Spice trade 506548 224515071 2008-07-09T05:17:44Z LMB 18301 restored Notes {{FixHTML|beg}} [[Image:Silk Route extant.JPG|thumb|300px|The economically important [[Silk Road]] and Spice (Eastern) trade routes, became blocked by the [[Ottoman Empire]] ca. [[1453]] with the fall of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and [[Constantinople]] soon spurring exploration motivated initially by the finding of a sea route around Africa and triggering the [[Age of Discovery]].]] [[Image:Caminho maritimo para a India.png|thumb|right|300px|This figure illustrates the path of [[Vasco da Gama]]'s course to [[India]] (black), the first to go around Africa. The trips of [[Pêro da Covilhã]] (orange) and [[Afonso de Paiva]] (blue) are also shown, with common routes shown in green.]] {{FixHTML|end}} '''Spice trade''' is a commercial activity of ancient origin which involves the merchandising of [[spice]]s and [[herbs]].<ref name=EB1/> Civilizations of [[Asia]] were involved in spice trade from the [[ancient times]], and the [[Greco-Roman world]] soon followed by trading along the [[Incense route]]<ref name=Yemen1>{{cite web | title = Traders of the Gold and Incense Road | publisher = Message of the Republic of Yemen, Berlin | url = http://www.botschaft-jemen.de/Geschichte.htm | format = HTML }}</ref> and the [[Roman trade with India|Roman-India routes]].<ref>Fage 1975: 164</ref> The Roman-Indian routes were dependent upon and techniques developed by the maritime trading power, [[Aksumite Empire|Kingdom of Axum]] (ca 400s BC&ndash;AD 1000s) which had pioneered the Red Sea route before the [[1st century]]. When they encountered Rome (circa 30 BCE&ndash; 10 CE) they shared knowledge of riding the Monsoons of the route on to Rome), keeping a cordial relationship with one another until the mid-seventh century, when the rise of Islam closed off the overland caravan routes through Egypt and the Suez, and sundered the European trade community from Axum and India. Arab traders eventually took over conveying goods via the [[Levant]] and Venetian merchants to Europe until the rise of the [[Ottoman Turks]] cut the route again by 1453. Overland routes helped the spice trade initially, but maritime trade routes led to tremendous growth in commercial activities.<ref name=EB1/> During the [[High Middle Ages|high]] and [[Late Middle Ages|late]] medieval periods Muslim traders dominated maritime spice trading routes throughout the Indian Ocean, tapping source regions in the Far East and shipping spices from trading emporiums in India westward to the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, from which overland routes led to Europe. The trade was transformed by the [[Europe|European]] [[Age of Discovery]],<ref name=Donkin/> during which spice trade became an influential activity for European traders.<ref name=CornPrologue>Corn & Glasserman 1999: Prologue</ref> The route from Europe to the Indian Ocean via the Cape of Good Hope was pioneered by European navigators, such as [[Vasco Da Gama]], resulting in new maritime routes for trade.<ref name=Columbia1/> This trade - driving the world economy from the end of the [[middle ages]] well into the [[modern times]] - <ref name=CornPrologue/> ushered an age of European domination in the East.<ref name=Columbia1/> Channels, such as the [[Bay of Bengal]], served as bridges for cultural and commercial exchanges between diverse cultures<ref name=Donkin/> as nations struggled to gain control of the trade along the many spice routes.<ref name=EB1/> European dominance was slow to develop. The Portuguese trade routes were mainly restricted and limited by the use of ancient and difficult to dominate routes, ports, and nations. The Dutch were later able to bypass much of these problems by pioneering a direct ocean route from the Cape of Good Hope to the Sunda Strait in Indonesia. ==Background== [[Image:Spicesindia.jpg|thumb|left|The spice trade from India attracted the attention of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], and subsequently the [[Roman empire]].]] Spices such as [[cinnamon]], [[cassia]], [[cardamom]], [[ginger]], and [[turmeric]] were known, and used for commerce, in the [[Eastern World]] well into antiquity. <ref name=EB1>spice trade (Encyclopedia Britannica 2002)</ref> These spices found their way into the [[Middle East]] before the beginning of the [[Common Era]], where the true sources of these spices was withheld by the traders, and associated with fantastic tales.<ref name=EB1/> The [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] had traded in the [[Red Sea]], importing spices from the "[[Land of Punt]]" and from [[Arabia]].<ref>Rawlinson 2001: 11-12</ref> [[Luxury goods]] traded along the [[Incense Route]] included [[India]]n spices, [[ebony]], [[silk]] and fine [[textiles]].