Streptomyces
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2008-07-05T11:09:24Z
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{{Taxobox
| color = lightgrey
| name = ''Streptomyces''
| image = Streptomyces_sp_01.png
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = Slide culture of a ''Streptomyces sp.''
| domain = [[Bacterium|Bacteria]]
| phylum = [[Actinobacteria]]
| ordo = [[Actinomycetales]]
| familia = [[Streptomycetaceae]]
| genus = '''''Streptomyces'''''
| genus_authority = Waksman & Henrici 1943
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''S. ambofaciens''<br/>
''[[Streptomyces achromogenes|S. achromogenes]]''<br/>
''S. avermitilis''<br/>
''S. coelicolor''<br/>
''[[Streptomyces clavuligerus|S. clavuligerus]]''<br/>
''S. felleus''<br/>
''S. ferralitis''<br/>
''S. filamentosus''<br/>
''S. griseus''<br/>
''S. hygroscopicus''<br/>
''S. iysosuperficus''<br/>
''S. lividans''<br/>
''[[Streptomyces noursei|S. noursei]]''<br/>
''S. scabies''<br/>
''[[Streptomyces somaliensis|S. somaliensis]]''<br/>
''S. thermoviolaceus''<br/>
''S. violaceoruber''<br/>
plus ~500 additional species.
}}
'''''Streptomyces''''', the largest [[genus]] of [[Actinobacteria]] and type genus of the family ''[[Streptomycetaceae]]''.<ref>The Family Streptomycetaceae, Part I: Taxonomy - The Prokaryotes</ref> The current tally of the numbers of species is more than 500.<ref>[http://www.bacterio.cict.fr/s/streptomycesa.html List of Prokaryotic names]</ref> ''Streptomyces'', along with other Actinobacteria, is a group containing [[Gram-positive]] [[cell wall]] and [[genomes]] with high [[GC-content]] bacteria.<ref name=Brock>{{cite book | author = Madigan M; Martinko J (editors). | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 11th ed. | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-13-144329-1 }}</ref> Streptomycetes are found predominantly in [[soil]] and in decaying vegetation, and most produce spores. Streptomycetes are noted for their distinct "earthy" odor which results from production of a volatile [[metabolite]], [[geosmin]].
Streptomycetes are characterised by a complex [[secondary metabolism]].<ref name=Brock/> They produce over two thirds of the clinically useful [[antibiotic]]s of natural origin (e.g., [[neomycin]], [[chloramphenicol]])<ref>Kieser, T., Bibb, M. J., Buttner, M. J., Chater, K. F., and Hopwood, D. A. (2000). Practical Streptomyces Genetics, 2nd edn., Norwich, UK: John Innes Foundation.</ref>. The now rarely-used [[streptomycin]] takes its name directly from ''Streptomyces''. Streptomycetes are infrequent [[pathogens]], though infections in human such as [[mycetoma]] can be caused by ''S. somaliensis'' and ''S. sudanensis'' and in plants such as [[scabies]] can be caused by ''S. caviscabies'' and ''S. scabies''.
==Genomics==
The complete [[genome]] of one of the strain, "''S. coelicolor''" A3(2), was published in 2002.<ref name=Bentley_2002>{{cite journal | author = Bentley SD, ''et al''. | title = Complete genome sequence of the model actinomycete "''Streptomyces coelicolor''" A3(2) | journal = Nature | year = 2002 | volume = 417 | issue = | pages = 141–147 | doi = 10.1038/417141a |pmid=12000953}}</ref> At the time, the "''S. coelicolor''" genome was thought to contain the largest number of [[gene]]s of any [[bacterium]]{{Fact|date=December 2007}}. The first complete genome sequence of ''S. avermitilis'' was completed in 2003.<ref name=Ikeda_2003>{{cite journal | author = Ikeda H; Ishikawa J; Hanamoto A; Shinose M; Kikuchi H; Shiba T; Sakaki Y; Hattori M; Omura S | title= Complete genome sequence and comparative analysis of the industrial microorganism ''Streptomyces avermitilis'' | journal = Nat. Biotechnol. | year = 2003 | volume = 21 | issue = | pages = 526–531 | url = http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nbt/journal/v21/n5/abs/nbt820.html | pmid= 12692562 | doi = 10.1038/nbt820}}</ref> Each of these genomes form a [[chromosome]] with a linear structure, unlike most bacterial genomes which exist in the form of circular chromosomes. The genome sequence of ''S. scabies'', a member of the genus with the ability to cause potato scab disease, has been determined at the [[Sanger Institute|Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute]] and is currently in annotation, with publication scheduled for 2007.
Taxonomically, "''S. coelicolor''" A3(2) belongs to the species of ''S. violaceoruber'' and not a validly described separate species; "''S. coelicolor''" A3(2) is not to be mistaken for ''S. coelicolor'' (Müller) ([http://www.atcc.org/common/catalog/numSearch/numResults.cfm?atccNum=23899 ATCC 23899]).
