Stereotype 73163 226066343 2008-07-16T17:58:46Z SchfiftyThree 556700 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/74.12.130.49|74.12.130.49]] to last version by 71.168.229.69 (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]]) {{Refimprove|date=May 2008}} {{otheruses}} {{Discrimination (sidebar)}} {{wiktionary|stereotype}} A '''stereotype''' is a simplified and/or standardized conception or image with specific meaning, often held in common by people about another group. A stereotype can be a conventional and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image, based on the assumption that there are attributes that members of the other group hold in common. Stereotypes are sometimes formed by a previous [[illusory correlation]], a false association between two variables that are loosely if at all correlated. Stereotypes may be positive or negative in tone. They are typically generalizations based on minimal or limited knowledge about a group to which the person doing the stereotyping does not belong. Stereotypes may represent people entirely in terms of narrow assumptions about their [[biology]], [[nationality]], [[sexual orientation]], [[disability]], or any other number of categories. Stereotyping is a way of representing other people. Stereotypes can revolve around a certain characteristic of the group of persons to which they are assigned. The persons of that group may even be reduced to being known and understood through a lens based on the stereotype that results from this, rather than being viewed as individuals. Stereotypes may refuse to recognize a distinction between an individual and the group to which he or she belongs. Stereotype may appear in media because of the base of writers, directors, reporters, producers, and editors. One of the common misconceptions about stereotypes, especially from a politically correct standpoint, is that they are always false. In fact studies have shown that in some cases stereotypes are generalizations of measurable facts, not true in all cases but in some. == Causes == [[Sociologist]] Charles E. Hurst of the College of Wooster states that, “One reason for stereotypes is the lack of personal, concrete familiarity that individuals have with persons in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping together of unknown individuals” <ref name="Hurst">Hurst, Charles E. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. 6. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc, 2007</REF>. Different disciplines give different accounts of how stereotypes develop: Psychologists focus on how experience with groups, patterns of communication about the groups, and intergroup conflict. Sociologists focus on the relations among groups and position of different groups in a social structure. Psychoanalytically-oriented humanists have argued (e.g., Sander Gilman) that stereotypes, ''by definition'', the representations are not accurate, but a projection of one to another. Stereotypes are not accurate representations of groups, rather they arise as a means of explaining and justifying differences between groups, or [[system justification]]. Social status or group position determines stereotype content, not the actual personal characteristics of group members.<ref name="Fact">{{cite journal | last =Jost | first =JT | coauthors = Banaji, MB | title =The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness | journal =British Journal of Social Psychology | volume =33 | issue = | pages =1–27 | date =1994 }}</ref> Groups which enjoy fewer social and economic advantages will be stereotyped in a way which helps explain disparities, such as lower employment rates. Although disadvantaged group members may have greater difficulty finding a job due to in-group favoritism, racism, and related social forces, the disadvantaged group member is unjustifiably characterized as 'unmotivated' (he could find a job if he looked hard enough), 'unintelligent' (he's not smart enough to have that job), and 'lazy' (he would rather take hand-outs than work). Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups. Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences. <ref name="In-group">{{cite journal | last =Brewer | first =M | title =In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis | journal =Psychological Bulletin | volume =86 | issue = | pages =307–324 | date =1979 | doi =10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.307 }}</ref> This makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more alike than different. For example, among [[African Americans]], identity as an American citizen is a more salient categorization than racial background; that is, African Americans are more American than African. <ref name="African">{{cite journal | last =McAndrew | first =FT | coauthors = Akande, A | title =African perceptions of Americans of African and European descent | journal =Journal of Social Psychology | volume =135 | issue =5 | pages =649–655 | date =1995 }}</ref> Yet within American culture, Black and White Americans are often seen as completely different groups. For as long as there has been a human species, individuals have been different from one another. Persons have gravitated to groups of other persons like themselves. People create and develop categories of qualities by which to classify the groups; some were based on ancestry. Many of these groupings have become the key factors in determining which groups have political, social, and economic power in the world.