Stratovolcano 162404 222271698 2008-06-28T12:59:47Z 124.157.240.45 {{Unreferenced|date=May 2008}} A '''stratovolcano''', also called a composite volcano, is a tall, [[Volcanic cone|conical]] [[volcano]] composed of many layers of hardened [[lava]], [[tephra]], and [[volcanic ash]]. These kinds of volcanoes are characterized by a steep profile and periodic, explosive eruptions. The lava that flows from them is [[viscous]], and cools and hardens before spreading very far. The source magma of this rock is classified as [[acidic]], having high to intermediate levels of [[silica]] (as in [[rhyolite]], [[dacite]], or [[andesite]]). This is in contrast to less viscous [[Igneous rock#Chemical classification|basic]] magma that forms [[shield volcano]]es (such as [[Mauna Loa]] in Hawaii), which have a wide base and more gently sloping profile.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} Although stratovolcanoes are sometimes called ''composite'' volcanoes, volcanologists prefer to use the term ''stratovolcano'' to distinguish among volcanoes because all volcanoes of any size have a composite (layered) structure — they are built up from sequential outpourings of eruptive materials. Stratovolcanoes are one of the most common types of volcanoes.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} [[Image:stratovolcano.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A cutaway diagram of a stratovolcano]] [[Image:sthelens1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mount St. Helens]] — a stratovolcano in the U.S. state of [[Washington]] — the day before the [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens|May 18, 1980 eruption]] that removed much of the top of the mountain]] [[Image:Mt.Mayon tam3rd.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Mayon Volcano]], the most active stratovolcano in the [[Philippines]].]] [[Image:Kazbek.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Mt. [[Kazbek]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], a dormant stratovolcano in the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]]]] [[Image:Popocatépetl sunrise.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Popocatépetl]], an active stratovolcano in [[Mexico]]]] ==Information== Stratovolcanoes are a common feature of [[subduction zone]]s, forming chains or 'arcs' along [[plate tectonics|tectonic plate]] boundaries where [[oceanic crust]] is subsumed under [[continental crust]] (Continental Arc Volcanism, e.g. [[Cascade Range]], central [[Andes]]) or another oceanic plate ([[Island arc]] Volcanism, e.g. [[Japan]], [[Aleutian Islands]]). The magma that forms stratovolcanoes arises when water, which is trapped both in hydrated minerals and in the porous [[basalt]] rock of the upper oceanic crust, is released into [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] rock of the [[asthenosphere]] above the sinking oceanic slab. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed "dewatering," and occurs at specific pressure/temperature conditions for specific minerals as the plate subducts to lower depths. The water freed from the subducting slab lowers the [[melting point]] of the overlying mantle rock, which then undergoes partial melting and rises due to its density relative to the surrounding mantle rock, and pools temporarily at the base of the [[lithosphere]]. The magma then rises through the [[crust (geology)|crust]], incorporating silica rich crustal rock, leading to a final intermediate composition. When the magma nears the surface it pools in a [[magma chamber]] under the volcano. The relatively low pressure of the magma allows water and other [[volatility (physics)|volatiles]] (CO<sub>2</sub>, S<sup>2-</sup>, Cl<sup>-</sup>) dissolved in the magma to begin to come out of solution, much like when a bottle of [[carbonated water]] is opened. Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates, the obstacle provided by the [[volcanic cone]] is overcome, leading to a sudden [[explosive eruption]]. ==Hazards== In recorded history, explosive eruptions at subduction zone (convergent-boundary) volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations.<ref name="dynearth">{{cite book|title=This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics|last=Kious|first=W. Jacquelyne|coauthors=Tilling, Robert I.|publisher=USGS|chapter=Plate tectonics and people|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/tectonics.html}}</ref> Subduction-zone stratovolcanoes like [[Mount St. Helens]] and [[Mount Pinatubo]] typically erupt with explosive force, because the magma is too stiff to allow easy escape of volcanic gases. As a consequence, tremendous internal pressures mount as the trapped gases expand during ascent, before the pent-up pressure is suddenly released in a violent eruption. Such an explosive process can be compared to putting your thumb over an opened bottle of a carbonated drink, shaking it vigorously, and then quickly removing the thumb. The shaking action separates the gases from the liquid to form bubbles, increasing the internal pressure. Quick release of the thumb allows the gases and liquid to gush out with explosive speed and force.<ref name="dynearth"/> As examples of the hazards of stratovolcanoes, consider two volcanoes on the western edge of the [[Philippine Plate]] that erupted in 1991. On June 15, Mount Pinatubo spewed ash 40 km into the air and produced huge [[pyroclastic flow]]s and [[lahar|mudflows]] that devastated a large area around the volcano. Pinatubo, located 90 km from [[Manila]], had been dormant for 600 years before the 1991 eruption, which ranks as one of the largest eruptions in the 20th Century.