growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes, perform [[nitrogen fixation]] by establishing a [[symbiotic]] relationship with the bacterium ''[[Rhizobia|Bradyrhizobium japonicum]]'' ([[synonymy|syn.]] ''Rhizobium japonicum''; Jordan 1982). However, for best results an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop [[cultivar]]s generally reach a height of around 1 m (3 ft), and take 80&ndash;120 days from sowing to harvesting. {{Agricultural production box |plant=Soybean |year=2006 |country1={{USA}} |amount1=87.7 |country2={{BRA}} |amount2=52.4 |country3={{ARG}} |amount3=40.4 |country4={{CHN}} |amount4=15.5 |country5={{IND}} |amount5=8.3 |country6={{PAR}} |amount6=3.8 |country7={{CAN}} |amount7=3.5 |country8={{BOL}} |amount8=1.4 |world=221.5 }} Soybeans are native to east Asia but only 45 percent of soybean production is located there. The other 55 percent of production is in the Americas. The U.S. produced 75 million tons of soybeans in 2000, of which more than one-third was exported. Other leading producers are [[Brazil]], [[Australia]], [[Argentina]], [[China]], and [[India]]. Environmental groups, such as [[Greenpeace]] and the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], have reported that both soybean cultivation and the probability of increased soybean cultivation in Brazil, has destroyed huge areas of [[Amazon rainforest]] and is encouraging further [[deforestation]].<ref>Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Debt. Joseph Fargione, Jason Hill, David Tilman, Stephen Polasky, and Peter Hawthorne. Published online [[7 February]] [[2008]] [DOI: 10.1126/science.1152747] (in Science Express Reports) Environment, the National Science Foundation DEB0620652, Princeton Environmental Institute, and the Bush Foundation. We thank T. Searchinger for valuable comments and insights, and J. Herkert for providing references. Supporting Online Material www.sciencemag.org.Abstract Supporting Online Material.</ref> American soil scientist Dr. Andrew McClung, who first showed that the ecologically biodiverse savannah of the [[Cerrado]] region of Brazil could grow profitable soybeans, was awarded the 2006 [[World Food Prize]] on October 19, 2006.<ref>{{cite news |first = Susan|last = Lang|authorlink =|author = Lang, S|coauthors =|title = Cornell alumnus Andrew Colin McClung reaps 2006 World Food Prize|url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/June06/World.Food.prize.ssl.html|format = |work = |publisher = Cornell University|pages = |page = |date = 2006-06-21|accessdate = 2006-10-21 |language = }}</ref> The first research on soybeans in the United States was conducted by [[George Washington Carver]] at [[Tuskegee, Alabama]], but he decided it was too exotic a crop for the poor black farmers of the South so he turned his attention to [[peanut]]s. ==Production history== [[Image:2005soyabean.PNG|thumb|left|Soybean output in 2005]] According to the ancient Chinese, in 2853 BC the legendary [[Shennong|Emperor Shennong]] of China named five sacred plants – soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and [[millet]].<ref>[http://www.soya.be/history-of-soybeans.php History of Soybeans. Soya - Information about Soy and Soya Products. Accessed January 15, 2008]</ref> The origins of the soybean plant are obscure, but many botanists believe it to have derived from ''[[glycine (plant)|Glycine]] ussuriensis'', a legume native to central [[China]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/bps/topic/557184/soybean Soybean. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Accessed January 15, 2008]</ref> The soybean has been used in China for 5,000 years as a food and a component of drugs. Cultivation of the soybean, long confined chiefly to China, gradually spread to other countries.<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/65/so/soybean.html Soybean. Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07. Accessed January 15, 2008]</ref> According to other sources, the earliest preserved soybeans were unearthed from [[archaeological site]]s in [[Korea]].<ref>Crawford, Gary W. 2006. East Asian Plant Domestication. In ''Archaeology of East Asia'', edited by Miriam Stark. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 81.</ref><ref>Crawford and Lee 2003</ref> AMS radiocarbon dating on soybean recovered through [[flotation]] during excavations at the Early [[Mumun]] Period Okbang site in Korea indicates that soybean was cultivated as a food crop in ca. 1000&ndash;900 BC.<ref>Crawford and Lee 2003:90</ref> The best current evidence on the Japanese Archipelago suggests that soybean cultivation occurred in the early [[Yayoi period]]. From about the first century AD to the Age of Discovery (15-16th century), soybeans were introduced into several countries such as Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Burma, Nepal and India. The spread of the soybean was due to the establishment of sea and land trade routes. The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic ''[[Kojiki]]'' (Records of Ancient Matters) which was completed in 712 AD. During [[World War II]], soybeans became important in both [[North America]] and [[Europe]] chiefly as substitutes for other protein foods and as a source of edible oil. In the United States they are now a leading crop, and [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], and [[Paraguay]] also are significant soybean-exporting nations. Many people have claimed that soybeans in Asia, prior to modern times, were only used after a fermentation process, which alters the high increase in phytoestrogens found in the raw plant. However, this appears to be incorrect: Terms similar to "soy milk" have been in use since 82 AD [http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/soymilk1.php], and there is evidence of tofu consumption that dates to 220.[http://www.soyinfocenter.com/chronologies_of_soyfoods-tofu.php] The genus name Glycine was originally introduced by [[Linnaeus]] (1737) in his first edition of [[Genera Plantarum]]. The word [[glycine]] is derived from the Greek-glykys (sweet) and very likely refers to the sweetness of the pear-shaped (apios in Greek) edible tubers produced by the native North American twining or climbing herbaceous [[legume]], Glycine apios, now known as ''[[Apios americana]]'' . Some alternative names are: [[ground nut]], American potato bean, wild bean, Indian potato, ground bean, hopniss, and sea vines. The seeds are also edible. It saved the Massachusetts Bay [[Pilgrims]] from starvation.