Stonehenge 27633 223893127 2008-07-06T11:07:22Z XLerate 215443 Fixing [[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|links to disambiguation pages]] using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] {{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}} {{otheruses}} {{Infobox World Heritage Site | WHS = [[Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites]] | Image = [[Image:Stonehenge back wide.jpg|300px|Stonehenge in 2004]] | State Party = {{flag|United Kingdom}} | Type = Cultural | Criteria = i, ii, iii | ID = 373 | Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Europe|Europe]] | Year = 1986 | Session = 10th | Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/373 }} {{Location map|Wiltshire |label = |lat = 51.1789 |long = -1.8262 |caption = <small>Map showing the location of Stonehenge</small> |float = right |background = white |width = 175 }} '''Stonehenge''' is a prehistoric monument located in the [[England|English]] county of [[Wiltshire]], about {{convert|3.2|km}} west of [[Amesbury]] and {{convert|13|km}} north of [[Salisbury]]. One of the most famous [[prehistory|prehistoric]] sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of [[Earthworks (Archaeology)|earthworks]] surrounding a circular setting of large [[standing stones]]. [[Archaeology|Archaeologists]] believe that the standing stones were erected around 2200 BC and the surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. The site [[Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites| and its surroundings]] were added to the [[UNESCO]]'s list of [[World Heritage Sites]] in 1986 in a co-listing with [[Avebury]] [[henge monument]], and it is also a legally protected [[Scheduled Ancient Monument]]. Stonehenge itself is owned by [[the Crown]] and managed by [[English Heritage]] while the [[Stonehenge Landscape|surrounding land]] is owned by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =How did Stonehenge come into the care of English Heritage? | work =FAQs on Stonehenge | publisher =[[English Heritage]] | date = | url =http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.4189 | format = | doi = | accessdate =2007-12-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Ancient ceremonial landscape of great archaeological and wildlife interest | work =Stonehenge Landscape | publisher =[[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] | date = | url =http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/stonehengelandscape | format = | doi = | accessdate =2007-12-17 }}</ref> New archaeological evidence found by the [[Stonehenge Riverside Project]] indicates that Stonehenge served as a burial ground from its earliest beginnings.<ref> [http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080529/ap_on_sc/sci_stonehenge;_ylt=Aj0Hpf36xg2M07o5adhNAdus0NUE} </ref> The dating of cremated remains found that burials took place as early as 3000 B.C, when the first ditches were being built around the monument. Burials continued at Stonehenge for at least another 500 years when the giant stones which mark the landmark were put up. According to Professor [[Mike Parker Pearson]], head of Stonehenge Riverside Project:<ref>{{cite news |first=Randolph E. |last=Schmid |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Study: Stonehenge was a burial site for centuries |url=http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5iqofgTOoY9jVxd8Vir3t2lq-yfowD90VGRV80 |work= |publisher=''[[The Associated Press]]'' |date=[[2008-05-29]] |accessdate=2008-05-29}}</ref> <blockquote> Stonehenge was a place of burial from its beginning to its zenith in the mid third millennium B.C. The cremation burial dating to Stonehenge's sarsen stones phase is likely just one of many from this later period of the monument's use and demonstrates that it was still very much a domain of the dead. </blockquote> ==Etymology== [[Christopher Chippindale]]'s ''Stonehenge Complete'' gives the derivation of the name ''Stonehenge'' as coming from the [[Old English language|Old English]] words "stān" meaning "stone", and either "hencg" meaning "[[hinge]]" (because the stone lintels hinge on the upright stones) or "hen(c)en" meaning "[[hang]]" or "[[gallows]]" or "instrument of torture". Medieval gallows consisted of two uprights with a lintel joining them, resembling Stonehenge's [[trilithon]]s, rather than looking like the inverted L-shape more familiar today. The "henge" portion has given its name to a class of monuments known as [[henge]]s. Archaeologists define henges as earthworks consisting of a circular banked enclosure with an internal ditch. As often happens in archaeological terminology, this is a holdover from [[antiquarian]] usage, and Stonehenge is not truly a henge site as its bank is inside its ditch. Despite being contemporary with true [[Neolithic]] henges and [[stone circle]]s, Stonehenge is in many ways atypical. For example, its extant trilithons make it unique. Stonehenge is only distantly related to the other stone circles in the [[British Isles]], such as the [[Ring of Brodgar]].{{Fact|date=September 2007}} ==History== [[Image:Stonehenge plan.