Squamata 305742 225703575 2008-07-15T00:05:53Z Jwinius 141528 /* Classification */ Edits to snake wlinks. {{Taxobox | name = Scaled reptiles | image = Blue-toungued skink444.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''[[Blotched Blue-Tongued Skink]]'' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Sauropsid]]a | ordo = '''Squamata''' | ordo_authority = [[Nicolaus Michael Oppel|Oppel]], [[1811]] | range_map = World.distribution.sauria.1.png | range_map_caption = black: range of Squamata | range_map_width = 250px | subdivision_ranks = Suborders | subdivision = see text }} :''This article is about the Squamata order of reptiles. For the Roman scale armour see: [[Lorica squamata]]''. '''Squamata''' (scaled reptiles) is the largest recent order of [[reptile]]s, including [[lizard]]s and [[snake]]s. Members of the order are distinguished by their skins, which bear horny [[scale (zoology)|scales]] or shields. They also possess movable [[quadrate bone]]s, making it possible to move the upper jaw relative to the [[braincase]]. This is particularly visible in snakes, which are able to open their mouths very widely to accommodate comparatively large prey. The male members of the group Squamata are the only vertebrates with a [[hemipenis]]. This is also the only reptile group in which can be found both [[viviparous]] and [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]] species, as well as the usual [[oviparous]] reptiles. They are the most variably-sized order of reptiles, ranging from the 16 mm (0.63 in) [[Jaragua Sphaero]] to the 8 m (26 ft) [[Eunectes murinus|Green Anaconda]]. ==Classification== Classically, the order is divided into three suborders: * [[Lacertilia]], the lizards; * [[Serpentes]], the snakes; * [[Amphisbaenia]], the worm lizards. Of these, the lizards form a [[Paraphyly|paraphyletic]] group. In newer classifications the name [[Sauria]] is used for reptiles and birds in general, and the Squamata are divided differently: <!-- Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society (1998), 124: 235–265. --> * Suborder [[Iguania]] (the [[iguana]]s and [[chameleon]]s) * Suborder [[Scleroglossa]] ** Infraorder [[Gekkota]] (the [[gecko]]s) ** Infraorder [[Anguimorpha]] (the [[monitor lizard|monitors]], [[Gila monster]], and [[slow-worm]]s) ** Infraorder [[Scincomorpha]] ([[skink]]s, [[whiptail lizard]]s and common European lizards) * Suborder [[Serpentes]] (the [[snake]]s) ** Infraorder [[Alethinophidia]] ([[Viperidae|viper]]s, [[Boidae|boa]]s, [[Naja|cobra]]s, etc.) ** Infraorder [[Scolecophidia]] (blind snakes) * Suborder [[Amphisbaenia]] The relationships between these suborders is not yet certain, though recent research suggests that several families may form a hypothetical venom clade which encompasses a majority (nearly 60%) of Squamate species. <ref name="Fry2006"> {{cite journal |author = Fry, B. et al |year= 2006 |month= February |title= Early evolution of the venom system in lizards and snakes |journal= Nature |volume= 439 |pages= 584–588 |url= http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7076/abs/nature04328.html |doi = 10.1038/nature04328 |format = [http://www.venomdoc.com/downloads/2005_BGF_Nature_squamate_venom.pdf PDF] }} </ref> Named [[Toxicofera]], it combines the following groups from traditional [[Scientific classification|classification]]:<ref name="Fry2006" /> *Suborder [[Serpentes]] (snakes) *Suborder [[Iguania]] (agamas, chameleons, iguanas, etc.) **Infraorder [[Anguimorpha]], consisting of: ***Family [[Varanidae]] (monitor lizards, including the Komodo dragon) ***Family [[Anguidae]] (alligator lizards, glass lizards, etc.) ***Family [[Helodermatidae]] (Gila monster and Mexican beaded lizard) ==List of Families== {| class="wikitable"[[ |- |colspan="100%" align="center" {{bgcolor-blue}}|'''[[Amphisbaenia]]''' |- !Family!!Common Names!!Example Species!!Example Photo |- |[[Amphisbaenidae]]<br><small>[[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1865</small>||Tropical worm lizards||[[Darwin's worm lizard]] ''(Amphisbaena darwinii)''|| |- |[[Bipedidae]]<br><small>[[Richard Taylor|Taylor]], 1951</small>||''Bipes'' worm lizards||[[Mexican Mole Lizard]] ''(Bipes biporus)''|| |- |[[Rhineuridae]]<br><small>[[Paulo Vanzolini|Vanzolini]], 1951</small>||North American worm lizards||[[Rhineuridae|North American worm lizard]] ''(Rhineura floridana)''||[[Image:Amphisbaenia 1.