<ref>[http://www.bio.umass.edu/biology/conn.river/groundnt.html Groundnut<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The cultivated soybean first appeared in the [[Species Plantarum]], Linnaeus, under the name ''[[Phaseolus]] max'' L. The combination, ''Glycine max''(L.) Merr., as proposed by Merrill in 1917, has become the valid name for this useful plant. ==Soybean diseases== {{Main|List of soybean diseases}} ==Genetic modification== Soybeans are one of the "[[Biotechnology|biotech]] food" crops that have been [[Genetically modified food|genetically modified]], and GM soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. In 1995 [[Monsanto]] introduced [[Roundup#Genetically modified crops|''Roundup Ready'']] (RR) soybeans that have had a copy of a [[gene]] from the bacterium, ''[[Agrobacterium]]'' sp. strain CP4, inserted into its genome by means of a [[gene gun]], that allows the [[transgenic]] plant to survive being sprayed by this non-selective herbicide, [[Roundup]]. [[Glyphosate]], the active ingredient in Roundup, kills conventional soybeans. The bacterial gene is EPSP (5-enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-3-phosphate) synthase. Soybeans also have a version of this gene, but the soybean version is sensitive to glyphosate, while the CP4 version is not.<ref>Padgette SR, Kolacz KH, Delannay X, Re DB, LaVallee BJ, Tinius CN, Rhodes WK, Otero YI, Barry GF, Eichholz DA, Peschke VM, Nida DL, Taylor NB, Kishore GM (1995) Development, identification, and characterization of a glyphosate-tolerant soybean line. Crop Sci 35:1451-1461</ref> RR soybeans allow a farmer to spray widely the herbicide Roundup and so to reduce [[tillage]] or even to sow the seed directly into an unplowed field, known as [[no-till farming]] or [[conservation tillage]]. No-till agriculture has many advantages, greatly reducing soil erosion and creating better wildlife habitat;<ref>Conservation Technology Information Center, http://www.conservationinformation.org/</ref> it also saves fossil fuels and sequesters [[Carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]], a greenhouse effect gas.<ref>Brookes G and Barfoot P (2005) GM crops: The global economic and environmental impact&mdash;the first nine years 1996&ndash;2004. AgBioForum 8:187-195</ref> It should be noted that RR soybeans simplify the process, but are not a requirement for no-till agriculture. Roundup may be sprayed on the field (and weeds) before the non-RR soybeans have emerged from the soil. The wildlife "advantage" doesn't matter much, however: most of the time, no animals, except for moths, can be spotted anywhere near soybeans. The crops' nutritional needs assure that no other plants grow amidst them; and the humongous size of most fields ensures that animals won't venture there, for none eat soybeans and would starve. In 1997, about 8% of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified. In 2006, the figure was 89%. As with other "Roundup Ready" crops, concern is expressed over damage to [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Liu |first= KeShun |title= Soybeans: Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization |url= |format= Hardcover |accessdate= |edition= |date=1997-05-01 |publisher= Springer |location= |language= |id= ISBN 0-8342-1299-4 |doi = |pages= 532 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote = }}</ref> However, the RR gene has been bred into so many different soybean cultivars that the genetic modification itself has not resulted in any decline of genetic diversity, as demonstrated by a study on genetic diversity<ref>Sneller CH (2003) Impact of transgenic genotypes and subdivision on diversity within elite North American soybean germplasm. Crop Sci 43:409-414.</ref> The ubiquitous use of such types of GM soybeans in the Americas has caused problems with exports to some regions. GM crops require extensive certification before they can be legally imported into the [[European Union]], where there is extensive supplier and consumer reluctance to use GM products for consumer or animal use. Difficulties with [[Co-existence of genetically modified and conventional crops and derived food and feed|coexistence]] and subsequent traces of cross-contamination of non-GM stocks have caused shipments to be rejected and have put a premium on non-GM soy.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/feedarticle?id=7134548 EU caught in quandary over GMO animal feed imports] The Guardian, [[7 December]] [[2007]]</ref> ==Uses== Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types. [[Tofu]] and [[soymilk]] producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because they have a tendency for the pods to shatter on reaching maturity. Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is pre-eminent for its high (38&ndash;45%) [[protein]] content as well as its high (20%) oil content. Soybeans are the leading agricultural export in the United States. The bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption. Immature soybeans may be boiled whole in their green pod and served with [[edible salt|salt]], under the Japanese name ''[[edamame]]'' {{nihongo||枝豆|edamame}}. Soybeans prepared this way are a popular local snack in [[Hawaii]], and are becoming increasingly popular in the continental [[United States]]. Because of the proclaimed health benefits of soy, [[edamame]] has been featured as an ideal snack alternative in fitness and healthy living magazines such as [[Real Simple]]. Edamame is sold in the frozen vegetable section at some larger grocery stores, and as ready-to-eat snackfood in many Asian delis. In [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]] the bean and products made from the bean are a popular part of the diet. The Chinese invented [[tofu]] (豆腐), and also made use of several varieties of [[soybean paste]] as seasonings. Japanese foods made from soya include: [[miso]] (味噌), [[natto]] (納豆), and [[edamame]] (枝豆). In [[Korean cuisine]], soybean sprouts, called ''kongnamul'' (hangul: 콩나물) are also used in a variety of dishes such as [[doenjang]], [[cheonggukjang]] and [[Soy sauce|ganjang]]. The beans can be processed in a variety of ways. Common forms of soy (or ''soya'') include soy meal, [[soy flour]], [[soy milk]], [[tofu]], [[textured vegetable protein]] (TVP, which is made into a wide variety of [[vegetarian food]]s, some of them intended to imitate [[meat]]), [[tempeh]], soy [[lecithin]] and [[soybean oil]]. Soybeans are also the primary ingredient involved in the production of [[soy sauce]] (or ''shoyu''). [[Image:Soybeans.