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Plan of Stonehenge today. After Cleal ''et al.'' and Pitts. ''Italicized numbers in the text refer to the labels on this plan.'']] The Stonehenge complex was built in several construction phases spanning at least 3000 years, although there is evidence for activity both before and afterwards on the site, perhaps extending its time frame to 6500 years. Dating and understanding the various phases of activity at Stonehenge is not a simple task; it is complicated by poorly kept early [[excavation]] records, surprisingly few accurate scientific dates and the disturbance of the natural [[chalk]] by [[periglacial]] effects and animal burrowing. The modern phasing most generally agreed by archaeologists is detailed below. Features mentioned in the text are numbered and shown on the plan, right, which illustrates the site as of 2004. The plan omits the trilithon lintels for clarity. Holes that no longer, or never, contained stones are shown as open circles and stones visible today are shown coloured. ===Before the monument (8000 BC forward)=== Some archaeologists have found four (or possibly five, although one may have been a natural [[tree throw]]) large [[Mesolithic]] [[posthole]]s which date to around 8000 BC nearby, beneath the modern tourist [[Parking lot|car-park]]. These held [[pine]] posts around {{convert|0.75|m}} in diameter which were erected and left to rot ''in situ''. Three of the posts (and possibly four) were in an east-west alignment and may have had [[ritual]] significance; no parallels are known from Britain at the time but similar sites have been found in [[Scandinavia]]. At this time, [[Salisbury Plain]] was still wooded but four thousand years later, during the earlier Neolithic, a [[cursus]] monument was built {{convert|600|m|ft}} north of the site as the first farmers began to clear the forest and exploit the area. Several other early Neolithic sites, a [[causewayed enclosure]] at [[Robin Hood's Ball]] and [[long barrow]] tombs were built in the surrounding landscape. ===Stonehenge 1 (ca. 3100 BC)=== [[Image:Stonehenge phase one.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Stonehenge 1. After Cleal ''et al.'']] The first monument consisted of a circular bank and ditch enclosure made of [[Late Cretaceous]] ([[Santonian]] Age) Seaford [[Chalk]], ''(7 and 8)'' measuring around {{convert|110|m}} in diameter with a large entrance to the north east and a smaller one to the south ''(14)''. It stood in open [[grassland]] on a slightly sloping but not especially remarkable spot. The builders placed the bones of [[deer]] and [[ox]]en in the bottom of the ditch as well as some worked [[flint]] tools. The bones were considerably older than the antler picks used to dig the ditch and the people who buried them had looked after them for some time prior to burial. The ditch itself was continuous but had been dug in sections, like the ditches of the earlier causewayed enclosures in the area. The chalk dug from the ditch was piled up to form the bank. This first stage is dated to around 3100 BC after which the ditch began to silt up naturally and was not cleared out by the builders. Within the outer edge of the enclosed area was dug a circle of 56 pits, each around {{convert|1|m|ft}} in diameter ''(13)'', known as the [[Aubrey holes]] after [[John Aubrey]], the seventeenth century [[antiquarian]] who was thought to have first identified them. The pits may have contained standing timbers, creating a [[timber circle]] although there is no excavated evidence of them. A small outer bank beyond the ditch could also date to this period. ===Stonehenge 2 (ca. 3000 BC)=== Evidence of the second phase is no longer visible. It appears from the number of postholes dating to this period that some form of timber structure was built within the enclosure during the early 3rd millennium BC. Further standing timbers were placed at the northeast entrance and a parallel alignment of posts ran inwards from the southern entrance. The postholes are smaller than the Aubrey Holes, being only around {{convert|0.4|m|in}} in diameter and are much less regularly spaced. The bank was purposely reduced in height and the ditch continued to silt up. At least twenty-five of the Aubrey Holes are known to have contained later, intrusive, [[cremation]] burials dating to the two centuries after the monument's inception. It seems that whatever the holes' initial function, it changed to become a funerary one during Phase 2. Thirty further cremations were placed in the enclosure's ditch and at other points within the monument, mostly in the eastern half. Stonehenge is therefore interpreted as functioning as an [[enclosed cremation cemetery]] at this time, the earliest known cremation [[cemetery]] in the British Isles. Fragments of unburnt human bone have also been found in the ditch fill. Late Neolithic [[grooved ware]] pottery has been found in connection with the features from this phase providing dating evidence. ===Stonehenge 3 I (ca. 2600 BC)=== [[Image:S7300095.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Stonehenge from the heelstone in 2007 with the 'Slaughter Stone' in the foreground]] Archaeological excavation has indicated that around 2600 BC, timber was abandoned in favour of stone and two concentric crescents of holes (called the Q and R Holes) were dug in the centre of the site. Again, there is little firm dating evidence for this phase. The holes held up to 80 standing stones (shown blue on the plan) 43 of which, the [[bluestone]]s (dolerite, a holocrystine igneous rock), were thought for much of the 20th century to have been transported by humans from the [[Preseli Hills]], {{convert|250|km}} away in modern day [[Pembrokeshire]] in [[Wales]]. A newer theory is that they were brought from glacial deposits much nearer the site, which had been carried down from the northern side of the Preselis to southern England by the [[Irish Sea Glacier]].