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} Automatic stereotype activation can be totally involuntary, and is described as the activation of categorically associated "nodes", according to Leopold and Brown from the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. ==Psychology== '''Categorization and Association''' Categorization and Association are two fundamental concepts involved in stereotyping. Categorization- we tend to group people on the basis of easily identifiable characteristics such as age, race, and gender. This can happen outside of our awareness (Devine, 1989). Association- When we [[stereotype]], we usually have sets of traits that go together, that is, are associated with groups of people. The representative-ness heuristic: Our categorizations are based on the extent to which someone’s behavior represents a category we have of various social groups. Example: Is someone who is White, wealthy, and tough on crime a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] or a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]? The availability heuristic: We attempt to bring to mind examples of behaviors of people, and the easier we can imagine such examples, the more likely we will think those behaviors will occur. Example: If the only [[African American]] people who are portrayed in the media are criminals, then those who have little contact may vastly overestimate the number of African American criminals in the general population. == Effects, accuracy, terminology == For individual people there can be both positive and negative effects of a stereotype which is seen to apply to them. The overall effects of stereotyping are seen by many to always be negative. Some people believe that stereotypes are generally based on actual differences. Others believe that they are always false generalizations (by definition). For some individual people the effects of this might be positive or negative - a separate issue to whether they are positive or negative for society. Stereotypes can be self-fulfilling to at least some extent (e.g. group 1 treats group 2 in a more hostile way because they are afraid of the dangerous nature they are supposed to display; people from group 2 accordingly react more aggressively, thus confirming the stereotype) . Stereotypes can be deeply embedded in a culture. The term 'stereotype' is more often used once those perceived truths are put into arguments. There are some complicating factors which arise when the accuracy of stereotypes is discussed. One of these is that a factor leading to stereotyping can be the existence of a group of people who do share a characteristic. For instance, there might be a reasonably significant number of men working in sales roles, and showing little integrity and honesty ('significant' in this context does not imply a majority). This can lead to the creation of a stereotype of a 'salesman' figure. In this limited sense it might be seen that the stereotype is based on a real group of people (i.e. salesmen who behave with little integrity). Possible prejudicial effects of stereotypes are: *Justification of ill-founded prejudices or ignorance *Unwillingness to rethink one's attitudes and behavior towards stereotyped group *Preventing some people of stereotyped groups from succeeding in activities or fields Often the terms ‘’stereotype’’ and ‘’[[prejudice]]’’ are confused. Stereotypes are ‘’standardized’’ and ‘’simplified’’ conceptions of groups, based on some prior assumptions. Stereotypes are created based on some idea of abstract familiarity. Prejudices are more specific - they are predispositions to differential behavior patterns. ==Role in art and culture== Stereotype is often used as a form of dramatic [[shorthand]] for "[[stock character]]". Stereotypes change with time. The unwitting use of some stereotypes appears awkward to a present-day audience which refuses to tolerate a representation of individuals based on that stereotype. Many other stereotypes pass unnoticed, sometimes even by those being stereotyped. Examples of ''active use'' are found in the work of Brecht and other dramatic styles which allow the actor to demonstrate a character's level of ''role distance'', thus showing the ''active use''. Retrospectively these [[stock characters]] have been illuminated by the work of [[Brecht]], [[Dario Fo]] and [[Jacques Lecoq]], despite their original