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Soybeans grow throughout Asia and North and South America.]] [[Image:KewauneeCountyWisconsinFarmlandWIS42.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Soybean fields in the United States]] [[Archer Daniels Midland]] (ADM) is among the largest processors of soybeans and soy products. ADM along with [[Dow Chemical Company]], [[DuPont]] and [[Monsanto]] support the industry trade associations [[United Soybean Board]] (USB) and [[Soyfoods Association of North America]] (SANA). These trade associations have increased the consumption of soy products dramatically in recent years. ===Oil===<!-- This section is linked from [[Alpha-linolenic acid]] --> In processing soybeans for [[Vegetable fats and oils|oil]] extraction and subsequent soy flour production, selection of high quality, sound, clean, dehulled yellow soybeans are very important. Soybeans having a dark colored seed coat, or even beans with a dark hilum will inadvertently leave dark specks in the flour, are undesirable for use in commercial food products. All commercial soybeans in the United States are yellow or yellow brown. To produce soybean oil, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with commercial [[hexane]]. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes [[Hydrogenation|hydrogenated]]. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil," or end up in a wide variety of processed foods. The remaining soybean husks are used mainly as animal feed. The major [[unsaturated]] fatty acids in soybean oil [[triglycerides]] are 7% [[Alpha-linolenic acid|linolenic acid]] (C18:3); 51% [[linoleic acid]] (C-18:2); and 23% [[oleic acid]](C-18:1). It also contains the saturated fatty acids 4% [[stearic acid]] and 10% [[palmitic acid]]. Soybean oil has a relatively high proportion, 7&ndash;10%, of oxidation prone linolenic acid, which is an undesirable property for continuous service, such as in a restaurant. In the early nineties, Iowa State University developed soybean oil with 1% linolenic acid in the oil. Three companies, [[Monsanto]], [[DuPont]]/[[Bunge Limited|Bunge]], and [[Asoyia]] in 2004 introduced low linolenic, (C18:3; cis-9, cis-12, cis-15 octadecatrienoic acid) [[Roundup Ready]] soybeans. In the past [[hydrogenation]] was used to reduce the unsaturation in linolenic acid, but this produced the unnatural [[trans|cis-trans isomerism]]-fatty acid [[trans fat]] configuration, whereas in nature the configuration is [[cis|cis-trans isomerism]]. This external [http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/yf/foods/fn620-1.gif picture] from North Dakota State University compares soybean oil fatty acid content with other oils. In the 2002&ndash;2003 growing season, 30.6 million [[ton]]s of soybean oil were produced worldwide, constituting about half of worldwide edible vegetable oil production, and thirty percent of all fats and oils produced, including animal fats and oils derived from tropical plants.<ref>[[United States Department of Agriculture]], Agricultural Statistics 2004. Table 3-51.</ref> Soybean oil has also been found effective as an insect repellent in some studies.<ref>Barnard, D.R. and R. Xue. 2004. Laboratory evaluation of mosquito repellents against Aedes albopictus, Culex nigripalpus, and Ochlerotatus triseriatus (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 41(4):726-730.</ref><ref>Fradin, M.S. and J.F. Day. 2002. Comparative efficacy of insect repellents against mosquito bites. N. Engl. J. Med. 347:13-18.</ref> The commercial product Bite Blocker contains soybean oil as one active ingredient. === Meal === {{Mergefrom|Soybean meal|date=August 2007}} {{main|Soybean meal}} Soybean meal, the material remaining after solvent extraction of soybean flakes, with a 50% [[soy protein]] content, toasted (a misnomer because the heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a [[hammer mill]], provided the energy for the American production method, beginning in the 1930s, of growing farm animals such as [[poultry]] and [[domestic pig|swine]] on an industrial scale; and more recently the [[aquaculture]] of [[catfish]]. ===Flour=== Soy flour refers to defatted soybeans where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) in order to minimize [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] of the protein to retain a high Nitrogen Solubility Index (NSI), for uses such as extruder texturizing (TVP). It is the starting material for production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate. * Defatted soy flour is obtained from solvent extracted flakes, and contains less than 1% oil. * Full-fat soy flour is made from unextracted, dehulled beans, and contains about 18% to 20% oil. Due to its high oil content a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill must be used for grinding rather than the more common hammer mill. * Low-fat soy flour is made by adding back some oil to defatted soy flour. The lipid content varies according to specifications, usually between 4.5% and 9%. * High-fat soy flour can also be produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted flour at the level of 15%. * Lecithinated soy flour is made by adding soybean [[lecithin]] to defatted, low-fat or high-fat soy flours to increase their dispersibility and impart emulsifying properties. The lecithin content varies up to 15%. ===Infant formula=== [[Infant formula]]s based on soy (SBIF) are used by lactose-intolerant babies and for babies that are allergic to cow milk proteins. The formulas are sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, or concentrated liquid forms. Some reviews express the opinion that more research is needed to answer the question of what effect the phytoestrogens contained in soy formula may have on infants,<ref>Soy-based formulas and phytoestrogens: a safety profile (review article) PMID 14599051</ref><ref>Isoflavones in soy infant formula: a review of evidence for endocrine and other activity in infants PMID 15189112</ref> but did not find any adverse effects. Diverse studies conclude there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula.<ref>Soy protein formulas in children: no hormonal effects from long-term feeding PMID 15055353</ref><ref>Exposure to soy-based formula in infancy and endocrinological and reproductive outcomes in young adulthood. PMID 11497534</ref><ref name= "Nutri">Safety of Soy-Based Infant Formulas Containing Isoflavones: The Clinical Evidence PMID 15113975</ref> One of these studies, published at the Journal of Nutrition,<ref name= "Nutri"/> concludes that: <blockquote>...there is no clinical concerns with respect to nutritional adequacy, sexual development, neurobehavioral development, immune development, or thyroid disease. SBIFs provide complete nutrition that adequately supports normal infant growth and development. FDA has accepted SBIFs as safe for use as the sole source of nutrition.</blockquote> ===Nut butter=== Soybeans have been made into a spread called soynut butter, similar to peanut butter but with soybeans instead. Soy nut butter is made from fresh roasted whole soybeans. It is remarkably similar to peanut butter in taste and texture but has significantly less total and saturated fat than peanut butter and is cholesterol free. It is also suitable for those allergic to nuts or to butter. ===Substitute for existing products=== [[Image:Chives Cream Sheese.jpg|thumb|250px|Open package of cream cheese with chives, a soy milk based cream cheese alternative]] Soybeans are the primary ingredient in many processed foods, including [[dairy product]] substitutes (e.g., [[margarine]], [[soy ice cream]], [[soy milk]], [[soy yogurt]], [[soy cheese]] and [[soy cheese|soy cream cheese]]), as well as [[Crisco]], [[soybean oil]], [[tofu]], [[veggie burgers]], soy crisps, among others. Soybeans are processed to produce a texture and appearance similar to other foods (e.g., [[butter]], [[ice cream]], [[milk]], [[yogurt]], [[cheese]], [[lard]], [[olive oil]], [[ground beef]], [[potato chips]], etc.) and are readily available in most [[supermarket]]s. Soy milk does not contain significant amounts of [[calcium]], since the high calcium content of soybeans is bound to the insoluble constituents and remains in the [[soy pulp|pulp]]. Many manufacturers of soy milk now sell calcium-enriched products as well. ===Other products === Soybeans are the bean used in Chinese fermented black beans, [[douchi]], not the sometimes confused [[Common bean#Black beans|black turtle beans]]. Soybeans are also used in industrial products including oils, [[soap]], [[cosmetics]], [[resin]]s, [[plastic]]s, [[ink]]s, [[crayon]]s, [[solvent]]s, and [[clothing]]. Soybean oil is the primary source of [[biodiesel]] in the United States, accounting for 80% of domestic biodiesel production <ref>"Sustainability Fact Sheet" National Biodiesel Board, April 2008. http://biodiesel.org/resources/sustainability/pdfs/SustainabilityFactSheet.pdf </ref>. Soybeans are also used as fermenting stock to make a brand of [[vodka]].{{Fact|date=February 2008|date=February 2008}} [[Henry Ford]] promoted the soybean, helping to develop uses for it both in food and in industrial products, even demonstrating auto body panels made of soy-based plastics. Ford's interest led to two bushels of soybeans being used in each Ford car as well as products like the first commercial [[soy milk]], ice cream and all-vegetable non-dairy whipped topping. The Ford development of so-called soy-based plastics was based on the addition of soybean flour and wood flour to [[phenolformaldehyde plastics]]. In 1931, Ford hired chemists Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert to produce artificial silk. They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in a [[formaldehyde]] bath which was given the name [[Azlon]] by the Federal Trade Commission. Pilot production of Azlon reached 5000 pounds per day in 1940, but never reached the commercial market. Today, very high quality textile fibers are made commercially from "okara" ([[soy pulp]]), a by-product of [[tofu]] production. ==Nutrition== {{nutritionalvalue | name=Soybean, green raw | kJ=125.52 | protein=3.04 g | fat=0.18 g | satfat=0.046 g | monofat = 0.022 g | polyfat = 0.058 g | carbs=5.94 g | calcium_mg=13 | copper_mg = 0.164 | iron_mg=0.91 | magnesium_mg=21 | phosphorus_mg=54 | potassium_mg=149 | sodium_mg=6 | zinc_mg=0.41 | vitA_ug=1 | vitB6_mg=0.088 | vitB12_ug=0 | vitC_mg=13.2 | vitK_ug=33 | water=90.4 g | fiber=1.8 g | sugars=4.13 g | right=1 | source_usda=1}} ===Protein, vitamins, and minerals=== {{main|soy protein}} Soybeans are considered by some to be a source of [[complete protein]], thus having no need for [[protein combining]],<ref>http://www.truestarhealth.com/members/cm_archives12ML3P1A8.html The Scoop on Protein Powders By Sofia Segounis, Nutritionist</ref> although this is contested by other sources.<ref>[http://www.nutrition4health.org/NOHAnews/NNF01SoyBeatrice.htm THE DOWNSIDE OF SOYBEAN CONSUMPTION]</ref><ref>[http://life.familyeducation.com/nutrition-and-diet/weight/46761.html Protein Means Power and a Whole Lot More]</ref><ref name="NASA">http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19940015664_1994015664.pdf</ref> A complete protein is one that contains significant amounts of all the [[essential amino acid]]s that must be provided to the [[human body]] because of the body's inability to [[Synthesis|synthesize]] them. For this reason, soy is a good source of protein, amongst many others, for many [[Vegetarianism|vegetarians]] and [[Veganism|vegans]] or for people who cannot afford meat. The gold standard for measuring protein quality, since 1990, is the [[Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score]] (PDCAAS) and by this criterion soy protein is near to being the nutritional equivalent of meat and eggs for [[human]] growth and health. Soybean protein isolate has a [[Biological Value]] of 74, whole soybeans 96, soybean milk 91, and eggs 97.<ref name="1991Report">Protein Quality-Report of Joint FAO’/WHO Expert Consultation, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 51, 1991.</ref> [[Soy protein]] is similar to that of other legume seeds, but has the highest yield per square meter of growing area, and is the least expensive source of dietary protein. Consumption of soy may also reduce the risk of [[colon cancer]], possibly due to the presence of [[sphingolipid]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Symolon H, Schmelz E, Dillehay D, Merrill A | title = Dietary soy sphingolipids suppress tumorigenesis and gene expression in 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-treated CF1 mice and ApcMin/+ mice. | journal = J Nutr | volume = 134 | issue = 5 | pages = 1157–61 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15113963 | url = http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/134/5/1157 }}</ref> ==Role of soyfoods in disease prevention== ===Omega-3 fatty acids=== [[Image:Trader joes edamame.