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Trogonophidae]]<br><small>[[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1865</small>|| Palearctic worm lizards||[[Checkerboard Worm Lizard]] ''(Trogonophis wiegmanni)''|| |- |colspan="100%" align="center" {{bgcolor-blue}}|'''[[Diploglossa]]''' |- !Family!!Common Names!!Example Species!!Example Photo |- |[[Anguidae]]<br><small>[[Nicolaus Michael Oppel|Oppel]], 1811</small>||Glass lizards||[[Anguis fragilis|Slow Worm]] (''Anguis fragilis'')||[[Image:Anguidae.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Anniellidae]]<br><small>[[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1852</small>||American legless lizards||[[California Legless Lizard]] (''Anniella pulchra'')||[[Image:Anniella pulchra.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Xenosauridae]]<br><small>[[Edward Drinker Cope|Cope]], 1866</small>||Knob-scaled lizards||[[Chinese crocodile lizard|Chinese Crocodile Lizard]] (''Shinisaurus crocodilurus'')||[[Image:Chin-krokodilschwanzechse-01.jpg|100px]] |- |colspan="100%" align="center" {{bgcolor-blue}}|'''[[Gekkota]]''' |- !Family!!Common Names!!Example Species!!Example Photo |- |[[Dibamidae]]<br><small>[[George Albert Boulenger|Boulenger]], 1884</small>||Blind lizards||''[[Dibamus nicobaricum]]''|| - |- |[[Gekkonidae]]<br><small>[[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1825</small>||Geckos||[[Underwoodisaurus milii|Thick-tailed Gecko]] (''Underwoodisaurus milii'')||[[Image:Underwoodisaurus milii.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Pygopodidae]]<br><small>[[George Albert Boulenger|Boulenger]], 1884</small>||Legless lizards||[[Burton's Snake Lizard]] (''Lialis burtonis'')|| - |- |colspan="100%" align="center" {{bgcolor-blue}}|'''[[Iguania]]''' |- !Family!!Common Names!!Example Species!!Example Photo |- |[[Agamidae]]<br><small>[[Johann Baptist von Spix|Spix]], 1825</small>||Agamas ||[[Eastern Bearded Dragon]] (''Pogona barbata'')||[[Image:Bearded dragon04.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Chamaeleonidae]]<br><small>[[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1825</small>||Chameleons||[[Veiled Chameleon]] (''Chamaeleo calyptratus'')||[[Image:Chamaelio calyptratus.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Corytophanidae]]<br><small>[[D.R. Frost|Frost]] & [[R. Etheridge|Etheridge]], 1989</small>||Casquehead lizards||[[Plumed basilisk|Plumed Basilisk]] (''Basiliscus plumifrons'')|| [[Image:Plumedbasiliskcele4 edit.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Crotaphytidae]]<br><small>[[D.R. Frost|Frost]] & [[R. Etheridge|Etheridge]], 1989</small>||Collared and leopard lizards||[[Common Collared Lizard]] (''Crotaphytus collaris'')||[[Image:Collared lizard in Zion National Park.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Hoplocercidae]]<br><small>[[D.R. Frost|Frost]] & [[R. Etheridge|Etheridge]], 1989</small>||Wood lizards or clubtails||[[Club-tail Iguana]] (''Hoplocercus spinosus'')|| - |- |[[Iguanidae]]||Iguanas||[[Marine Iguana]] (''Amblyrhynchus cristatus'')||[[Image:Marineiguana03.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Leiosauridae]]<br><small>[[D.R. Frost|Frost]] et al., 2001</small>|| - ||[[Darwin's Iguana]] (''Diplolaemus darwinii'')|| - |- |[[Opluridae]]<br><small>[[D.R. Frost|Frost]] & [[R. Etheridge|Etheridge]], 1989</small>||Madagascan iguanas ||[[Chalarodon]] (''Chalarodon madagascariensis'')|| - |- |[[Phrynosomatidae]]<br><small>[[D.R. Frost|Frost]] & [[R. Etheridge|Etheridge]], 1989</small>||Earless, spiny, tree, side-blotched and horned lizards||[[Greater earless lizard|Greater Earless Lizard]] (''Cophosaurus texanus'')||[[Image:Reptile tx usa.