<ref name=Yemen1>{{cite web| title = Traders of the Gold and Incense Road | publisher = Message of the Republic of Yemen, Berlin| url = http://www.botschaft-jemen.de/Geschichte.htm| format = HTML }}</ref> The spice trade was associated with overland routes early on but maritime routes proved to be the factor which helped this trade grow.<ref name=EB1/> The [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] had developed trade with India using the Red Sea ports.<ref name=Shaw1>Shaw 2003: 426</ref> With the establishment of [[Roman Egypt]], the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] [[Roman trade with India|further developed]] the already existing trade.<ref name=Shaw1/> As early as 80 BC, [[Alexandria]] became the dominant trading center for Indian spices entering the [[Greco-Roman world]].<ref name=EB1/> Indian ships sailed to Egypt. The thriving maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single power,<ref name=Lach1>Lach 1994: 13</ref> but through various systems eastern spices were brought to the major spice trading port of [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] in India. According to the ''The Cambridge History of Africa (1975)'':<ref>Fage 1975: 164</ref> {{cquote|The trade with Arabia and India in incense and spices became increasingly important, and [[Greeks]] for the first time began to trade directly with India. The discovery, or rediscovery, of the sea-route to India is attributed to a certain [[Eudoxus of Cyzicus|Eudoxos]], who was sent out for this purpose towards the end of the reign of [[Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II|Ptolemy Euergetes II]] (died [[116 BC]]). Eudoxos made two voyages to India, and subsequently, having quarrelled with his Ptolemaic employers, perished in an unsuccessful attempt to open up an alternative sea route to India, free of Ptolemaic control, by sailing around [[Africa]]. The establishment of direct contacts between Egypt and India was probably made possible by a weakening of Arab power at this period, for the [[Sabaean]] kingdom of South-western Arabia collapsed and was replaced by [[Himyarite Kingdom]] around [[115 BC]]. Imports into Egypt of cinnamon and other eastern spices, such as pepper, increased substantially, though the [[Indian Ocean]] trade remained for the moment on quite a small scale, no more than twenty Egyptian ships venturing outside the Red Sea each year.}} The trade between India and the [[Greco-Roman world]] kept on increasing;<ref><small>At any rate, when [[Cornelius Gallus|Gallus]] was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the [[Nile]] as far as [[Aswan|Syene]] and the frontiers of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Ethiopia]], and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from [[Myos Hormos]] to India, whereas formerly, under the [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemies]], only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise. - [[Strabo]] (II.5.12.); [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2E1*.html The Geography of Strabo. Vol. I of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1917.].</small></ref> within this trade spices were the main import from India to the [[Western world]],<ref>Ball 2000: 131</ref> bypassing silk and other commodities.<ref>Ball 2000: 137</ref> In [[Java]] and [[Borneo]], the introduction of Indian culture created a demand for aromatics.<ref name=Donkin1/> These trading outposts later served the Chinese and Arab markets as well.<ref name=Donkin1>Donkin 2003: 59</ref> The Greek document [[Periplus Maris Erythraei]] names several Indian ports from where large ships sailed towards east to ''Khruse''.<ref>Donkin 2003: 64</ref> Pre-Islamic Meccans continued to use the old Incense Route to benefit from the heavy Roman demand for luxury goods.<ref name=Crone1>Crone 2004: 10</ref> The Meccan involvement saw the export of the same goods: Arabian [[frankincense]], East African ivory and gold, Indian spices, Chinese silk etc.<ref name=Crone1/> ==Middle ages== [[Image:Calicut 1572.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Image of [[Calicut]], India from [[Georg Braun]] and Frans Hogenberg's atlas ''[[Civitates orbis terrarum]]'', 1572.]] The Indian commercial connection with South East Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and [[Persia]] during the [[seventh century]] and the [[eighth century]].<ref name=Donkin1/> The [[Abbasids]] used Alexandria, [[Damietta]], [[Aden]] and [[Siraf]] as entry ports to India and China.<ref name=Donkin3>Donkin 2003: 91-92</ref> Merchants arriving from India in the port city of Aden paid tribute in form of [[musk]], [[camphor]], [[ambergris]] and [[sandalwood]] to [[Ibn Ziyad]], the [[sultan]] of [[Yemen]].<ref name=Donkin3/> [[Molucca]]n products shipped across the ports of Arabia to the Near East passed through the ports of India and [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name=Donkin4>Donkin 2003: 92</ref> After reaching either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports were sometimes shipped to [[East Africa]], where they would be used for many purposes, including burial rites.