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Toasted soybeans]] [[Omega-3 fatty acids]], for example, [[alpha-linolenic acid]] C18-3, all cis, 9,12,15 octadecatrienoic acid (where the omega-3 refers to carbon number 3 counting from the hydrocarbon tail whereas C-15 refers to carbon number 15 counting from the carboxyl acid head) are special fat components that benefit many body functions. However, the effects which are beneficial to health are associated mainly with the longer-chain, more unsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic (20:5n-3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA) found in fish oil and oily fish. For instance, EPA and DHA, inhibit blood clotting, while there is no evidence that alpha-linolenic acid (aLNA) can do this. Soybean oil is one of the few common vegetable oils that contains a significant amount of aLNA; others include [[canola]], walnut, and [[flax]]. However, soybean oil does not contain EPA or DHA. Soybean oil does contain significantly greater amount of [[omega-6]] fatty acids in the oil: 100g of soybean oil contains 7g of omega-3 fatty acids to 51g of omega-6: a ratio of 1:7. Flaxseed, in comparison, has an omega-3:omega-6 ratio of 3:1. ===Isoflavones=== {{main|Isoflavone}} Soybeans also contain the [[isoflavone]]s [[genistein]] and [[daidzein]], types of [[phytoestrogen]], that are considered by some nutritionists and physicians to be useful in the prevention of cancer and by others to be carcinogenic{{Fact|date=February 2008|date=February 2008}} and endocrine disruptive{{Fact|Februarry 2008|date=February 2008}}. Soy's content of isoflavones are as much as 3 mg/g dry weight.{{Fact|date=February 2008|date=February 2008}} [[Isoflavones]] are [[polyphenol]] compounds, produced primarily by beans and other legumes, including [[peanut]]s and [[chickpea]]s. Isoflavones are closely related to the antioxidant [[flavonoids]] found in other plants, vegetables and flowers. Isoflavones such as genistein and daidzein are found in only some plant families, because most plants do not have an enzyme, chalcone isomerase which converts a flavone precursor into an isoflavone. In contradiction to well known benefits of isoflavones, Genistein acts as an oxidant (stimulating nitrate synthesis) <ref>British Journal of Nutrition. 89(5):607-616, May 2003.</ref>, as well as it blocks formation of new blood vessels (antiangiogenic effects)<ref>UROLOGY official journal of the Société Internationale d'UrologieVolume 64, Issue 2, Pages 389-393 (August 2004)</ref>. Some studies show Genistein to act as inhibitor of the activity of substances in the body that regulate cell division and cell survival (growth factors). ===Claims of cholesterol reduction=== The dramatic increase in soyfood sales is largely credited to the [[Food and Drug Administration]]'s (FDA) approval of health claims for soy in which studies are conflicting as to their cholesterol lowering ability.<ref name="CU">Cornell University Food and Brand Lab [http://www.foodpsychology.cornell.edu/research/soy/index.htm Article]</ref> From 1992 to 2003, sales have experienced a 15% [[compound annual growth rate]], increasing from $300 million to $3.9 billion over 11 years, as new soyfood categories have been introduced, soyfoods have been repositioned in the market place, thanks to a better emphasis on marketing nutrition. In 1995, the ''New England Journal of Medicine'' (Vol. 333, No. 5) published a report from the [[University of Kentucky]] entitled, "Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Soy Protein Intake on Serum Lipids." It was financed by the PTI division of DuPont,"The Solae Co."<ref>[http://www.solae.com/ The Solae Company]</ref> [[St. Louis, Missouri]], a soy producer and marketer. This meta-analysis concluded that soy protein is correlated with significant decreases in serum cholesterol, Low Density Lipoprotein [[LDL]] (bad cholesterol) and triglyceride concentrations. However, High Density Lipoprotein [[High density lipoprotein|HDL]](good cholesterol) did not increase by a significant amount. Soy [[phytoestrogens]] ([[isoflavones]]: genistein and daidzein) [[adsorbed]] onto the soy protein were suggested as the agent reducing serum cholesterol levels. On the basis of this research PTI, in 1998, filed a petition with FDA for a health claim that soy protein may reduce cholesterol and the risk of heart disease. It should be noted that only subjects with serum cholesterol of 250 mg/dl and higher showed any improvement in the study. The FDA granted this health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease."<ref>{{cite web |last=Henkel |first=John |title=Soy:Health Claims for Soy Protein, Question About Other Components |url=http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2000/300_soy.html | publisher = [[Food and Drug Administration]] |accessmonthday=February 16 | accessyear=2008}}</ref> One serving, (1 cup or 240 mL) of soy milk, for instance, contains 6 or 7 grams of soy protein. Solae resubmitted their original petition, asking for a more vague health claim, after their original was challenged and highly criticized. Solae also submitted a petition for a health claim that soy can help prevent cancer. They quickly withdrew the petition for lack of evidence and after more than 1,000 letters of protest were received. In February 18, 2008 Weston A. Price Foundation submitted a petition for removal of this health claim.<ref name="westonaprice_fda_petition">{{cite web |url=http://westonaprice.org/soy/FDASoyHeartLetterFinal.pdf |title=Docket No. 2007N0-464 |accessdate=2008-03-08 |format= |work=}}</ref> In January, 2006 an [[American Heart Association]] review (in the journal ''Circulation'') of a decade long study of soy protein benefits casts doubt on the FDA allowed "Heart Healthy" claim for soy protein. This review of the literature compared soy protein and its component isoflavones with casein (isolated milk protein), wheat protein, and mixed animal proteins.<ref>[http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/113/7/1034#SEC2Soy Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health: An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals From the Nutrition Committee -- Sacks et al. 113 (7): 1034 -- Circulation]</ref> The review panel also found that soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post menopause "hot flashes" in women and the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or prostate is in question. Thus, soy isoflavone supplements in food or pills is not recommended. Among the conclusions the authors state, "In contrast, soy products such as tofu, soy butter, soy nuts, or some soy burgers should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat. Using these and other soy foods to replace foods high in animal protein that contain saturated fat and cholesterol may confer benefits to cardiovascular health."