<ref>[[Brian John|John, Brian]] (2007):''[http://www.netcomuk.co.uk/~brianj/bluestones59.html The Stonehenge Bluestones—glacial transport back in favour]''</ref> Other standing stones may well have been small sarsens, used later as lintels. The stones, which weighed about four tons, consisted mostly of spotted [[Ordovician]] [[dolerite]] but included examples of [[rhyolite]], [[tuff]] and volcanic and calcareous ash. Each measures around {{convert|2|m|ft}} in height, between 1&nbsp;m and 1.5&nbsp;m (3.3-4.9&nbsp;ft) wide and around {{convert|0.8|m|ft}} thick. What was to become known as the [[Altar stone (Stonehenge)|Altar Stone]] ''(1)'', is derived from either [[South Pembrokeshire]] or the [[Brecon Beacons]] and may have stood as a single large [[monolith]]. The north eastern entrance was also widened at this time with the result that it precisely matched the direction of the [[midsummer]] [[sunrise]] and [[midwinter]] [[sunset]] of the period. This phase of the monument was abandoned unfinished however, the small standing stones were apparently removed and the Q and R holes purposefully backfilled. Even so, the monument appears to have eclipsed the site at [[Avebury]] in importance towards the end of this phase. The [[Heelstone]] ''(5)'', a [[Tertiary]] sandstone, may also have been erected outside the north eastern entrance during this period although it cannot be securely dated and may have been installed at any time in phase 3. At first, a second stone, now no longer visible, joined it. Two, or possibly three, large [[portal stones]] were set up just inside the north eastern entrance of which only one, the fallen Slaughter Stone ''(4)'', {{convert|4.9|m}} long, now remains. Other features loosely dated to phase 3 include the four [[Station Stones]] ''(6)'', two of which stood atop mounds ''(2 and 3)''. The mounds are known as 'barrows' although they do not contain burials. The [[avenue (archaeology)|Avenue]], ''(10)'', a parallel pair of ditches and banks leading {{convert|3|km}} to the [[River Avon, Hampshire|River Avon]] was also added. Two ditches similar to [[Heelstone Ditch]] circling the Heelstone, which was by then reduced to a single monolith, were later dug around the Station Stones. ===Stonehenge 3 II (2600 BC to 2400 BC)=== The next major phase of activity at the tail end of the [[3rd millennium BC]] saw 30 enormous [[Oligocene]]-[[Miocene]] [[sarsen]] stones ''(shown grey on the plan)'' brought from a quarry around {{convert|40|km}} north of Stonehenge, on the [[Marlborough Downs]]. The stones were dressed and fashioned with [[mortise and tenon]] joints before 30 were erected as a {{convert|33|m}} diameter circle of standing stones, with a ring of 30 lintel stones resting on top. The lintels were fitted to one another using another woodworking method, the [[tongue and groove]] joint. Each standing stone was around {{convert|4.1|m}} high, {{convert|2.1|m}} wide and weighed around 25 tons. Each had clearly been worked with the final effect in mind; the [[orthostat]]s widen slightly towards the top in order that their perspective remains constant as they rise up from the ground while the lintel stones curve slightly to continue the circular appearance of the earlier monument. The sides of the stones that face inwards are smoother and more finely worked than the sides that face outwards. The average thickness of these stones is {{convert|1.1|m}} and the average distance between them is {{convert|1|m}}. A total of 74 stones would have been needed to complete the circle and unless some of the sarsens were removed from the site, it would seem that the ring was left incomplete. Of the lintel stones, they are each around {{convert|3.2|m}}, {{convert|1|m}} wide and {{convert|0.8|m}} thick. The tops of the lintels are {{convert|4.9|m}} above the ground. Within this circle stood five [[trilithon]]s of dressed [[sarsen]] stone arranged in a horseshoe shape {{convert|13.7|m}} across with its open end facing north east. These huge stones, ten uprights and five lintels, weigh up to 50 tons each and were again linked using complex jointings. They are arranged symmetrically; the smallest pair of trilithons were around {{convert|6|m}} tall, the next pair a little higher and the largest, single trilithon in the south west corner would have been {{convert|7.3|m}} tall. Only one upright from the Great Trilithon still stands; {{convert|6.7|m}} is visible and a further {{convert|2.4|m}} is below ground. [[Image:Stonehenge dagger.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Grafitti on the sarsen stones. Below are ancient carvings of a dagger and an axe]] The images of a 'dagger' and 14 'axe-heads' have been recorded carved on one of the sarsens, known as stone 53. Further axe-head carvings have been seen on the outer faces of stones known as numbers 3, 4, and 5. They are difficult to date but are morphologically similar to later Bronze Age weapons; [[Laser scanning at Stonehenge|recent laser scanning work on the carvings]] supports this interpretation. The pair of trilithons in north east are smallest, measuring around {{convert|6|m}} in height and the largest is the trilithon in the south west of the horseshoe is almost {{convert|7.5|m}} tall. This ambitious phase is [[carbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to between 2600 and 2400 BC<ref> {{cite journal|title=The Age of Stonehenge|journal=Antiquity|date=September 2007|first=Mike|last=Pearson|coauthors=Ros Cleal, Peter Marshall, Stuart Needham, Josh Pollard, Colin Richards, Clive Ruggles, Alison Sheridan, Julian Thomas, Chris Tilley, Kate Welham, Andrew Chamberlain, Carolyn Chenery, Jane Evans, Chris Knüsel,|volume=811|issue=313|pages=617–639|id= |url=|format=|accessdate= }}</ref>. This is slightly before two sets of burials discovered {{convert|3|mi|km}} to the