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Polychrotidae]]<br><small>[[D.R. Frost|Frost]] & [[R. Etheridge|Etheridge]], 1989</small>||Anoles||[[Carolina anole|Caronlina Anole]] (''Anolis carolinensis'')|| [[Image:P1010027.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Tropiduridae]]<br><small>[[D.R. Frost|Frost]] & [[R. Etheridge|Etheridge]], 1989||Neotropical ground lizards||(''Microlophus peruvianus'')||[[Image:Mperuvianus.jpg|100px|]] |- |colspan="100%" align="center" {{bgcolor-blue}}|'''[[Platynota]]''' |- !Family!!Common Names!!Example Species!!Example Photo |- |[[Helodermatidae]]||Gila monsters||[[Gila monster|Gila Monster]] (''Heloderma suspectum'')||[[Image:Gila.monster.arp.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Lanthanotidae]]||Earless Monitor||[[Lanthanotidae|Earless Monitor]] (''Lanthanotus borneensis'')|| - |- |[[Varanidae]]||Monitor lizards||[[Perentie]] (''Varanus giganteus'')||[[Image:Perentie Lizard Perth Zoo SMC Spet 2005.jpg|100px|]] |- |colspan="100%" align="center" {{bgcolor-blue}}|'''[[Scincomorpha]]''' |- !Family!!Common Names!!Example Species!!Example Photo |- |[[Cordylidae]]||Spinytail lizards ||[[Girdle-tailed Lizard]] (''Cordylus warreni'')|| [[Image:Cordylus breyeri1.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Gerrhosauridae]]||Plated lizards||[[Sudan plated lizard|Sudan Plated Lizard]] (''Gerrhosaurus major'')||[[Image:Gerrhosaurus major.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Gymnophthalmidae]]||Spectacled lizards|| - || - |- |[[Lacertidae]]<br><small>[[Nicolaus Michael Oppel|Oppel]], 1811</small>||Wall or true lizards||[[Eyed lizard|Eyed Lizard]] (''Lacerta lepida'')||[[Image:Perleidechse-20.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Scincidae]]<br><small>[[Nicolaus Michael Oppel|Oppel]], 1811</small>||Skinks||[[Western Blue-tongued Lizard|Western Blue-tongued Skink]] (''Tiliqua occipitalis'')|| [[Image:Tiliqua occipitalis.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Teiidae]]||Tegus or whiptails||[[Blue Tegu]] (''Tupinambis teguixin'')||[[Image:Goldteju Tupinambis teguixin.jpg|100px|]] |- |[[Xantusiidae]]||Night lizards||[[Granite night lizard|Granite Night Lizard]] (''Xantusia henshawi'')||[[Image:Xantusia henshawi.jpg|100px|]] |- |colspan="100%" align="center" {{bgcolor-blue}}|'''[[Alethinophidia]]''' |- !Family!!Common Names!!Example Species!!Example Photo |- |[[Acrochordidae]]<br><small>[[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Bonaparte]], 1831</small><ref name="Cogger91_23"/>||file snakes||[[Acrochordus granulatus|Marine File Snake]] (''Acrochordus granulatus'')||[[Image:Wart snake 1.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Aniliidae]]<br><small>[[Leonhard Hess Stejneger|Stejneger]], 1907</small><ref>{{ITIS|ID=209611|taxon=Aniliidae|year=2007|date=12 December}}</ref> ||coral pipe snakes||[[Anilius scytale|Burrowing False Coral]] (''Anilius scytale'')|| |- |[[Anomochilidae]]<br><small>Cundall, Wallach and [[Douglas Athon Rossman|Rossman]], 1993</small>.<ref>{{ITIS|ID=563894|taxon=Anomochilidae|year=2007|date=13 December}}</ref>||dwarf pipe snakes||[[Anomochilus leonardi|Leonard's Pipe Snake]], (''Anomochilus leonardi'')|| |- |[[Atractaspididae]]<br><small>[[Albert C. L. G. Günther|Günther]], 1858</small><ref>{{ITIS|ID=563895|taxon=Atractaspididae|year=2007|date=13 December}}</ref> ||mole vipers||[[Atractaspis bibronii|Bibron's burrowing asp]] (''Atractaspis bibroni'') || |- |[[Boidae]]<br><small>[[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1825</small><ref name="Cogger91_23">Cogger(1991), p.23</ref>||boas||[[Amazon tree boa]] (''Corallus hortulanus'')||[[Image:Corallushortulanus.GIF|100px]] |- |[[Bolyeriidae]]<br><small>[[Robert Hoffstetter|Hoffstetter]], 1946</small>||Round Island boas||[[Round Island Burrowing Boa]] (''Bolyeria multocarinata'')|| |- |[[Colubridae]]<br><small>[[Nicolaus Michael Oppel|Oppel]], 1811</small><ref name="Cogger91_23"/>||colubrids||[[Grass Snake]] (''Natrix natrix'')||[[Image:Natrix natrix (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|100px]] |- |[[Cylindrophiidae]]<br><small>[[Leopold Fitzinger|Fitzinger]], 1843</small>||Asian pipe snakes||[[Red-tailed Pipe Snake]] (''Cylindrophis ruffus'')||[[Image:Cylindrophis rufus.