<ref name=Donkin4/> Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi ([[1150 AD|1150]]), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi ([[fourteenth century]]).<ref name=Donkin4/> Chinese traveler [[Hsuan Tsang]] mentions the town of [[Puri]] where "merchants depart for distant countries."<ref name=Donkin2>Donkin 2003: 65</ref> The islands of [[Molucca]] also find mention in several records: ''Meluza'' or ''Melucha'' is mentioned by a member of the [[Brazil]]-India expedition under [[Pedro Álvares Cabral|Cabral]];<ref name=Donkin5>Donkin 2003: 87</ref> [[Amerigo Vespucci]] mentions ''Maluche'' in a letter to [[Lorenzo de Medici]] ([[1501]]);<ref name=Donkin5/> a Javanese chronicles ([[1365]]) mentions the Moluccas and ''Maloko'';<ref name=Donkin6>Donkin 2003: 88</ref> and navigational works of the [[fourteenth century]] and the [[fifteenth century]] contain the first unequivocal Arab reference to Moluccas.<ref name=Donkin6/> Sulaima al-Mahr writes: "East of [[Timor]] [where [[sandalwood]] is found] are the islands of ''Bandam'' and they are the islands where nutmeg and mace are found. The islands of [[cloves]] are called ''Maluku'' ....."<ref name=Donkin6/> Rome briefly played a part in the spice trade during the 5th century, but this role, unlike the Arabian one, could not last through the middle ages.<ref name=EB1/> The [[Republic of Venice]] became a formidable power, and a key player in the Eastern spice trade.<ref name=EB1/> Other powers, in an attempt to break the Venetian hold on spice trade, began to build up maritime capability.<ref name=EB1/> ==The New World== {{main|Age of Discovery}} [[Image:Caravela Anunciação pic01.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Replica of [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]]'s ship ''Anunciação'', in the city of [[Campinas]], state of [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], [[Brazil]].]] One of the major consequences of the spice trade was the discovery of the [[American continent]] by European explorers. Until the mid 15th century, trade with the east was achieved through the [[Silk Road]], with the Byzantine Empire and the Italian city-states of [[Venice]] and [[Genoa]] acting as a middle man. In 1453, however, the Ottomans took [[Constantinople]] and so the [[Byzantine Empire]] was no more. Now in control of the sole spice trade route that existed at the time, the [[Ottoman Empire]] was in a favorable position to charge hefty taxes on merchandise bound for the west. The Western Europeans, not wanting to be dependent on a non-Christian power for the lucrative commerce with the east, set about to find an alternate sea route around [[Africa]]. The first country to attempt to circumnavigate Africa was Portugal, which had, since the early 15th century, begun to explore northern Africa under [[Henry the Navigator]]. Emboldened by these early successes and eyeing a lucrative monopoly on a possible sea route to the [[Indies]] the Portuguese first crossed the [[Cape of Good Hope]] in 1488 on an expedition led by [[Bartolomeu Dias]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04775b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Bartolomeu Dias] Retrieved [[November 29]], [[2007]] </ref> Just nine years later in 1497 on the orders of [[Manuel I of Portugal]], four vessels under the command of navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]], continuing to the eastern coast of Africa to [[Malindi]] to sail across the [[Indian Ocean]] to [[Calicut]].<ref name=Columbia1>Gama, Vasco da. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press.</ref> The wealth of the [[Indies]] was now open for the Europeans to explore; the [[Portuguese Empire]] was one of the early European empires to grow from spice trade.<ref name=Columbia1/> [[Image:Magellan's voyage EN.svg|350px|thumb|left|One of Magellan's ships circumnavigated the globe, finishing 16 months after the explorer's death.]] It was during this time of discovery that explorers working for the Spanish and Portuguese Crowns first set foot on the New World. [[Christopher Columbus]] was the first when, in 1492, in an attempt to reach the Indies by sailing westward, he made landfall on an island in what is now [[The Bahamas]]. Believing to have in fact reached India, he named the natives "Indians". <ref> [http://www.columbusnavigation.com/v1.shtml The First Voyage of Columbus] Retrieved [[November 29]], [[2007]] </ref> Just eight years later in 1500, the Portuguese navigator, [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] while attempting to reproduce Vasco da Gama’s route to India was blown westwards to what is today [[Brazil]]. After taking possession of the new land, Cabral resumed his voyage