west in Amesbury (the [[Amesbury Archer]] found in 2002, and the [[Boscombe Bowmen]] discovered in 2003) as well as the [[Stonehenge Archer]] whose body was discovered in the outer ditch of the monument in 1978. At a similar time a large [[timber circle]] and another avenue were constructed overlooking the River Avon 2 miles away at [[Durrington Walls]]. Opposing the solar alignments at Stonehenge, the circle was orientated towards the rising sun on the midwinter solstice, whilst the Avenue led from the river to the circle on an alignment to the setting sun on the summer solstice. Evidence of huge fires on the banks of the Avon between the two avenues also suggests that both circles were linked, and perhaps formed a procession route used on the longest and shortest days of the year. Parker Pearson speculates that the wooden circle at Durrington Walls was the centre of a 'land of the living', whilst the stone circle represented a 'land of the dead'. The Avon would have served as a journey between the two.<ref>M. Parker Pearson. ''Bronze Age Britain''. 2005. p63-67. ISBN 0713488492</ref> ===Stonehenge 3 III=== Later in the Bronze Age, the bluestones appear to have been re-erected for the first time, although the exact details of this period are still unclear. They were placed within the outer sarsen circle and at this time may have been trimmed in some way. A few have timber working-style cuts in them like the sarsens themselves, suggesting they may have been linked with lintels and part of a larger structure during this phase. ===Stonehenge 3 IV (2280 BC to 1930 BC)=== This phase saw further rearrangement of the bluestones as they were placed in a circle between the two settings of sarsens and in an oval in the very centre. Some archaeologists argue that some of the bluestones in this period were part of a second group brought from Wales. All the stones were well-spaced uprights without any of the linking lintels inferred in Stonehenge 3 III. The Altar Stone may have been moved within the oval and stood vertically. Although this would seem the most impressive phase of work, Stonehenge 3 IV was rather shabbily built compared to its immediate predecessors, as the newly re-installed bluestones were not at all well founded and began to fall over. However, only minor changes were made after this phase. Stonehenge 3 IV dates from 2280 to 1930 BC. ===Stonehenge 3 V (2280 BC to 1930 BC)=== Soon afterwards, the north eastern section of the Phase 3 IV Bluestone circle was removed, creating a horseshoe-shaped setting termed the Bluestone Horseshoe. This mirrored the shape of the central sarsen Trilithons and dates from 2270 to 1930 BC. This phase is contemporary with the famous [[Seahenge]] site in [[Norfolk]]. ===After the monument (1600 BC on)=== The last known construction at Stonehenge was about 1600 BC, and the last known usage of it was likely during the [[Iron Age]]. Roman coins and [[medieval]] artefacts have all been found in or around the monument but it is unknown if the monument was in continuous use throughout prehistory and beyond&nbsp;— or exactly how it would have been used. Notable is the late 7th-6th century BC large arcing [[Scroll Trench]] which deepens E-NE towards Heelstone, and the construction of the massive Iron Age [[hillfort]] [[Vespasian's Camp]] built alongside the Avenue near the Avon. The burial of a decapitated 7th century [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] man was excavated from Stonehenge. The site was known by scholars during the [[Middle Ages]] and since then it has been studied and adopted by numerous different groups. ==Function and construction== {{main|Theories about Stonehenge}} Stonehenge was produced by a culture with no written language, and at great historical remove from the first cultures that did leave written records. Many aspects of Stonehenge remain subject to debate. This multiplicity of theories, some of them very colourful, is often called the "mystery of Stonehenge." There is little or no direct evidence for the construction techniques used by the Stonehenge builders. Over the years, various authors have suggested that supernatural or anachronistic methods were used, usually asserting that the stones were impossible to move otherwise. However, conventional techniques using Neolithic technology have been demonstrably effective at moving and placing stones this size.<ref>Wally Wallington demonstrates how to build Stonehenge. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lRRDzFROMx0</ref> Proposed functions for the site include usage as an astronomical observatory, or as a religious site. Other theories have advanced supernatural or symbolic explanations for the construction. ==Folklore== [[Image:Heelstone.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The Heelstone]] ==="Friar’s Heel" or the "Sunday Stone"=== The [[Heelstone|''Heel Stone'']] was once known as "Friar's Heel". A [[folklore|folk tale]], which cannot be dated earlier than the seventeenth century, relates the origin of the name of this stone: :The [[Devil]] bought the stones from a woman in Ireland, wrapped them up, and brought them to Salisbury plain. One of the stones fell into the [[River Avon, Hampshire|Avon]], the rest were carried to the plain. The Devil then cried out, "No-one will ever find out how these stones came here!" A friar replied, "That’s what you think!," whereupon the Devil threw one of the stones at him and struck him on the heel. The stone stuck in the ground and is still there. Some claim "Friar's Heel" is a corruption of "Freyja's He-ol" or "Freyja Sul", from the [[Teutonic|Nordic]] goddess [[Freyja]] and the Welsh word for ''way'' or ''Sunday'', respectively, or the name may simply imply that the stone ''heels'', or leans. The name is not unique; there was a monolith with the same name recorded in the 19th century by antiquarian Charles Warne at [[Long Bredy]] in Dorset<ref>Warne, Charles, 1872, ''Ancient Dorset''. Bournemouth</ref> ===Arthurian legend=== [[Image:BLEgerton3028Fol30rStonehengeCropped.jpg|thumb|left|A giant helps [[Merlin]] build Stonehenge. From a manuscript of the ''[[Roman de Brut]]'' by [[Wace]] in the [[British Library]] (Egerton 3028). This is the oldest known depiction of Stonehenge.]] Stonehenge is also mentioned within [[King Arthur|Arthurian legend]]. [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] said that [[Merlin (wizard)|Merlin]] the wizard directed its removal from [[Ireland]], where it had been constructed on [[Mount Killaraus]] by [[Giant (mythology)|Giant]]s, who brought the stones from [[Africa]]. After it had been rebuilt near Amesbury, Geoffrey further narrates how first [[Ambrosius Aurelianus]], then [[Uther Pendragon]], and finally [[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine III]], were buried inside the ring of stones. In many places in his ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' Geoffrey mixes British legend and his own imagination; it is intriguing that he connects Ambrosius Aurelianus with this prehistoric monument, seeing how there is [[Toponymy|place-name]] evidence to connect Ambrosius with nearby Amesbury. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, the rocks of Stonehenge were healing rocks which Giants brought from Africa to Ireland for their healing properties. These rocks were called The Giant's Dance. Aurelius Ambrosias (5th century), wishing to erect a memorial to the nobles (3000) who had died in battle with the Saxons and were buried at Salisbury, chose (at Merlin's advice) Stonehenge to be their monument. So the King sent Merlin, Uther Pendragon (Arthur's father), and 15,000 knights to Ireland to retrieve the rocks. They slew 7,000 Irish. As the knights tried to move the rocks with ropes and force, they failed. Then Merlin, using "gear" and skill, easily dismantled the stones and sent them over to Britain, where Stonehenge was dedicated. Shortly after, Aurelius died and was buried within the Stonehenge monument, or "The Giants' Ring of Stonehenge". ==Recent history== [[Image:Summer Solstice Sunrise over Stonehenge 2005.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The sun rising over Stonehenge on the summer [[solstice]] on [[21 June]], [[2005]]]] {{main|Recent history of Stonehenge}} ===16th to 20th centuries=== Stonehenge has changed ownership on several occasions since [[King Henry VIII]] acquired [[Amesbury Abbey]] and its surrounding lands. In 1540 he gave the estate to the [[Earl of Hertford]], and it subsequently passed to [[Lord Carleton]] and then the [[Marquis of Queensbury]]. The Antrobus family of Cheshire bought the estate in 1824, but sold it in 1915 after the last heir was killed in [[France]]. The auction was held by [[Knight Frank LLP|Knight Frank & Rutley]] estate agents in Salisbury on the [[21 September]], and included "Lot 15. Stonehenge with about 30 acres, 2 [[rood|ro[o]ds]], 37 perches of adjoining downland."<ref>[http://www.this-is-amesbury.co.uk/stonehenge.html ''The man who bought Stonehenge''] Heffernan, T. H. J. ''This is Amesbury''</ref> [[Cecil Chubb]] bought Stonehenge for £6,600 and then gave it to the nation three years later. Although it has been speculated that he purchased it at the suggestion of&nbsp;— or even as a present for&nbsp;— his wife, he in fact bought it on a whim as he believed a local man should be the new owner. ===Restoration=== From 1901 to 1964, there was much restoration of the monument, however this was sometimes criticised, with one historian claiming that "'What we have been looking at is a 20th century landscape, which is reminiscent of what Stonehenge MIGHT have been like thousands of years ago. It has been created by the heritage industry and is not the creation of prehistoric people. What we saw at the Millennium is less than 50 years old".<ref>[http://www.ufos-aliens.co.uk/cosmicstonehenge.htm]</ref> ===1920s onwards=== In the late 1920s a nation-wide appeal was launched to save Stonehenge from the encroachment of modern buildings that had begun to appear around it. During [[World War 1]] an [[aerodrome]] had been built on the down just west of the circle, and in the dry valley at Stonehenge Bottom a main road junction had appeared, with several cottages and a cafe. In 1928 the land around the stones was purchased with the appeal donations, and given to the National Trust in order to preserve it. The buildings were removed (although the roads were not), and the land returned to [[agriculture]]. More recently the land has been part of a grassland reversion scheme, returning the surrounding fields to native [[chalk grassland]]. As motorised traffic increased the setting of the monument began to be affected by the proximity of the two roads on either side of it&nbsp;— the [[A344 road|A344]] to [[Shrewton]] on the north side, and the [[A303]] to [[Winterbourne Stoke]] to the south. [[Stonehenge road tunnel|Plans to upgrade the A303]] and remove it from the view of the stones have been considered since it became a World Heritage Site, but the controversy surrounding expensive re-routings of a road have led to the scheme being cancelled on multiple occasions. On [[06 December]] [[2007]] it was announced that the most recent plans had been cancelled.