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Elapidae]]<br><small>[[Friedrich Boie|Boie]], 1827</small><ref name="Cogger91_23"/>||cobras, coral snakes, mambas, kraits, sea snakes, sea kraits, Australian elapids||[[King Cobra]] (''Ophiophagus hannah'')||[[Image:Ophiophagus hannah2.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Loxocemidae]]<br><small>[[Edward Drinker Cope|Cope]], 1861</small>||Mexican burrowing snakes||[[Mexican burrowing snake]] (''Loxocemus bicolor'')||[[Image:Loxocemus bicolor.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Pythonidae]]<br><small>[[Leopold Fitzinger|Fitzinger]], 1826</small>||pythons||[[Ball python]] (''Python regius'')||[[Image:Ball python lucy.JPG|100px]] |- |[[Tropidophiidae]]<br><small>[[L.D. Brongersma|Brongersma]], 1951</small>||dwarf boas||[[Northern Eyelash Boa]] (''Trachyboa boulengeri'') || |- |[[Uropeltidae]]<br><small>[[Johannes Peter Müller|Müller]], 1832</small>||shield-tailed snakes, short-tailed snakes||[[Uropeltis ceylanica|Cuvier's shieldtail]] (''Uropeltis ceylanica'')||[[Image:Silybura shortii.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Viperidae]]<br><small>[[Nicolaus Michael Oppel|Oppel]], 1811</small><ref name="Cogger91_23"/>||vipers, pitvipers, rattlesnakes||[[Vipera aspis|European asp]] (''Vipera aspis'')||[[Image:Vipera-aspis-aspis-1.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Xenopeltidae]]<br><small>[[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Bonaparte]], 1845</small>||sunbeam snakes||[[Xenopeltis unicolor|Sunbeam snake]] (''Xenopeltis unicolor'')||[[Image:XenopeltisUnicolorRooij.jpg|100px]] |- |colspan="100%" align="center" {{bgcolor-blue}}|'''[[Scolecophidia]]''' |- !Family!!Common Names!!Example Species!!Example Photo |- |[[Anomalepidae]]<br><small>[[Edward Harrison Taylor|Taylor]], 1939</small><ref name="Cogger91_23"/>||dawn blind snakes||[[Dawn Blind Snake]] (''Liotyphlops beui'')||<!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[Image:Liotyphl.jpg|100px|{{deletable image-caption|1=Sunday, 16 December 2007}}]] --> |- |[[Leptotyphlopidae]]<br><small>[[Leonhard Hess Stejneger|Stejneger]], 1892</small><ref name="Cogger91_23"/>||slender blind snakes||[[Texas Blind Snake]] (''Leptotyphlops dulcis'')||[[Image:Leptotyphlops dulcis.jpg|100px]] |- |[[Typhlopidae]]<br><small>[[Blasius Merrem|Merrem]], 1820</small><ref>{{ITIS|ID=174338|taxon=Typhlopidae|year=2007|date=13 December}}</ref>||blind snakes||[[Black Blind Snake]] (''Typhlops reticulatus'')||<!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[Image:Typhlops.jpg|100px|{{deletable image-caption|1=Sunday, 16 December 2007}}]] --> |- |} ==Evolution== Squamates are a [[monophyletic]] group that is a [[sister group]] to the [[tuatara]]. The squamates and tuatara together are a sister group to crocodiles and birds, the extanct archosaurs. Squamate fossils first appear in the early [[Jurassic]], but a mitochondrial phylogeny suggests that they evolved in the late [[Permian]]. <ref name="Kumazawa"/> The evolutionary relationships within the squamates are not yet completely worked out, with the relationship of snakes to other groups being most problematic. From morphological data, Iguanid lizards have been thought to have diverged from other squamates very early, but recent [[molecular phylogeny|molecular phylogenies]], both from [[mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial]] and nuclear [[DNA]], do not support this early divergence.