<ref>[http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/113/7/1034#SEC5 Soy Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health: An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals From the Nutrition Committee -- Sacks et al. 113 (7): 1034 -- Circulation]</ref> The original paper is in the journal ''Circulation'': January 17, 2006.<ref>[http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171052v1?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=soybeans%2Cfda&searchid=1138541151493_2869&FIRSTINDEX=0&search_url=http%3A%2F%2Fcirc.ahajournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fsearch&journalcode=circulationaha Soy Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health. An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals From the Nutrition Committee -- Sacks et al., 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171052 -- Circulation]</ref> ==Health risks== <!--If you rewrite this article, claiming that there were studies based on common soy beans showing "harmful, too high estrogen", please PROVE it first. All KNOWN studies so far were based solely on CONCENTRATED phytoestrogens. Concentrated hormones are always harmful - soy milk however is safely consumed since thousands of years in Asia.---> ===Phytoestrogen=== {{main|Phytoestrogens}} Soybeans contain [[isoflavones]] called [[genistein]] and [[daidzein]], which are one source of [[phytoestrogens]] in the human diet. Because most naturally occurring estrogenic substances show weak activity, normal consumption of foods that contain these phytoestrogens should not provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in humans. {{Fact|date=December 2007}} Plant [[lignans]] associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human estrogen sites. Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor [[secoisolariciresinol]] containing 13&ndash;273 µg/100 g dry weight.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Adlercreutz H, Mazur W, Bartels P, ''et al'' |title=Phytoestrogens and prostate disease |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=130 |issue=3 |pages=658S–9S |year=2000 |pmid=10702603 |doi=}}</ref> Another phytoestrogen in the human diet with estrogen activity is [[coumestans]], which are found in beans, split-peas, with the best sources being alfalfa, clover, and soybean sprouts. [[Coumestrol]], an isoflavone [[coumarin]] derivative is the only coumestan in foods.<ref>{{cite journal |author=de Kleijn MJ, van der Schouw YT, Wilson PW, Grobbee DE, Jacques PF |title=Dietary intake of phytoestrogens is associated with a favorable metabolic cardiovascular risk profile in postmenopausal U.S.women: the Framingham study |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=132 |issue=2 |pages=276–82 |year=2002 |pmid=11823590 |doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Valsta LM, Kilkkinen A, Mazur W, ''et al'' |title=Phyto-oestrogen database of foods and average intake in Finland |journal=Br. J. Nutr. |volume=89 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S31–8 |year=2003 |pmid=12725654 |doi=10.1079/BJN2002794}}</ref> Soybeans and processed soy foods do not contain the highest "total phytoestrogen" content of foods. A study in which data were presented on an as-is (wet) basis per 100 g and per serving found that food groups from highest to lowest levels of total phytoestrogens per 100 g are nuts and oilseeds, soy products, cereals and breads, legumes, meat products, various processed foods that may contain soy, vegetables, and fruits.<ref>[http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327914nc5402_5 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. - Nutrition and Cancer - 54(2):184 - Abstract<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ====Women==== A 2001 literature review suggested that women with current or past breast cancer should be aware of the risks of potential tumor growth when taking soy products, based on the effect of phytoestrogens on breast cancer cell growth in animals.<ref>{{cite journal |author=de Lemos ML |title=Effects of soy phytoestrogens genistein and daidzein on breast cancer growth |journal=Ann Pharmacother |volume=35 |issue=9 |pages=1118–21 |year=2001 |pmid=11573864 |doi=}}</ref> A 2006 commentary reviewed the relationship with soy and breast cancer. They stated that soy may prevent breast cancer, but cautioned that the impact of isoflavones on breast tissue needs to be evaluated at the cellular level in women at high risk for breast cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Messina M, McCaskill-Stevens W, Lampe JW |title=Addressing the soy and breast cancer relationship: review, commentary, and workshop proceedings |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=98 |issue=18 |pages=1275–84 |year=2006 |pmid=16985246 |doi=10.1093/jnci/djj356}}</ref> ====Men==== Because of the phytoestrogen content, some studies, but not all, have suggested that there is an inverse correlation between soybean ingestion and [[testosterone]] in men.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dillingham BL, McVeigh BL, Lampe JW, Duncan AM |title=Soy protein isolates of varying isoflavone content exert minor effects on serum reproductive hormones in healthy young men |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=584–91 |year=2005 |pmid=15735098 |doi=}}</ref> For this reason, they may protect against the development of prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Heald CL, Ritchie MR, Bolton-Smith C, Morton MS, Alexander FE |title=Phyto-oestrogens and risk of prostate cancer in Scottish men |journal=Br. J. Nutr. |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=388–96 |year=2007 |pmid=17403269 |doi=10.1017/S0007114507700703}}</ref> A theoretical decrease in the risk of prostate cancer should, however, be weighed against the possible side-effects of decreased testosterone, which are still unclear. The popular fear that soybeans might cause reduced libido and even feminine characteristics in men has not been indicated by any study; the popularity of the notion seems to be based on the simplistic misapprehension that estrogen and testosterone have a simple, inverse relationship in sexual hormone systems and sex-related behaviour. Their interplay is very complicated and largely still unknown. <ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16775579?