<ref>[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200708/cmhansrd/cm071206/debtext/71206-0003.htm#07120645000002 ''A303 Stonehenge Road Scheme''] [[Hansard]] report of proceedings in the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] [[6 December]] [[2007]]</ref> ===Neopaganism=== Stonehenge is a place of [[pilgrimage]] for [[Neo-druidism|neo-druid]]s, and those following [[paganism|pagan]] or [[neo-pagan]] beliefs. The midsummer sunrise began attracting modern visitors in the 1870s, with the first record of recreated Druidic practices dating to 1905 when the [[Ancient Order of Druids]] enacted a ceremony. Despite efforts by archaeologists and historians to stress the differences between the Iron Age Druidic religion and the much older monument, Stonehenge has become increasingly, almost inextricably, associated with British [[Druid]]ism, Neopaganism and [[New Age]] philosophy. Between 1972 and 1984, Stonehenge was the site of a free [[Stonehenge Free Festival|festival]]. After the [[Battle of the Beanfield]] in 1985 this use of the site was stopped for several years, and currently ritual use of Stonehenge is carefully controlled. ===Visitors=== When Stonehenge became open to the public it was possible to walk amongst and even climb on the stones. However this ended in 1977 when the stones were roped off as a result of serious erosion <ref>[http://www.worldarchaeologicalcongress.org/site/news_rece_ston.php ''Proposals for a tunnel at Stonehenge: an assessment of the alternatives'']. ''The World Archaeological Congress''</ref>. Visitors are no longer permitted to touch the stones, but merely walk around the monument from a short distance. English Heritage does however permit access during the summer and winter solstice, and the spring and autumn equinox. Additionally, visitors can make special bookings to access the stones throughout the year <ref>[http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.877 ''Planning Your Visit to Stonehenge'']. ''English Heritage''</ref>. ==Archaeological research and restoration== [[Image:stonehenge 1877.JPG|thumb|right|250px|An early photograph of Stonehenge taken July 1877]] [[Image:Stonehenge on 27.01.08.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The monument from a similar angle in 2008 showing the extent of reconstruction]] Throughout recorded history Stonehenge and its surrounding monuments have attracted attention from [[antiquarians]] and [[archaeologists]]. [[John Aubrey]] was one of the first to examine the site with a scientific eye in 1666, and recorded in his plan of the monument the pits that now [[Aubrey holes| bear his name]]. [[William Stukeley]] continued Aubrey’s work in the early 18th century, but took an interest in the surrounding monuments as well, identifying (somewhat incorrectly) the Cursus and the Avenue. He also began the excavation of many of the barrows in the area, and it was his interpretation of the landscape that associated it with the [[Druids]]<ref> Stukeley, William, 1740, ''Stonehenge A Temple Restor'd to the British Druids''. London</ref> Stukeley was in fact so fascinated with Druids that he originally named [[Disc barrow| Disc Barrows]] as Druids Barrows. The most accurate early plan of Stonehenge was that made by Bath architect [[John Wood, the Elder|John Wood]] in 1740<ref> Wood, John, 1747, ''Choir Guare, Vulgarly called Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain''. Oxford</ref>. His original annotated survey has recently been computer redrawn and published<ref>Johnson, Anthony, ''Solving Stonehenge: The New Key to an Ancient Enigma''. (Thames & Hudson, 2008) ISBN 978-0-500-05155-9</ref>. Importantly Wood’s plan was made before the collapse of the southwest Trilithon (which fell in 1797; restored 1958). [[William Cunnington]] was the next to tackle the area in the early 19th century, excavating some 24 barrows before digging in and around the stones, discovering charred wood, animal bones, pottery and urns. He also identified the hole in which the Slaughter Stone once stood. At the same time [[Richard Colt Hoare]] began his activities, excavating some 379 barrows on [[Salisbury Plain]] before working with Cunnington and [[William Coxe]] on some 200 in the area around the Stones. To alert future diggers to their work they were careful to leave initialled metal tokens in each barrow they opened. In 1877 [[Charles Darwin]] dabbled in archaeology at the stones, experimenting with the rate at which remains sink into the earth for his book ''[[List of works by Charles Darwin|The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms]]''. [[William Gowland]] oversaw the first major restoration of the monument in 1901&nbsp;– the straightening and concrete setting of a sarsen in danger of falling&nbsp;— and took the opportunity to further excavate the stones at the same time. The most scientific dig to date, it revealed more about the erection of the stones than the previous 100 years of work. During the 1920 restoration [[William Hawley]], who had excavated nearby [[Old Sarum]], excavated the base of six stones being restored as well as the outer ditch. He also located a bottle of [[port wine| port]] in the slaughter stone socket left by Cunnington, helped to rediscover Aubrey's pits inside the bank and located the [[Y and Z holes]] (concentric circular holes outside the Sarsen Circle).<ref>{{cite web | last = Cleal | first = Rosamund | authorlink = | coauthors = et al | title = Y and Z holes | work = Archaeometry and Stonehenge | publisher = [[English Heritage]] | date = 1995 | url = http://www.eng-h.gov.uk/stoneh/yz.