<ref name="Kumazawa">{{cite journal | last =Kumazawa | first = Yoshinori | title =Mitochondrial genomes from major lizard families suggest their phylogenetic relationships and ancient radiations | journal = Gene| volume = 388 | issue = | pages = 19–26 |date=2007 | doi =10.1016/j.gene.2006.09.026}}</ref> Because snakes have a faster [[molecular clock]] than other squamates,<ref name="Kumazawa"/> and there aren't many early snake and snake ancestor fossils,<ref>{{cite web | title = Lizards & Snakes Alive! | publisher = American Museum of Natural History | url = http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/lizards/snakes/world.php | accessdate =2007-12-25}}</ref> it is difficult to figure out the relationship between snakes and other squamate groups.<ref name="Kumazawa"/> ==Venom== Venom is modified [[saliva]], delivered through [[snake venom|fang]]s.<ref name= "Mehrtens87_243">Mehrtens (1987), p.243</ref> The fangs of 'advanced' venomous snakes like viperids and elapids are hollow in order to inject venom more effectively, while the fangs of rear-fanged snakes such as the Boomslang merely have a groove on the posterior edge to channel venom into the wound. Snake venoms are often prey specific, its role in self-defense is secondary.<ref name= "Mehrtens87_243"/> Venom, like all salivary secretions, is a pre-digestant which initiates the breakdown of food into soluble compounds allowing for proper digestion and even "non-venomous" snake bites (like any animal bite) will cause tissue damage.<ref name="Mehrtens87_209">Mehrtens (1987), p.209</ref> Recent research suggests that the evolutionary origin of venom may exist deep in the squamate phylogeny, with 60% of squamates placed in this hypothetical group called [[Toxicofera]]. Venom has been known in the families [[Heloderma]]tidae, [[Elapidae]], [[Viperidae]], and some members of the [[Colubridae]]. However, all [[snake]]s, some [[agamid]] lizards and most [[monitor lizard]]s are now believed by some to have proteins very closely related to venom.<ref>{{cite web|title = Venom Hunt Finds 'Harmless' Snakes A Potential Danger|publisher = Science Daily|url = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/12/031216075937.htm|accessdate =2007-12-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Lizards' poisonous ''<nowiki>[sic]</nowiki>'' secret is revealed|publisher = NewScientist|url = http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn8331|accessdate =2007-12-25}}</ref> ==Humans and Squamates== ===Bites and Deaths=== ''See [[Snakebite]]'' [[Image:Snakebite morbidity map.png|right|300px|thumb|Map showing global distribution of snakebite morbidity.]] In the US alone, more than 8,000 venomous snake bites are reported each year.<ref>{{cite web | title = First Aid Snake Bites | publisher = University of Maryland Medical Center | url = http://www.umm.edu/non_trauma/snake.htm | accessdate =2007-12-30}}</ref> It is estimated that 125,000 people a year die from venomous snake bites.<ref>{{cite web | title = Snake-bites: appraisal of the global situation | publisher = Who.com| url = http://www.who.int/bloodproducts/publications/en/bulletin_1998_76(5)_515-524.pdf | accessdate =2007-12-30}}</ref> However, large pet constrictors, like boas and pythons, have been known to kill their owners through strangulation on rare occassions. <ref>{{cite web | title = Pet boa constrictor chokes owner | publisher = BBC News | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6191305.stm| accessdate =2007-12-30}}</ref> Lizard bites, unlike venomous snake bites, are not fatal. The [[Komodo dragon]] has been known to kill people due to its size. <ref>{{cite web | title = Komodo dragon kills boy, 8, in Indonesia| publisher = msnbc | url = http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19026658/| accessdate =2007-12-30}}</ref> The two known venomous species of lizard, the [[Gila monster]] and [[Mexican beaded lizard]] have never caused a human death by envenomation. ===Conservation=== Even though they survived the worst changes in [[Earth]]'s