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_Discovery_RA&linkpos=5&log$=relatedarticles&dbfrom=pubmed]</ref> ===Infant formula=== There are some studies that state that phytoestrogen in soy can lead to alterations in the proliferation and migration of [[Intestine|intestinal]] cells. The effects of these alterations are unknown.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chen AC, Donovan SM |title=Genistein at a concentration present in soy infant formula inhibits Caco-2BBe cell proliferation by causing G2/M cell cycle arrest |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=134 |issue=6 |pages=1303–8 |year=2004 |pmid=15173388 |doi=}}</ref> However, some studies conclude there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Merritt RJ, Jenks BH |title=Safety of soy-based infant formulas containing isoflavones: the clinical evidence |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=134 |issue=5 |pages=1220S–1224S |year=2004 |pmid=15113975 |doi=}}</ref> Other reviews agree, but state that more research is needed to answer the question of what effect phytoestrogens have on infants.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Miniello VL, Moro GE, Tarantino M, Natile M, Granieri L, Armenio L |title=Soy-based formulas and phyto-oestrogens: a safety profile |journal=Acta Paediatr Suppl |volume=91 |issue=441 |pages=93–100 |year=2003 |pmid=14599051 |doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Chen A, Rogan WJ |title=Isoflavones in soy infant formula: a review of evidence for endocrine and other activity in infants |journal=Annu. Rev. Nutr. |volume=24 |issue= |pages=33–54 |year=2004 |pmid=15189112 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.101603.064950}}</ref> Soy formula has also been linked to [[Autoimmunity|autoimmune]] disorders of the [[thyroid]] gland.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fort P, Moses N, Fasano M, Goldberg T, Lifshitz F |title=Breast and soy-formula feedings in early infancy and the prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease in children |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=164–7 |year=1990 |pmid=2338464 |doi=}}</ref> ===Cancer=== The soy industry companies claim soy to have anticancer benefits. The statement is mainly based on statistics which shows that Japanese, who have soy based products as a part of a daily nutrient, suffer less from breast cancer, uterus and prostate. The fact that Asian population, with the Japanese among them, have much higher rates of cancer related to dejection system and thyroid are less popularized. The anticancer soy propaganda is more then just controversy as genistein, one of several isoflavones found in high quantity in soy, stimulates growth of human breast cancer cells.<ref>Ju YK, Allred KF et al. Genistein stimulates growth of human breast cancer cells in a novel, postmenopausal animal model, with low plasma estradiol concentrations. Carcinogenesis, 2006, June; 27 (6), 1292-9.</ref> ===Allergens=== {{Main|Soy allergy}} About 9% of children in the USA are allergic to soybean proteins.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} The major soy allergen has been identified by scientists at [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]].{{Fact|date=March 2008}} Both [[transgenic]] and conventional soybean varieties without the allergenic protein have been prepared.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} Soy allergy, typically, will manifest itself approximately a day after consumption of the beans. Common symptoms are [[urticaria]], rash, itching, and redness of the skin.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=20&cont=522 | title = Soy Allergy | publisher = [[Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America]] | year = 2005 | accessdate = 2008-03-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/allerg/fa-aa/allergen_soy-soja_e.html | title = Soy - One of the nine most common food allergens | publisher = [[Health Canada]] | date = 2007-04-20 | accessdate = 2008-03-13 }}</ref> ===Weight gain=== Present in soy inhibitors of [[thyroid]] peroxidase cause [[thyroid]] abnormalities reducing production thyroid [[hormones]] and leading to disturbance of [[metabolism]] with a weight gain as a result. ===Promotion as health food=== Soy consumption has been promoted by natural food companies and the soy industry's aggressive marketing campaign in various magazines, television ads and in health food markets. Research has been conducted examining the validity of the beneficial health claims with regard to the increase in consumption of soybeans which mimic hormonal activity. A practice guideline published in the journal ''Circulation'' questions the efficacy and safety of soy isoflavones for preventing or treating cancer of the breast, endometrium, and prostate (although the same study also concludes that soy in some foods should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health) and does not recommend usage of isoflavone supplements in food or pills.<ref>{{cite journal | quotes = | last = Sacks | first = FM | authorlink = | coauthors = Lichtenstein A, Van Horn L, et. al | date = | year = 2006 | month = Feb | title = Soy protein, isoflavones, and cardiovascular health: an American Heart Association Science Advisory for professionals from the Nutrition Committee. | journal = Circulation | volume = 113 | issue = 7 | pages = 1034–44 | doi = 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171052 | pmid = 16418439 | url = http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/short/113/7/1034 | format = | accessdate = 2006-10-21}}</ref> A review of the available studies by the United States' [[Health and Human Services]]' [[Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] (AHRQ) found little evidence of substantial health improvements and no adverse effects, but also noted that there was no long-term safety data on soy consumption.<ref name="AHRQ">{{cite web | publisher=Consumer Affairs | title=Study Casts Doubt On Soy's Health Benefits | date=2005-08-03 | url=http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2005/soy_study.html }}</ref> ===Brain=== Estrogen helps protect and repair the brain during and after injury.