reference to local [[Italy|Italian]] stereotypes in their early [[genesis]]. Importantly in drama the actor does not create a stereotype; rather their [[characterisation]] may be simple in that they represent an uncritical reflection of the stereotype, and it is this simplicity which aggravates a present-day audience. A subtle and detailed characterisation, especially of the commedia Dell'arte stock characters, results in a unique and immediate performance that will be enjoyed by an audience due to the clear active use of the characters by the actor. In [[literature]] and [[art]], stereotypes are [[cliché]]d or predictable characters or situations. Throughout history, storytellers have drawn from stereotypical characters and situations, in order to connect the audience with new tales immediately. Sometimes such stereotypes can be sophisticated, such as [[Shakespeare]]'s [[Shylock]] in ''The Merchant of Venice''. Arguably a stereotype that becomes complex and sophisticated ceases to be a stereotype ''per se'' by its unique characterisation. Thus while [[Shylock]] remains politically unstable in being a stereotypical [[Jew]], the subject of [[prejudicial]] derision in [[Shakespeare's]] era, his many other detailed features raise him above a simple stereotype and into a unique character, worthy of modern performance. Simply because a feature of a character can be categorized as being typical does not make the entire character a stereotype. Despite their proximity in etymological roots, cliché and stereotype are not used synonymously in cultural spheres. For example a cliché is a high criticism in [[narratology]] where [[genre]] and [[categorization]] automatically associates a story within its recognizable group. Labeling a situation or character in a story as ''typical'' suggests it is fitting for its [[genre]] or [[Category (taxonomy)|category]]. Whereas declaring that a storyteller has relied on cliché is to pejoratively observe a simplicity and lack of originality in the tale. To criticize [[Ian Fleming]] for a ''stereotypically'' unlikely escape for [[James Bond]] would be understood by the reader or listener, but it would be more appropriately criticized as a cliché in that it is overused and reproduced. [[Narrative]] [[genre]] relies heavily on ''typical'' features to remain recognizable and generate meaning in the reader/viewer. The instantly recognisable nature of stereotypes mean that they are very useful in producing effective [[advertising]] and [[situation comedy]]. Media stereotypes change and evolve over time - for instance, we now instantly recognize only a few of the stereotyped characters shown to us in [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]''. The teen [[sitcom]], [[Saved By The Bell]] features a typical group of high school stereotypes such as a class clown ([[Zack Morris]]), a jock ([[A.C. Slater]]), a nerd ([[Samuel "Screech" Powers]]), a cheerleader ([[Kelly Kapowski]]), a feminist ([[Jessie Spano]]), and a superficial fashion plate ([[Lisa Turtle]]). Some observed the sitcom, like many teen sitcoms of that time, in addition to stereotyping people, stereotyping an institution itself, that of high school. [[TV]] stereotypes of high schools have often promoted a "typical American school" as football games, fashion styles, [[skirt chasing]], and not much devotion to [[academics]] or studying. In movies and TV the halo effect is often used. This is when, for example, attractive men and women are assumed to be happier, stronger, nicer people, explained by Greenwald and Banaji from Psychological Review. ==Racial and ethnic stereotyping== ===Black stereotypes=== {{Seealso|Stereotypes of blacks}} ====Early stereotypes==== [[Image:Virginia Minstrels, 1843.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Early [[minstrel shows]] lampooned the supposed stupidity of Blacks. Detail from cover of ''The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels'', 1843]] The movie [[Birth of a Nation]] questioned whether or not Black people were fit to run for governmental offices or vote. [[Secretary of State]] [[John C. Calhoun]] arguing for the extension of slavery in 1844 said ''"Here (scientific confirmation) is proof of the necessity of slavery. The African is incapable of self-care and sinks into lunacy under the burden of freedom. It is a mercy to give him the guardianship and protection from mental death."'' Even after slavery ended the intellectual capacity of Black people was still frequently questioned. Lewis Terman wrote in ''The measurement of intelligence'' in 1916 <blockquote>"(Black and other ethnic minority children) are uneducable beyond the nearest rudiments of training. No amount of school instruction will ever make them intelligent voters or capable citizens in the sense of the world…their dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stock from which they come…Children of this group should be segregated in special classes and be given instruction which is concrete and practical. They cannot master abstractions, but they can be made efficient workers…There is no possibility at present of convincing society that they should not be allowed to reproduce, although from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusual prolific breeding."