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2008-04-04}}</ref> [[Richard J. C. Atkinson|Richard Atkinson]], [[Stuart Piggott]] and [[J.F.S. Stone| John F. S. Stone]] re-excavated much of Hawley's work in the 40s and 50s, and discovered the carved axes and daggers on the Sarsen Stones. Atkinson's work was instrumental in the understanding of the three major phases of the monument's construction. In 1958 the stones were restored again, using concrete settings to re-erect three of the standing sarsens. The very last restoration was carried out in 1963 when a sarsen fell over and was once more re-erected, and the opportunity taken to concrete three more stones. Later archaeologists, including [[Christopher Chippindale]] of the [[Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge]] and [[Brian Edwards]] of the [[University of the West of England]] campaigned to give the public more knowledge of the various restorations and in 2004 English Heritage included pictures of the works in progress in its new book Stonehenge: A History in Photographs.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Young | first = Emma | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Concrete Evidence | journal = [[New Scientist]] | volume = | issue = [[2001-01-09]] | pages = | publisher = | location = | date = | url = http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn310-concrete-evidence.html | doi = | id = | accessdate = 2008-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last = Taverner | first = Roger | coauthors = | title = How they rebuilt Stonehenge | work = [[Western Daily Press]], ''quoted in'' Cosmic Conspiracies: How they rebuilt Stonehenge | pages = | language = | publisher = | date = 2001-01-08 | url = http://www.ufos-aliens.co.uk/cosmicstonehenge.htm | accessdate =2008-03-03 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Richards | first = Julian C. | authorlink = Julian Richards | coauthors = | title = Stonehenge: A History in Photographs | publisher = [[English Heritage]] | date = 2004 | location = London | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 1850748950}}</ref> Excavations were once again carried out in 1978 by Atkinson and [[John G. Evans (archaeologist)| John Evans]] during which they discovered the remains of the [[Stonehenge Archer]] from the outer ditch,<ref>{{cite news | last = | first = | coauthors = | title = Stonehenge execution revealed | work = BBC News | pages = | language = | publisher = [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] | date = [[2000-06-09]] | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/784348.stm | accessdate = 2008-04-04}}</ref> and in 1979 [[rescue archaeology]] was needed alongside the Heel Stone after a cable-laying ditch was mistakenly dug on the roadside, revealing a new stone hole next to the Heel Stone. More recent excavations include [[Mike Parker Pearson| Mike Parker Pearson's]] [[Stonehenge Riverside Project]] - an ongoing series of digs in the landscape around the stones examining the relationship between them and other nearby monuments, notably [[Durrington Walls]] where another ‘Avenue’ leading to the river [[Hampshire Avon| Avon]] was discovered. In April 2008 Professor [[Tim Darvill]] of the [[University of Bournemouth]] and Professor [[Geoff Wainwright]] of the [[Society of Antiquaries]] began another dig inside the Stone circle to retrieve dateable fragments of the original bluestone pillars. It is hoped this will establish a more precise date for the first stone circle and help identify its purpose.<ref>{{cite news | last = | first = | coauthors = | title = Excavation starts at Stonehenge | work = BBC News | pages = | language = | publisher = [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] | date = [[2008-03-31]] | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7322134.stm | accessdate = 2008-04-04}}</ref> ==See also== <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> * [[Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge]] * [[Arkaim]] * [[Avebury]] * [[Battle of the Beanfield]] * [[Durrington Walls]] * [[European Megalithic Culture]] * [[Excavations at Stonehenge]] * [[Goloring]] * [[Goseck circle]] * [[The Megalithic Portal]] * [[Theories about Stonehenge]] * [[Stonehenge replicas and derivatives]] * [[Stone circle]] * [[Stonehenge Landscape]] * [[Cultural depictions of Stonehenge]] * [[Stonehenge road tunnel]] * [[Stonehenge Riverside Project]] * [[Zorats Karer]] </div> ==References== {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== <!-- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags --> <div class="references-small" style="column-count:2;-moz-column-count:2;"> * [[Richard J. C. Atkinson|Atkinson]], R J C, ''Stonehenge'' (Penguin Books, 1956) * Bender, B, ''Stonehenge: Making Space'' (Berg Publishers, 1998) * [[Aubrey Burl|Burl, A]], ''Prehistoric Stone Circles'' (Shire, 2001) (In Burl's ''Stonehenge'' (Constable, 2006), he notes, cf. the meaning of the name in paragraph two above, that "the Saxons called the ring 'the hanging stones', as though they were gibbets.") * [[Christopher Chippendale|Chippendale, C]], ''Stonehenge Complete'' (Thames and Hudson, London, 2004) ISBN 0500284679 * Chippindale, C, et al, ''Who owns Stonehenge?'' (B T Batsford Ltd, 1990) * Cleal, R. M. J., Walker, K. E. & Montague, R., ''[[Stonehenge in its landscape]]'' (English Heritage, London, 1995) * [[Barry Cunliffe|Cunliffe, B]], & [[Colin Renfrew|Renfrew, C]], ''Science and Stonehenge'' (The British Academy 92, Oxford University Press, 1997) * Hall, R, Leather, K, & Dobson, G, ''Stonehenge Aotearoa'' (Awa Press, 2005) * [[William Hawley|Hawley, Lt-Col W]], ''The Excavations at Stonehenge.'' (The Antiquaries Journal 1, Oxford University Press, 19-41). 