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Eberling JL, Wu C, Haan MN, Mungas D, Buonocore M, Jagust WJ |title=Preliminary evidence that estrogen protects against age-related hippocampal atrophy |journal=Neurobiol. Aging |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=725–32 |year=2003 |pmid=12885580| doi = 10.1016/S0197-4580(02)00056-8}}</ref> The mimicry of estrogen by the phytoestrogens in soy has introduced a controversy over whether such a replacement is harmful or helpful to the brain. Several studies have found soy to be harmful for rats.<ref>{{cite journal |author=File SE, Hartley DE, Alom N, Rattray M |title=Soya phytoestrogens change cortical and hippocampal expression of BDNF mRNA in male rats |journal=Neurosci. Lett. |volume=338 |issue=2 |pages=135–8 |year=2003 |pmid=12566171| doi = 10.1016/S0304-3940(02)01391-5}}</ref>Nevertheless the cited study was based on rats fed with '''concentrated''' phytoestrogens and not common soy beans and it is already well known that concentrated estrogens cause negative effects in males. The common amounts of phytoestrogens in soy beans are not to be compared to concentrated estrogen. One study followed over 3000 [[Japan]]ese men between 1965 and 1999, and that showed a positive correlation between brain atrophy and consumption of tofu.<ref name="pmid10763906">{{cite journal |author=White LR, Petrovitch H, Ross GW, ''et al'' |title=Brain aging and midlife tofu consumption |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=242–55 |year=2000 |pmid=10763906 |doi= |url=http://www.jacn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10763906}}</ref> ===Carcinogen=== Raw [[#Flour|soy flour]] is known to cause [[pancreatic cancer]] in rats.<ref name="ToxSci">{{cite journal |author=Dethloff L, Barr B, Bestervelt L, ''et al'' |title=Gabapentin-induced mitogenic activity in rat pancreatic acinar cells |journal=Toxicol. Sci. |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=52–9 |year=2000 |pmid=10788559| doi = 10.1093/toxsci/55.1.52}}</ref> Whether this is also true in humans is unknown because no studies comparing cases of pancreatic cancer and soy intake in humans have yet been conducted, and the doses used to induce pancreatic cancer in rats are said to be larger than humans would normally consume. Heated soy flour may not be [[carcinogen]]ic in rats.<ref name="CanRes">{{cite journal |author=Roebuck BD, Kaplita PV, Edwards BR, Praissman M |title=Effects of dietary fats and soybean protein on azaserine-induced pancreatic carcinogenesis and plasma cholecystokinin in the rat |journal=Cancer Res. |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=1333–8 |year=1987 |pmid=3815341 |doi=}}</ref><ref name="AdvExp">{{cite journal |author=Roebuck BD |title=Enhancement of pancreatic carcinogenesis by raw soy protein isolate: quantitative rat model and nutritional considerations |journal=Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. |volume=199 |issue= |pages=91–107 |year=1986 |pmid=3799291 |doi=}}</ref> Existing cancer patients are being warned to avoid foods rich in soy because they can accelerate the growth of tumours.<ref>[www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,21054484-5001021,00.html Soy cancer warning] By Clair Weaver [[January 14]], [[2007]] The Daily Telegraph</ref> ===Iron=== A study conducted in China found that "A Vegetarian Diet Rich in Soybean Products Compromises Iron Status in Young Students"<ref>Journal of Nutrition Vol. 125 No. 2 February 1995, pp. 212-219</ref> ==References== {{reflist|2}} While other studies shows that soybeans are high in phytic acid, which forms insoluble complexes with minerals such as iron, calcium, magnesium and especially zinc <ref>Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2004 Jun;68(6):1379-81</ref> ( i.e. blocks the uptake of essential minerals). ==External links== {{commons|Glycine max|Soybean}} <!--Please add links and sources in alphabetical order. This is an encyclopedia and not a subjective link list.--> ===Advocacy and nutritional information=== * [http://www.soygrowers.com American Soybean Association] * [http://www.foodpsychology.cornell.edu/research/soy/index.htm Cornell University Food and Brand Lab] * [http://www.foodrevolution.org/what_about_soy.htm Evaluation of Anti-Soy Data and Anti-Soy Advocates] * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1839434,00.html Guardian - There's no risk to humans from soya] * [http://www.cgiar.org/impact/research/soybean.html/ IITA has CGIAR global mandate for Soybean research for development] * [http://www.iita.org/ International Institute of Tropical Agriculture] * [http://72.32.142.180/soy_health.htm Soy information at Soyatech] * [http://news.yahoo.com/s/hsn/20060127/hl_hsn/soyclaimashearthelperindispute Soy Heart healthy claims in dispute] * [http://www.soyinfocenter.com Soyinfo Center - SoyaScan database and books] * [http://www.soyconnection.com/ United Soybean Board] ===Critical=== * [http://www.alternet.org/healthwellness/56087/ AlterNet: Health & Wellness: The Dark Side of Soy] * [http://www.rheumatic.org/soy.htm Concerns Regarding Soybeans] * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/food/Story/0,,1828158,00.html Guardian - Should we worry about soya in our food?] * [http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/allerg/allergen_soy-soja_e.html Health Canada: Soy - One of the nine most common food allergens] * [http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=20&cont=522 Soy Allergy Information Page] [[Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America]] * [http://www.soyonlineservice.co.nz/ Soy Online Service] {{Soy}} {{Vegetarianism}} {{fatsandoils}} [[Category:Energy crops]] [[Category:Faboideae]] [[Category:Soy products| ]] [[Category:Edible legumes]] [[Category:Fiber plants]] [[ar:فول الصويا]] [[gn:Sóha]] [[bs:Soja]] [[bg:Соя]] [[ca:Soia]] [[cs:Sója]] [[da:Sojabønne]] [[de:Sojabohne]] [[et:Sojauba]] [[es:Glycine max]] [[eo:Sojfabo]] [[fa:سویا]] [[fr:Soja]] [[gl:Soia]] [[hsb:Soja]] [[hr:Soja]] [[id:Kedelai]] [[ia:Soya]] [[is:Sojabaun]] [[it:Glycine max]] [[he:פולי סויה]] [[sw:Soya]] [[la:Glycine (genus)]] [[lt:Gauruotoji soja]] [[hu:Szójabab]] [[mk:Соја]] [[ms:Pokok Kacang Soya Hijau]] [[nl:Sojaboon]] [[ja:ダイズ]] [[no:Soyabønne]] [[nn:Soyabønne]] [[pl:Soja]] [[pt:Soja]] [[ro:Soia]] [[qu:Suya]] [[ru:Соя]] [[simple:Soybean]] [[sk:Sója fazuľová]] [[sl:Soja]] [[sr:Соја]] [[fi:Soijapapu]] [[sv:Sojaböna]] [[tl:Balatong]] [[te:సోయా చిక్కుడు]] [[th:ถั่วเหลือง]] [[vi:Đậu tương]] [[tr:Soya]] [[uk:Соя]] [[zh:大豆]] [[zh-yue:黃豆]]