</blockquote> ====Modern stereotypes==== {{Seealso|Acting white}} [[Image:Jjportrait.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Some regard [[Jar Jar]] as a thinly veiled version of the type of portrayals used in [[Minstrel show|minstrelsy]] to lampoon the supposed stupidity of Black people.]] Patricia J. Williams, writer for [[The Nation]], said this of [[Jar Jar Binks]], a character from the 1999 and 2002 [[Star Wars]] films ''The Phantom Menace'' and ''Attack of the Clones'', respectively: "...intentionally or not, Jar Jar's pratfalls and high jinks borrow heavily from the genre of minstrelsy. Despite the amphibian get-up, his manchild-like idiocy is imported directly from the days of [[Amos 'n' Andy]]." Many aspects of Jar Jar's character are believed to be highly reminiscent of the archetypes portrayed in [[blackface]] [[Minstrel show|minstrelsy]].<ref name="Williams">Patricia J. Williams: {{cite web | title= Racial Ventriloquism | publisher=The Nation | url=http://www.thenation.com/doc/19990705/williams | accessdate=June 11 | accessyear=2006 |date=June 17, 1999 }} </ref> According to Robert M. Entman and Andrew Rojecki, authors of the ''The Black Image in the White Mind'', in television and film Black characters are less likely to be "the intellectual drivers of its problem solving." In one example, a study of the portrayal of race, ethnicity and nationality in televised sporting events by journalist Derrick Jackson in 1989 showed that blacks were more likely than whites to be described in demeaning intellectual terms.<ref>[http://www.aafla.org/9arr/ResearchReports/ResearchReport4_.htm The Portrayal of Race, Ethnicity and Nationality in Televised International Athletic Events]</ref> Political activist and one-time presidential candidate [[Rev. Jesse Jackson]] said in 1985 that the news media portray blacks as ''less intelligent than we are.''<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B04E2DC1739F93AA2575AC0A963948260 Jackson Assails Press On Portrayal of Blacks] (NYT)</ref> Film director [[Spike Lee]] explains that these images have negative impacts. "In my neighborhood, we looked up to athletes, guys who got the ladies, and intelligent people," said Lee. Even so-called positive images of Black people can lead to stereotypes about intelligence. In ''Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race'', [[John Hoberman]] writes that the prominence of African-American athletes encourages a de-emphasis on academic achievement in black communities.<ref>''Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race'' By [[John Hoberman|John Milton Hoberman]] ISBN 0395822920</ref> In a 1997 study on racial stereotypes in sports, participants were shown a photograph of a white or a black basketball player. They then listened to a recorded radio broadcast of a basketball game. White photographs were rated as exhibiting significantly more intelligence in the way they played the game, even though the radio broadcast and target player represented by the photograph were the same throughout the trial.<ref>''"White Men Can't Jump": Evidence for the Perceptual Confirmation of Racial Stereotypes Following a Basketball Game'' Jeff Stone, ‌W. Perry, ‌John M. Darley. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 1997, Vol. 19, No. 3, Pages 291-306</ref> Several other authors have said that sports coverage that highlights 'natural black athleticism' has the effect of suggesting white superiority in other areas, such as intelligence.<ref>''The Ball Curve: Calculated Racism and the Stereotype of African American Men'' Ronald E. Hall Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 32, No. 1 (Sep., 2001), pp. 104-119</ref> === History of ethnic stereotypes in the United States === The stratification and separation of groups, especially racial minorities, in the United States began in the nation’s earliest years of colonization. With the colonists’ first contact with the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], the stereotype of “the savage” was born. The idea of a “savage” was the framework the colonists used to judge and interpret the Native Americans <ref name="Hurst" />. As colonization continued in the US, groups were separated into categories like “Christians” and “heathens” and “civilized” and “savage” <ref name="Hurst" />. It took merely decades for these attitudes and ideas to firmly plant themselves with the minds of Americans; today’s stereotypes of Native Americans are rooted in the colonists’ initial thoughts. The media perpetuates these stereotypes by portraying Native Americans in a negative light, such as savage and hostile <ref name="Hurst" />. Many Whites view Native Americans as devoid of self control and unable to handle responsibility. Malcolm D. Holmes and Judith A. Antell hypothesize that such ideas about Native Americans form the ideology that is used today to justify the disparity between Whites and Native Americans <ref>Holmes, Malcolm D., and Judith A. Antell. 