<ref name="dynearth"/> Also in 1991, Japan's [[Unzen Volcano]], located on the island of Kyushu about 40 km east of Nagasaki, awakened from its 200-year slumber to produce a new lava dome at its summit. Beginning in June, repeated collapses of this active dome generated destructive ash flows that swept down its slopes at speeds as high as 200 km per hour. Unzen is one of more than 75 active volcanoes in Japan; its eruption in 1792 killed more than 15,000 people--the worst volcanic disaster in the country's history.<ref name="dynearth"/> While the Unzen eruptions have caused deaths and considerable local damage, the impact of the June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was global. Slightly cooler than usual temperatures recorded worldwide and the brilliant sunsets and sunrises have been attributed to this eruption that sent fine ash and gases high into the [[stratosphere]], forming a large volcanic cloud that drifted around the world. The [[sulfur dioxide]] (SO<sub>2</sub>) in this cloud -- about 22 million tons -- combined with water to form droplets of sulfuric acid, blocking some of the sunlight from reaching the Earth and thereby cooling temperatures in some regions by as much as 0.5 °C.<ref name="dynearth"/> An eruption the size of Mount Pinatubo could affect the weather for a few years; material ejected only into the [[troposphere]] will be washed away by [[rain]] and [[winds]]. A similar phenomenon occurred in April of 1815 with the cataclysmic eruption of [[Tambora Volcano]] on [[Sumbawa Island]] in [[Indonesia]], the most powerful eruption in recorded history. Tambora's volcanic cloud lowered global temperatures by as much as 3 °C.<ref name="dynearth"/> Even a year after the eruption, most of the northern hemisphere experienced sharply cooler temperatures during the summer months. In part of Europe and in North America, 1816 was known as [[the year without a summer]]. Apart from possibly affecting climate, volcanic clouds from explosive eruptions also pose a hazard to aviation safety.<ref name="dynearth"/> This was brought to attention during the 1982 eruption of [[Galunggung]] in [[Java]]; two [[Boeing 747]] flew into the ash cloud, suffering temporary engine failure and structural damage. During the past two decades, more than 60 airplanes, mostly commercial jetliners, have been damaged by in-flight encounters with volcanic ash. Some of these encounters have resulted in the power loss of all engines, necessitating emergency landings. Luckily, to date no crashes have happened because of jet aircraft flying into volcanic ash.<ref name="dynearth"/> Since the year A.D. 1600, nearly 300,000 people have been killed by volcanic eruptions.<ref name="dynearth"/> Most deaths were caused by [[pyroclastic flow]]s and mudflows, deadly hazards which often accompany explosive eruptions of subduction-zone stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastic flows are fast-moving, avalanche-like, ground-hugging incandescent mixtures of hot volcanic debris, ash, and gases that can travel at speeds in excess of 150 km per hour. Approximately 30,000 people were killed by pyroclastic flows during the 1902 eruption of [[Mont Pelée]] on the island of [[Martinique]] in the Caribbean.<ref name="dynearth"/> In [[March 1982|March]]-[[April 1982]], three explosive eruptions of [[El Chichón Volcano]] in the State of [[Chiapas]], southeastern [[Mexico]], caused the worst volcanic disaster in that country's history. Villages within 8 km of the volcano were destroyed by pyroclastic flows, killing more than 2,000 people.<ref name="dynearth"/> [[Ashfall]] is a threat to health (in terms of inhalation) and is only a threat to property with high enough accumulations (greater than 30 cm (1 ft) of accumulation is sufficient to collapse most buildings) Mudflows (also called debris flows or [[lahar]]s, an Indonesian term for volcanic mudflows) are mixtures of volcanic debris and water. The water usually comes from two sources: rainfall or the melting of snow and ice by hot volcanic debris. Depending on the proportion of water to volcanic material, mudflows can range from soupy floods to thick flows that have the consistency of wet cement.<ref name="dynearth"/> As mudflows sweep down the steep sides of composite volcanoes, they have the strength and speed to flatten or bury everything in their paths. Hot ash and pyroclastic flows from the eruption of the [[Nevado del Ruiz]] Volcano in [[Colombia]], South America, melted snow and ice atop the 5,390-m-high Andean peak; the ensuing mudflows buried the city of [[Armero]], killing 25,000 people.<ref name="dynearth"/> [[Lava|Lava flows]] are generally not a viable threat because generally lava will move slowly enough to allow people to move away; thus they are more of a property threat. However, [[Nyiragongo]] is dangerous because of its lava flows; its [[magma]] has extremely low [[silica]] content, making it more fluid than normal (even when comparing to Hawaiian lava) and thus less [[viscosity|viscous]]. This is compounded by the extremely steep slope of [[Nyiragongo]]. ==See also== * [[List of stratovolcanoes]] ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Stratovolcanoes]] [[bg:Стратовулкан]] [[ca:Estratovolcà]] [[cs:Stratovulkán]] [[de:Schichtvulkan]] [[et:Kihtvulkaan]] [[es:Estratovolcán]] [[fr:Stratovolcan]] [[id:Stratovolcano]] [[is:Eldkeila]] [[it:Stratovulcano]] [[pam:Stratovolcano]] [[lt:Stratovulkanas]] [[hu:Sztratovulkán]] [[nl:Stratovulkaan]] [[ja:成層火山]] [[no:Stratovulkan]] [[nn:Stratovulkan]] [[pl:Stratowulkan]] [[pt:Estratovulcão]] [[ro:Stratovulcan]] [[ru:Стратовулкан]] [[sk:Stratovulkán]] [[fi:Kerrostulivuori]] [[sv:Stratovulkan]] [[vi:Núi lửa dạng tầng]] [[tr:Stratovolkan]] [[zh:複式火山]]