to India, finally arriving there in September 1500 and returning to Portugal by 1501. <ref> [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03128a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Pedralvarez Cabral] Retrieved [[November 29]], [[2007]] </ref> By now the Portuguese had complete control of the African sea route and as such, the Spanish, if they were to have any hope of competing with Portugal for the lucrative trade, had to find an alternate route. Their first, early, attempt was with Christopher Columbus, but he ended up finding a continent in between Europe and Asia. The Spanish finally succeeded with the voyage of [[Ferdinand Magellan]] . On October 21, 1520 his expedition crossed what is now known as the [[Strait of Magellan]], opening the west coast of the Americas for exploration. On March 16, 1521 the ships reached the [[Philippines]] and soon after the [[Spice Islands]], effectively establishing the first westward spice trade route to Asia. Upon returning to Spain in 1522 aboard the last remaining ship of the expedition, the survivors of the expedition became the first humans to circumnavigate the globe. ==Trade under colonialism== [[Image:European settlements in India 1498-1739.PNG|thumb|right|450px|European settlements in India.]] According to the Encyclopedia Britannica 2002: "[[Ferdinand Magellan]] took up the quest for Spain in 1519. Of the five vessels under his command, only one, [[Victoria (ship)|the Victoria]], returned to Spain, but triumphantly, laden with cloves."<ref name=EB1/> The first [[Netherlands|Dutch]] expedition left from [[Amsterdam]] (April [[1595]]) for [[South East Asia]].<ref name=Donkin7>Donkin 2003: 169</ref> Another Dutch convoy sailed in [[1598]] and returned one year later with 600, 000 pounds of spices and other [[East India]]n products.<ref name=Donkin7/> The [[United East India Company]] forged alliance with the principal producers of cloves and nutmeg.<ref name=Donkin7/> The [[British East India Company]] shipped substantial quantities of spices during the early [[seventeenth century]].<ref name=Donkin7/> According to the Encyclopedia Britannica 2002:<ref name=EB1/> {{cquote|In 1602 the [[Dutch East India Company]] came into existence by authority of the Estates-General of the Netherlands. In 1664 the [[French East India Company]] was organized by state authorization under [[Louis XIV]]. Other European nations granted charters to East India companies with varying success. There followed struggles and conquests to gain advantage and monopolistic control of the trade. For more than 100 years Portugal was the dominant power, eventually yielding to English and Dutch enterprise and conquest; by the 19th century British interests were firmly rooted in India and [[Ceylon]], and the Dutch were in control over the greater part of the East Indies.}} The growing competition led to rival nations resorting to military means for control of the spice trade.<ref name=Donkin7/> In [[1641]], Portuguese Molucca was captured by the Dutch.<ref name=Donkin7/> The capture saw concentrated plantation on cloves and nutmegs and then - using the Treaty of [[Jakarta|Batavia]] ([[1652]]) - an attempt to destroy trees on all other islands in order to keep the supply in check and control the important markets of spices.<ref name=Donkin7/> This attempt disrupted the ancient patterns of trade and even led to depopulation of entire islands, notably [[Banda Islands|Banda]].<ref name=Donkin7/> The Moluccas became the principal entry ports for the spice trade, and according to Robin A. Donkin (2003):<ref>Donkin 2003: 170</ref> [[Image:Magellan'sVoyage.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Islands of Northern [[Indonesia]] and Southern [[Philippines]], commonly called the [[Spice Islands]].]] {{cquote|Trade by Europeans between different parts of South and East Asia was often more profitable than supplying the home countries. In the 1530s, the Portuguese shipped substantially more cloves, nutmegs, and mace to India and [[Ormus|Hormuz]] than to Portugal. The buyers in Hormuz were "[[Moors|Moorish]] merchants who pass[ed] it on, over Persia, Arabia and all Asia as far as [[Turkey]]." From at least the seventeenth century, the same products were taken to [[Bengal]] by the Portuguese and the Dutch. English merchants found that they sold "Exceedingly well in [[Surat|Surratt]]" and other Indian and Persian stations. The Dutch between [[1620]] and [[1740]] marketed one-third or more of their spices, notably cloves, in Asia: Persia, Arabia, and India. [[Japan]] was served by the Portuguese from [[Macau]] and later by the Dutch, but the demand for cloves and spices generally was said in the early seventeenth century to be relatively small and prices were consequently low.}} [[Penang]], a [[British colony]], was established as a pepper port in [[1786]].