2001. “The Social Construction of American Indian Drinking: Perceptions of American Indian and White Officials.” Sociological Quarterly 42:151-173</ref>. The early Anglo-Saxon colonists had a very different relationship with the first [[African Americans]] in the United States than they did with the Native Americans. Their initial thoughts were shaped by popular “English views of Blacks as evil, animalistic, uncivilized, and un-Christian” <ref name="Hurst" />. White colonists commonly believed that the Blacks were inferior to Whites; these thoughts helped justify slavery and the institution of many laws that continually condoned inhumane treatment and perpetuated the keeping of Blacks in a lower socioeconomic position <ref name="Hurst" />. The first American settlers’ thoughts on African Americans were shaped by those of the English; and many of their same initial thoughts still permeate the thoughts and stereotypes of African Americans today. Like it does with the stereotypes of Native Americans, the media continues to perpetuate the stereotypes of African Americans. Not only are African Americans present less frequently in the media than Whites, they are often portrayed negatively. In the past African Americans have been depicted as subservient, lazy, violent, and maybe “slow;” it is clear that such negative stereotypes like these would grow out of the thoughts of slaveholders. The most clear historical basis for today’s stereotypes is seen in those stereotypes used for viewing Native Americans and Blacks; however, other minority groups are also subject to stereotypes that are based in history. Mexican Americans and Asian Americans are typically seen within a very fixed, rigid framework. Since Mexican Americans, like other Hispanics, have traditionally been immigrants to the United States for the purpose of doing agricultural work, they were often seen as inferior and dispensable <ref name="Hurst" />. Even now, the stereotypes of Mexican Americans revolve around this idea of desperate laborers, many of whom struggle with speaking English, flocking to the United States illegally to work. Groups of Asian Americans have also experienced stereotyping and unequal treatment, especially when the events of Pearl Harbor were piled on top of years of negative thoughts about Asian laborers. Today, problems are still being faced but not as equally as before.<ref name="Hurst" />. ===East Asian stereotypes=== {{Seealso|Stereotypes of East and Southeast Asians in the United States}} Asians have generally been portrayed in the media as intelligent, but unsociable. They have also been portrayed as having small reproductive organs, no peripheral vision (which attributes to poor motor skills such as "bad driving"), asexual, martial artists, geeks, exotic women, and foreigners. ===White stereotypes=== {{Seealso|Stereotypes of White people }} [[Image:Irish-stereotypes.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The cartoon above (New Physiognomy, New York, 1866), contrasts Florence Nightingale, the [[Crimean War]] nurse, with "Bridget McBruiser", the stereotypical Irish woman.]] [[Image:Scientific racism irish.gif|thumb|right|200px|Scientific Racism from an American magazine, [[Harper’s Weekly]], says that the Irish are similar to 'Negroes' and wonders why both groups are not extinct.]] The social definition of "White" has changed over the years, and several White groups have at times been portrayed by the media as unintelligent. This includes ethnic groups such as the British, Irish, and Slavs.<ref>Leo W. Jeffres, K. Kyoon Hur (1979) White Ethnics and their Media Images Journal of Communication 29 (1), 116–122.</ref> ====English stereotypes==== The [[English people]] are stereotyped as inordinately proper, prudish, and stiff and as having bad teeth. However, these are typical American stereotypes as they are far from the truth. <ref> [http://www.guardian.co.uk/notesandqueries/query/0,5753,-22429,00.html "A staple of American humor about the UK is the population's bad teeth."] </ref> In Eastern Europe, the English are stereotyped as being ugly and pale. Characters in historical movies often have English accents even when the setting has nothing to do with England. Upper-class characters are also often given English accents. In more recent times, many movie villains, including Benedict from [[Last Action Hero]] movie, [[Severus Snape]] in [[Harry Potter film series]], [[Scar (The Lion King)|Scar]] from ''[[The Lion King]]'', and [[Hannibal Lecter]] from ''[[The Silence of the Lambs (film)|The Silence of the Lambs]]'', have all been portrayed by British actors or given English accents. Notably, in Disney films from the 1990s onward, English accents are generally employed to serve one of two purposes: slapstick comedy or evil genius.