1921. * Hawley, Lt-Col W, ''Second Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge.'' (The Antiquaries Journal 2, Oxford University Press, 1922) * Hawley, Lt-Col W, ''Third Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge.'' (The Antiquaries Journal 3, Oxford University Press, 1923) * Hawley, Lt-Col W, ''Fourth Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge.'' (The Antiquaries Journal 4, Oxford University Press, 1923) * Hawley, Lt-Col W, ''Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge during the season of 1923.'' (The Antiquaries Journal 5, Oxford University Press, 1925) * Hawley, Lt-Col W, ''Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge during the season of 1924.'' (The Antiquaries Journal 6, Oxford University Press, 1926) * Hawley, Lt-Col W, ''Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge during 1925 and 1926.'' (The Antiquaries Journal 8, Oxford University Press, 1928) * [[Ronald Hutton|Hutton, R]], ''From Universal Bond to Public Free For All'' (British Archaeology 83, 2005) * Johnson, Anthony, ''Solving Stonehenge: The New Key to an Ancient Enigma'' (Thames & Hudson, 2008) ISBN 978-0-500-05155-9 * Legg, Rodney, "Stonehenge Antiquaries" (Dorset Publishing Company , 1986) * Mooney, J, ''Encyclopedia of the Bizarre'' (Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2002) * Newall, R S, ''Stonehenge, Wiltshire -Ancient monuments and historic buildings-'' (Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1959) * North, J, ''Stonehenge: Ritual Origins and Astronomy'' (HarperCollins, 1997) * Pitts, M, ''Hengeworld'' (Arrow, London, 2001) * Pitts, M W, ''On the Road to Stonehenge: Report on Investigations beside the A344 in 1968, 1979 and 1980'' (Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 48, 1982) * [[Julian Richards|Richards, J]], ''English Heritage Book of Stonehenge'' (B T Batsford Ltd, 1991) * [[Julian Richards|Richards, J]] ''Stonehenge: A History in Photographs'' (English Heritage, London, 2004) * [[J. F. S. Stone|Stone, J F S]], ''Wessex Before the Celts'' (Frederick A Praeger Publishers, 1958) * Worthington, A, ''Stonehenge: Celebration and Subversion'' (Alternative Albion, 2004) * English Heritage: ''Stonehenge: Historical Background'' </div> ==External links== {{Commons|Stonehenge}} {{Wikiquote|Stonehenge}} * [http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/stonehenge Stonehenge] [[English Heritage]] - General information. * [http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/stonehengelandscape Stonehenge Landscape] [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty| The National Trust]] - Information about the surrounding area. * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/str/index.htm Stonehenge, a Temple Restor'd to the British Druids] By William Stukeley, at [[Internet Sacred Text Archive| Sacred Texts]]. * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/sac/index.htm Stonehenge, and Other British Monuments Astronomically Considered] By Norman Lockyer, at [[Internet Sacred Text Archive| Sacred Texts]]. * [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19130/19130-h/19130-h.htm Stonehenge Today and Yesterday] By Frank Stevens, at [[Project Gutenberg]]. * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7322444.stm The History of Stonehenge] [[BBC]] animation of the monuments construction. * [http://www.stonehengelaserscan.org/ Stonehenge Laser Scans] [[Wessex Archaeology]] information about the scanning of the Sarsen carvings. * [http://www.britarch.ac.uk/stonehenge/stone23.html Council for British Archaeology] English Heritage press release about the monuments reconstruction. * [http://www.britarch.ac.uk/BA/ba45/ba45int.html Glaciers and the bluestones of Wales] British Archaeology essay about the bluestones as glacial deposits. {{World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom}} {{coor title dms|51|10|44|N|1|49|34|W|region:GB-WIL_type:landmark_scale:2000}} [[Category:Stonehenge| ]] [[Category:4th millennium BC architecture]] [[Category:26th century BC architecture]] [[Category:Arthurian locations]] [[Category:Bronze Age sites in England]] [[Category:Buildings and structures in Wiltshire]] [[Category:National Trust properties in England]] [[Category:History of Wiltshire]] [[Category:Locations in Celtic mythology]] [[Category:Megalithic monuments]] [[Category:Ruins in England]] [[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in England]] [[Category:Stone Age sites in England]] [[Category:Visitor attractions in Wiltshire]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites in England]] {{Link FA|fo}} {{Link FA|sv}} [[ar:ستونهنج]] [[bn:স্টোনহেঞ্জ]] [[ba:Стоунхендж]] [[bs:Stonehenge]] [[bg:Стоунхендж]] [[ca:Stonehenge]] [[cs:Stonehenge]] [[cy:Côr y Cewri]] [[da:Stonehenge]] [[de:Stonehenge]] [[et:Stonehenge]] [[el:Στόουνχεντζ]] [[es:Stonehenge]] [[eo:Stonehenge]] [[fa:استون‌هنج]] [[fo:Stonehenge]] [[fr:Stonehenge]] [[gl:Stonehenge]] [[ko:스톤헨지]] [[hr:Stonehenge]] [[id:Stonehenge]] [[is:Stonehenge]] [[it:Stonehenge]] [[he:סטונהנג']] [[lv:Stounhendža]] [[lt:Stounhendžas]] [[hu:Stonehenge]] [[ms:Stonehenge]] [[nl:Stonehenge]] [[ja:ストーンヘンジ]] [[no:Stonehenge]] [[nn:Stonehenge]] [[nrm:Stonehenge]] [[oc:Stonehenge]] [[pl:Stonehenge]] [[pt:Stonehenge]] [[ro:Stonehenge]] [[ru:Стоунхендж]] [[sq:Stonehenge]] [[simple:Stonehenge]] [[sk:Stonehenge]] [[sl:Stonehenge]] [[sr:Стоунхенџ]] [[sh:Stonehenge]] [[fi:Stonehenge]] [[sv:Stonehenge]] [[ta:ஸ்டோன் ஹெஞ்ச்]] [[vi:Stonehenge]] [[tr:Stonehenge]] [[uk:Стоунхендж]] [[ur:سٹون ہینج]] [[zh-yue:巨石陣]] [[zh:巨石阵]]