<ref name=Corn1>Corn & Glasserman 1999: 217</ref> During the Eighteenth century, French possessions in India were seized by the British, who then moved on to aggressively check [[Holland]] in the Far East.<ref name=Corn214/> The status the Dutch East India Company weakened as a result of the growing British influence.<ref name=Corn214>Corn & Glasserman 1999: 214</ref> In 1585, ships from the West Indies arrived in Europe with a cargo of ''[[Jamaican]] ginger'', a root originating in India and South China, which became the first Asian spice to grow successfully in the New World.<ref name=Corn216/> Notions of plants and trees not growing successfully outside of their native lands, however, were harbored until the mid eighteenth century, championed by eminent botanists of the day, such as [[Georg Eberhard Rumpf]] (1627-1702).<ref name=Corn216>Corn & Glasserman 1999: 214</ref> Rumpf's theory was discredited by a series of successful transplantation experiments carried out in Europe and the Malay Peninsula during the early Eighteenth century.<ref name=Corn217>Corn & Glasserman 1999: 214</ref> By [[1815]], the first shipment of nutmegs from [[Sumatra]] had arrived in Europe.<ref name=Corn1/> Furthermore, islands of the [[West Indies]], like [[Grenada]], also became involved in spice trade.<ref name=Corn1/> [[Image:Fort Cornwallis Penang Dec 2006 002.jpg|thumb|300px|The British constructed fortified military settlements, such as Fort Cornwallis, in Penang.]] Sandalwood from [[Timor]] and [[Tibet]]an incense gained status as prized commodities in China during the early [[eighteenth century]].<ref name=Donkin8>Donkin 2003: 162-163</ref> [[East Asia]] displayed a general interest in sandalwood products, which were used to make images of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] and other valuable artifacts.<ref name=Donkin8/> Merchants from [[Salem, Massachusetts]] traded profitably with Sumatra during the early half of the [[nineteenth century]].<ref>Corn & Glasserman 1999: 265</ref> The kingdom of [[Aceh]] became a powerful entity in the South Eastern spice trade, with the Acehnese resisted Dutch invasions and forged trading relationships with the traders from Salem.<ref>Corn & Glasserman 1999: 252</ref> In 1818, a number of uneventful voyages were made to Sumatra from Salem.<ref name=Corn279>Corn & Glasserman 1999: 279</ref> This trend continued until a series of [[pirate]] attacks caused widespread alarm throughout the trading community, further spread by stories of Indian and European sailors meeting terrible fate at the hands of the pirates.<ref name=Corn279/> The [[United States of America]] resorted to punitive measures following piracy and other hostilities upon the [[New England|New Englanders]], especially after the murder of five crewmen of the trading ship ''Friendship,'' regarded as the worst act of hostility in the trade between Sumatra and Salem.<ref name=Corn279/> The mid nineteenth century saw the advent of artificial [[refrigeration]], which resulted in a decline in the overall status of spice consumption, and trade.<ref name=Corn0>Corn & Glasserman 1999</ref> ==Cultural exchanges== [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with economic activity and commerce as patrons entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship and promotion of trading activities.<ref name=Donkin67>Donkin 2003: 67</ref> [[Buddhism]], in particular, traveled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy.<ref name=Donkin69>Donkin 2003: 69</ref> [[Islam]] spread throughout the East, reaching the Malay Archipelago in the 10th century; Muslim merchants played a crucial part in the trade.<ref name=Corn>Corn & Glasserman 1999</ref> Christians missionaries, such as, [[Saint Francis Xavier]], were instrumental in the spread of [[Christianity]] in the East.<ref name=Corn/> Christianity competed with Islam to become the dominant religion of the Moluccas.<ref name=Corn/> However, the natives of the Spice Islands accommodated aspects of both the religions easily.<ref>Corn & Glasserman 1999: 105</ref> The Portuguese colonial settlements saw traders such as the Gujarati [[Vanika|bania]]s, South Indian Chettis, [[Syrian Christians]], Chinese from [[Fujian]] province, and Arabs from [[Aden]] involved in the spice trade.<ref name=Collingham56>Collingham 56: 2006</ref> Epics, languages, and cultural customs were borrowed by Southeast Asia from India, and later China.<ref name=Donkin>Donkin 2003</ref> Knowledge of [[Portuguese language]] became essential for merchants involved in the trade.<ref>Corn & Glasserman 1999: 203</ref> Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, notable present day [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]], where spice mixtures and curries became popular.<ref name=Collingham245>Collingham 245: 2006</ref> European people intermarried with the Indians, and popularized valuable culinary skills, such as [[baking]], in India.