<ref> [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A891155 "Why Villains in Movies Have English Accents".] January 15, 2003 </ref> Examples include ''The Lion King'' ([[Zazu]] and Scar, respectively), ''[[The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996 film)|The Hunchback of Notre Dame]]'' (Victor the Gargoyle and Frollo, respectively), and ''[[Pocahontas (1995 film)|Pocahontas]]'' (Wiggins and Ratcliffe, respectively, both of whom happen to be played by the same actor, American [[David Ogden Stiers]]). ====White American stereotypes==== Especially in [[Europe]]an countries, Americans are stereotyped as brash, ignorant, self-important, unintelligent, prudish on sexual matters and obese.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} This could be due to perception of the American diet, such as the popularity and global spread of American [[fast food]] franchises such as [[McDonald's]] and [[Burger King]], which has fueled America's obesity crisis<ref> [[Brian Wansink]] and [[Mike Huckabee]] (2005), “De-Marketing Obesity,” California Management Review, 47:4 (Summer), 6-18.</ref>. But also due to the negative image of the US in foreign news reports which often show Americans who are either racist, obese, Christian fundamentalists, supporters of wars in foreign countries, obsessed with God and Jesus or reacting against sex or nudity in the media. This is however an example of forming a stereotype based on negative news events, while ignoring more positive events. There are many examples throughout the media, but a classic example is [[Homer Simpson]], the obese, lazy and dim-witted middle American from the cartoon, [[The Simpsons]]<ref>{{cite news|author=Kelly Whiteside|coauthors=Andy Gardiner|title=USA needs to find the net|url=http://www.usatoday.com/sports/soccer/worldcup/2006-06-20-us-ghana-preview_x.htm|publisher=[[USA Today]]|date=2006-08-20|accessdate=2008-05-09}}</ref>. The show itself parodies many aspects of American life, culture and society<ref name=Turner,p78>Turner, p. 78</ref>. ====Irish stereotypes==== {{Seealso|Irish jokes}} Although the Irish, Germans, French, etc are considered ethnic groups today, the common term in the 19th century was "race". Much was made of Celtic versus Anglo-Saxon racial characteristics, regarding historic identity and behavior patterns. An analysis of nineteenth-century British attitudes by [[Mary J. Hickman]] and Bronwen Walter wrote that the 'Irish Catholic' was one viewed as an "[[Other#The Other in the Social Sciences|other]]," or a different race in the construction of the British nationalist myth [of course this view no longer exists in any way, the Irish are now seen as fellow inhabitants of the British Isles]. Likewise the Irish considered the English "other" and fought hard to break away and create their own homeland, which they finally did in the 1920s. <ref>''Deconstructing Whiteness: Irish Women in Britain'' Mary J. Hickman, Bronwen Walter ''Feminist Review'', No. 50, The Irish Issue: The British Question (Summer, 1995), pp. 5-19 doi:10.2307/1395487</ref> One 19th century British cartoonist even depicted [[Irish people|Irish]] immigrants as ape-like and as racially different. One American doctor in the 1850s [[James Redfield]], argued that "facial angle" was a sign of intelligence and character. He likened the facial characteristics of the human races to animals. Thus Irishmen resembled dogs, Yankees were like bears, Germans like lions, Negroes like elephants, Englishmen like bulls, Turks like turkeys, Persians like peacocks, Greeks like sheep, Hindus like swans, Jews like goats, and Frenchmen like frogs.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0766179842&id=qJW5iuEKdCMC&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&ots=8CX0kmAm4f&dq=James+Redfield+1852+Comparative+physiognomy&sig=uYg9nTMRiF1XF1w7m37elYwKyZ0#PPA11,M1]</ref> In the 20th century physical stereotypes survived in the comic books until the 1950s, with Irish characters like Mutt and Jeff, and Jiggs and Maggie appearing daily in hundreds of newspapers. <ref> Kerry Soper, "Performing 'Jiggs': Irish Caricature and Comedic Ambivalence toward Asøsimilation and the American Dream in George McManus's Bringing Up Father." ''Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era'' 4.2 (2005): 72 pars. 30 Mar. 2007 [http://www.historycooperative.org/cgi-bin/justtop.cgi?act=justtop&url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jga/4.2/soper.html online]. </ref> ===Australian stereotypes=== A lot of these stereotypes are based on [[Crocodile Dundee]] and [[Monty Python]]'s [[Bruces sketch]]. The stereotypes include using expressions like "Crikey!" and "Gid'day, mate," being in the presence of kangaroos, dressing as a jungle explorer, and carrying boomarangs. ====Jewish stereotypes==== {{Seealso|Racial antisemitism}} Modern European [[antisemitism]] has its origin in 19th century theories—now mostly considered as [[pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]]—that said that the Semitic peoples, including the Jews, are entirely different from the [[Aryan]], or [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]], populations, and that they can never be amalgamated with them. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their [[religion]], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial characteristics]] including: greed, a special aptitude for money-making and low cunning. Their noses, lips and beards are often exaggarated in caricature. In early films such as Cohen's Advertising Scheme (1904, silent) stereotyped Jews as "scheming merchants"<ref>[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/imagesjews.html The Movies, Race, and Ethnicity: Jews]</ref> To this day Jewish people are sometimes stereotyped in media as being intellectually gifted,<ref>[http://www.interfaithfamily.com/site/apps/nl/content2.asp?c=ekLSK5MLIrG&b=297398&ct=3525311 Not Crazy About Goy Crazy] By Lynn Melnick</ref>, nit-picky, and focused on money. ====French stereotypes==== French people are often depicted as dirty, unshaven, curly moustached people wearing berets, striped shirts and carrying [[baguette]]s under the arm. They are often depicted as being [[arrogant]], dirty, rude to foreigners, lazy and always speaking English like [[Maurice Chevalier]]. They will frequently be seemingly addicted to croissants or tarts. Often, in reference to [[World War II]], they are depicted as being cowards who surrender immediately when confronted with sudden danger. French stereotypes are used quite a lot in comedies or animated cartoons where these characters always talk in the same way: "the" and "this" are pronounced "zee" and "zis", the words "mais oui", "ami" or "mon chèrie" are used non stop and the "w" is pronounced "ooweee". Examples are [[Inspector Clouseau]], [[Lumière]] in [[Beauty and The Beast]] and [[Pepe Le Pew]]. Sometimes, like in the movie [[Shrek]] people are depicted as being French for no apparent reason other than evoking laughs while using the accent. ===German stereotypes=== German people are often depicted as being very serious, lacking a sense of humour and as fat, beer drinking people in [[lederhosen]]. In reference to [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] they are sometimes depicted as [[evil]] by nature, [[war mongers]] or racists. The "w" is pronouned as "vee" and the "r" is very sharp. They're often depicted shouting extremely loud, in the manner of a drill sergeant. A more gentle depiction- but still a stereotype- is the use of mock German when a character is a (mad) scientist. This depiction is presumably based on real scientists, professors, psychiatrists or inventors like [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Sigmund Freud]] who spoke in a similar manner. ===Italian stereotypes=== Italian people are often depicted as singers, involved with the [[mafia]] and cooking pasta and tomato type foods. They all crave for their mothers, gesticulate heavily and are easily offended. Sometimes they sell fruit or ice cream. When they talk they often add "a"'s behind verbs, for example: "I do not-a want-a talk with you.". Examples of stereotypical Italian accents are for instance [[Chico Marx]]. ==Sex and gender stereotyping== {{Seealso|Gender roles}} {{Seealso|LGBT stereotypes}} {{Expand-section|date=June 2008}} Sex and gender stereotyping could be classified as a single idea. Although sex is usually defined as a person's biological traits, gender is defined as how a person identifies themselves to the world. Gender relates to those affectations that are attributed to men and those affectations that are attributed to women. It is important to understand that in this discussion it requires a social structure that tends to enforce a binary sex and gender role based on a person's biological characteristics. Gender stereotypes are those ideas, usually imposed by society of what is expected of men and women in the social structure. In most modern Western cultures, men are expected to be assertive, risk-taking, tough, unfeeling, insensitive, combative, the owner or ruler of the home, whereas women are expected to be the nurturers, caregivers, demure, polite, the family homemaker. Younger men are often depicted as pimpish, boasting, prideful, obnoxious, promiscuous and sometimes violent. Younger women are often shown as unintelligent, willing to have promiscuous sex, ditzy, and catty. ==Etymology== The word ''stereotype'' was invented by [[Firmin Didot]] in the world of [[printing]]; it was originally a duplicate impression of an original [[typographic]]al element, used for [[printing]] instead of the original. American journalist [[Walter Lippmann]] coined the metaphor, calling a stereotype a "picture in our heads" saying "Whether right or wrong, ...imagination is shaped by the pictures seen... Consequently, they lead to stereotypes that are hard to shake." ([[Public Opinion]], 1922, 95-156).