history, today many squamate species are endangered due to habitat loss, hunting and poaching, the pet trade, alien species being introduced to their habitat (which puts native creatures at risk through unfair competition & predation), and many other unnecessary reasons. Because of this, some are in fact [[extinct]] with Africa having the [[List of extinct animals of Africa#Reptiles|most extinct species of squamates]]. However, breeding programs and wildlife parks are trying to save many endangered reptiles from extinction. Many zoos & breeders educate people about the importance of [[snake]]s and [[lizard]]s. ==References== *{{cite book | last = Bebler | first = John L. | last2 = King | first2 = F. Wayne | title = The Audubon Society Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of North America | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf |Location= New York | pages = 581 | date= 1979 | isbn = 0394508246}} *{{cite book |last= Capula|first= Massimo|coauthors =Behler|title= Simon & Schuster's Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of the World |year= 1989||publisher= [[Simon & Schuster]] |location= [[New York]]|isbn= 0671690981}} *{{cite book | last = Cogger | first = Harold | authorlink = Harold Cogger | last2 = Zweifel | first2 = Richard | title = Reptiles & Amphibians | publisher = Weldon Owen | location = [[Sydney, Australia]] |date = 1992 | isbn = 0831727861}} *{{cite book | last =Conant | first =Roger | last2 =Collins | first2 =Joseph |authorlink=Roger Conant (herpetologist) | title =A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America | publisher =Houghton Mifflin Company | date= 1991 | location =[[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]] | isbn = 0395583896 }} *{{cite book | last =Ditmars | first =Raymond L | authorlink =Raymond Ditmars | title = Reptiles of the World: The Crocodilians, Lizards, Snakes, Turtles and Tortoises of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres | publisher =Macmillian | date =1933 | location =[[New York]] | pages =321}} *{{cite book |last= Freiberg|first= Dr. Marcos|last2= Walls|first2=Jerry |title= The World of Venomous Animals|year= 1984 |publisher= TFH Publications|location=[[New Jersey]] |isbn= 0876665679}} *{{cite book | last =Gibbons | first =J. Whitfield | last2 =Gibbons | first2 =Whit | title =Their Blood Runs Cold: Adventures With Reptiles and Amphibians | publisher =[[University of Alabama]] Press | date =1983 | location =[[Alabama]] | pages =164 |isbn=978-0817301354 }} *{{cite book | last=McDiarmid | first=RW | last2= Campbell |first2=JA | last3=Touré| first3=T|year= 1999|title= Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference |volume= 1 |publisher= Herpetologists' League |pages=511 | ISBN= 1893777006 }} *{{cite book |last= Mehrtens|first= John|title= Living Snakes of the World in Color|year= 1987|publisher= Sterling |location= [[New York]]|isbn= 0806964618}} *{{cite book |last = Rosenfeld | first = Arthur | title = Exotic Pets | publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]] | location= [[New York]] | date= 1989 | pages=293|isbn = 067147654}} ==Cited references== {{reflist}} ==External links== *[http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/240Squamata/240.000.html Squamata] {{Reptiles}} [[Category:Squamata| ]] [[af:Squamata]] [[bs:Squamata]] [[bg:Люспести]] [[ca:Escatós]] [[cs:Šupinatí]] [[da:Slanger og øgler]] [[de:Schuppenkriechtiere]] [[es:Squamata]] [[eo:Skvamuloj]] [[fr:Squamata]] [[ko:뱀목]] [[hr:Ljuskaši]] [[id:Squamata]] [[is:Hreisturdýr]] [[it:Squamata]] [[he:קשקשאים]] [[la:Squamata]] [[lv:Zvīņrāpuļi]] [[lb:Schuppereptiller]] [[lt:Žvynaropliai]] [[li:Squamata]] [[hu:Pikkelyes hüllők]] [[nl:Schubreptielen]] [[ja:有鱗目 (爬虫類)]] [[no:Skjellkrypdyr]] [[nn:Skjelkrypdyr]] [[pl:Łuskonośne]] [[pt:Escamados]] [[ru:Чешуйчатые]] [[simple:Squamata]] [[sk:Jašterotvaré]] [[sr:Squamata]] [[fi:Suomumatelijat]] [[sv:Fjällbärande kräldjur]] [[uk:Лускаті]] [[zea:Squamata]] [[zh:有鱗目]]