<ref name=Collingham61>Collingham 61: 2006</ref> The Portuguese also introduced vinegar to India, and Franciscan priests manufactured it from coconut toddy.<ref name=Collingham69>Collingham 69: 2006</ref> Indian food, adapted to European palate, became visible in England by 1811 as exclusive establishments began catering to the tastes of both the curious and those returning from India.<ref name=Collingham129>Collingham 129: 2006</ref> ==Recent Trends== The table below shows total global spice production in [[2004]] ([[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] statistics): <center> {| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse" |- ! colspan="5" bgcolor="chocolate" | World Spice Production in tons, 2003&ndash;2004, data from [[FAO]]STAT |- | bgcolor="orange"| [[India]] |align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80"|1 600 000||align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80"|86% |- | bgcolor="orange" | [[China]] |align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80" |66 000||align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80"|4% |- | bgcolor="orange" | [[Bangladesh]] |align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80" | 48 000||align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80"|3% |- | bgcolor="orange" | [[Pakistan]] |align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80"|45 300||align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80"|2% |- | bgcolor="orange" | [[Turkey]] |align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80" | 33 000||align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80"|2% |- | bgcolor="orange" | [[Nepal]] |align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80" | 15 500||align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80"|1% |- | bgcolor="orange" | Other&nbsp;countries |align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80" | 60 900||align="right" bgcolor="#ffde80"|3% |- | bgcolor="chocolate" | '''Total''' |align="right" bgcolor="chocolate" | '''1 868 700'''||align="right" bgcolor="chocolate"|100% |- |} </center> ==See also== {{Trade route 2}} ==Notes== {{reflist|3}} ==References== * {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Britannica | year = 2002 | title = spice trade | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica }} *{{cite book | last = Donkin | first = Robin A. | title = Between East and West: The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices Up to the Arrival of Europeans | publisher = Diane Publishing Company | date = August 2003 | isbn = 0871692481}} *{{cite book | last = Corn | first = Charles | coauthors = Glasserman, Debbie | title = The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade | publisher = Kodansha America | date = March 1999 | isbn = 1568362498}} * {{cite book | last = Collingham | first = Lizzie | title = Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = December 2005 | isbn = 0195172418}} *{{cite book | last = Rawlinson | first = Hugh George | title = Intercourse Between India and the Western World: From the Earliest Times of the Fall of Rome | publisher = Asian Educational Services | date = 2001 | isbn = 8120615492 }} *{{cite book | last = Fage | first = John Donnelly | authorlink = John Donnelly Fage | coauthors = ''et al.'' | title = The Cambridge History of Africa | publisher = Cambridge University Press | date = 1975 | isbn = 0521215927}} *{{cite book | last = Ray | first = Himanshu Prabha | title = The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia | publisher = Cambridge University Press | date = 2003 | isbn = 0521011094}} *{{cite book | last = Crone | first = Patricia |authorlink = Patricia Crone | title = Meccan Trade And The Rise Of Islam | publisher = Gorgias Press LLC | date = 2004 | isbn = 1593331029}} *{{cite book | last = Shaw | first = Ian | authorlink = Ian Shaw (Egyptologist) | title = The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 2003 | isbn = 0192804588}} *{{cite book | last = Ball | first = Warwick | authorlink = Warwick Ball | title = Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire | publisher = Routledge | date = 2000 | isbn = 0415113768 }} *{{cite book | last = Lach | first = Donald Frederick | title = Asia in the Making of Europe: The Century of Discovery. Book 1. | publisher = University of Chicago Press | date = 1994 | isbn = 0226467317 }} == External links == * [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/silk/hd_silk.htm Trade between the Romans and the Empires of Asia. Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art] [[Category:Spices]] [[Category:International trade]] [[Category:Trade routes]] {{Link FA|pt}} [[bs:Put začina]] [[de:Gewürzroute]] [[es:Descubrimiento de la ruta marítima a la India]] [[fr:Commerce des épices]] [[hr:Put začina]] [[it:Rotta delle spezie]] [[pt:Descoberta do caminho marítimo para a Índia]] [[zh:香料贸易]]