<ref>Ewen and Ewen, ''[[Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality]]'', 2006, 3-10.</ref> In fact, ''cliché'' and stereotype were both originally printers' words, and in their literal printers' meanings were synonymous. Specifically, cliché was a French word for the printing surface for a stereotype.<ref><[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0877791325&id=2yJusP0vrdgC&pg=PA250&lpg=PA250&ots=nXvVkdB_U4&dq=cliche+origin&sig=f5UQIqottU546aRBe3zlm-9Q7kM#PPA250,M1 Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage.]> Springfield, Illinois: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1994. p. 250. </ref> The first reference to "stereotype", in its modern, English use was in 1850, in the noun, meaning "image perpetuated without change".<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=stereotype Online Etymology Dictionary<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==Specialised use in Ethology== In [[ethology]], '''stereotyped''' behavior or [[fixed action pattern]] is an [[innate]], pre-programed response that is repeated when an animal is exposed to an environmental [[innate releasing mechanism]]. ==See also== * [[Archetype]] * [[Animal stereotypes]] * [[Counterstereotype]] (antonym) * [[Ethnic stereotype]] ** [[Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims]] ** [[Stereotypes of East and Southeast Asians]] ** [[Stereotypes of Hispanics]] ** [[Stereotypes of Native Americans]] ** [[Stereotypes of West and Central Asians]] ** [[Stereotypes of blacks]] ** [[Stereotypes of whites]] * [[Intercultural competence]] * [[LGBT stereotypes]] * [[Prejudices]] * [[Race and Inequality]] * [[Racial profiling]] * [[Role]] * [[Stock character]] * [[Stigmatization]] * [[Stereotype inevitability]] * [[Stereotype threat]] * [[Psychology]]: ** [[Negativity effect]] ** [[Outgroup homogeneity bias]] ** [[Physical attractiveness stereotype]] ** [[Trait ascription bias]] * [[Urban legend]] ==References== {{Reflist|2}} ==Bibliography== *Stuart Ewen, Elizabeth Ewen, ''Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality''. New York (Seven Stories Press) 2006 *[http://www.stereotypeandsociety.typepad.com Stereotype & Society] A Major Resource: Constantly updated and archived *[http://www.understandingprejudice.org/apa/english/page11.htm Social Psychology Network] Stereotyping *[http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/special_initiatives/toolkit/stereotypes/what_are_stereotypes.cfm Media Awareness Network. What is a stereotype?] Definition, role of stereotyping in the media, more links * [http://www.in-mind.org/issue-3/are-blonds-really-dumb-2.html Are Blonds Really Dumb?] An article on Stereotyping * [http://www.in-mind.org/issue-5/are-stereotypes-true.html Are Stereotypes True?] * [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9280.00111 Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance, Margaret Shih, Todd L. Pittinsky, Nalini Ambady] Research about the effects of 'positive' and negative stereotypes on encouraging/discouraging performance. *{{cite book | last=Turner | first=Chris | title=[[Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation]] | id=ISBN 0-679-31318-4}} ==External links== *[http://www.understandingprejudice.org/apa/english/page11.htm Social Psychology Network] Stereotyping *[http://school.discovery.com/lessonplans/programs/stereotypes/ Understanding Stereotypes] - Educational information about stereotypes. *[http://www.aegee.tv/movies/archive/movies/202.html Short movie: Stereotypes in conflict] - Reaction from people in shopping center on business men, weird & slutty types and goths. *[http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/materials/handouts/goldtodross.html SEPARATING the GOLD from the DROSS: a guide to multicultural literature] *[http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/special_initiatives/toolkit/stereotypes/what_are_stereotypes.cfm Media Awareness Network. What is a stereotype?] Definition, role of stereotyping in the media, more links *[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?r=2&q=stereotype Dictionary - Stereotype] Online Dictionary {{Racism topics|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Stereotypes| ]] <!-- interwiki --> [[ast:Estereotipu]] [[ca:Estereotip]] [[da:Stereotyp]] [[de:Stereotyp]] [[et:Stereotüüp]] [[es:Estereotipo]] [[fr:Stéréotype]] [[gd:Dlùth-chlòdh]] [[hr:Stereotip]] [[io:Stereotipo]] [[id:Stereotipe]] [[it:Stereotipo]] [[he:סטריאוטיפ]] [[lt:Stereotipas]] [[mk:Стереотип]] [[nl:Stereotype]] [[ja:ステレオタイプ]] [[no:Stereotyp]] [[pl:Stereotyp]] [[pt:Estereótipo]] [[ru:Стереотип]] [[simple:Stereotype]] [[sr:Стереотип]] [[fi:Yleistys]] [[sv:Stereotyp]] [[tr:Basmakalıp]] [[zh:刻板印象]]