==Biotechnology==
In recent years, [[biotechnology]] researchers have begun to use ''Streptomyces spp.'' for production of recombinant human proteins. Traditionally, ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' was the species of choice to host [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] genes since it was well understood and easy to work with.<ref name=Brawner_1991>{{cite journal |author=Brawner M, Poste G, Rosenberg M, Westpheling J |title=''Streptomyces'': a host for heterologous gene expression |journal=Curr Opin Biotechnol |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=674–81 |year=1991 |pmid=1367716 |doi=10.1016/0958-1669(91)90033-2}}</ref><ref name=Payne_1990>{{cite journal |author=Payne G, DelaCruz N, Coppella S |title=Improved production of heterologous protein from ''Streptomyces lividans'' |journal=Appl Microbiol Biotechnol |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=395–400 |year=1990 |pmid=1369282 |doi=10.1007/BF00176653}}</ref> However, ''E. coli'' introduces problems such as incorrect (or lack of) [[glycosylation]] and incorrect [[protein folding]], resulting in insolubility and loss of bioactivity of the product.<ref name=Binnie_1997>{{cite journal |author=Binnie C, Cossar J, Stewart D |title=Heterologous biopharmaceutical protein expression in ''Streptomyces'' |journal=Trends Biotechnol |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=315–20 |year=1997 |pmid=9263479 |doi=10.1016/S0167-7799(97)01062-7}}</ref> ''Streptomyces spp.'' on the other hand have the ability to secrete correctly folded [[recombinant proteins]] into the medium after production simplifying the subsequent purification steps. These properties among others make ''Streptomyces spp.'' an attractive alternative to other bacteria such as ''E. coli'' and ''[[Bacillus subtilis]]''{{Fact|date=May 2007}}.
==Medicine==
''Streptomyces'' is the largest [[antibiotic]] producing genus<ref name="pmid11702082">{{cite journal |author=Watve MG, Tickoo R, Jog MM, Bhole BD |title=How many antibiotics are produced by the genus Streptomyces? |journal=Arch. Microbiol. |volume=176 |issue=5 |pages=386–90 |year=2001 |month=November |pmid=11702082 |doi=10.1007/s002030100345 |url=}}</ref>, producing both antibacterials and [[antifungal drug|antifungals]], and also a wide range of other [[Biological activity|bioactive]] compounds such as [[Immunosuppressive drug|immunosuppressants]]
===Some of the antifungals produced by ''Streptomyces'' spp.===
{{seealso|polyene antimycotic}}
* [[Nystatin]] (from ''S. noursei'')
* [[Amphotericin B]] (from ''S. nodosus'')
* [[Natamycin]] (from ''S. natalensis'')
===Some of the antibiotics produced by ''Streptomyces'' spp.===
* [[Erythromycin]] (from ''S. erythreus'')
* [[Neomycin]] (from ''S. fradiae'')
* [[Streptomycin]] (from ''S. griseus'')
* [[Tetracycline]] (from ''S. rimosus'')
* [[Vancomycin]] (from ''S. orientalis'')
* [[Rifamycin]] (from ''S. mediterranei'')
* [[Chloramphenicol]] (from ''S. venezuelae'')
* [[Puromycin]] (from ''S. alboniger'')
* [[Lincomycin]] (from ''S. lincolnensis'')
===Some of the Alkaloids produced by ''Streptomyces'' spp.===
* [[Physostigmine]] (from ''S.griseofuscus'')
===Some of the anti-cancer compounds produced by ''Streptomyces'' spp.===
* [[Migrastatin]] (from ''S. platensis'')
==References==
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===Further reading===
* {{cite book | author = Baumberg S | title = Genetics and Product Formation in Streptomyces | publisher = Kluwer Academic | year = 1991 | id = ISBN 978-0306438851 }}
* {{cite book | author = Gunsalus IC | title = Bacteria: Antibiotic-producing Streptomyces | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1986 | id = ISBN 978-0123072092 }}
* {{cite book | author = Hopwood DA | title = Streptomyces in Nature and Medicine: The Antibiotic Makers | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2007 | id = ISBN 978-0195150667 }}
==See also==
*[[Antimycin A]] - compound produced by this bacteria used in [[piscicide]]s.
==External links==
* [http://www.openwetware.org/wiki/Streptomyces Some current ''Streptomyces'' Research & Methods / Protocols / Resources]
* [http://avermitilis.ls.kitasato-u.ac.jp/ ''S. avermitilis'' genome homepage] ([http://www.kitasato-u.ac.jp/lisci/ Kitasato Institute for Life Sciences])
** ''S. avermitilis'' is the avermectin producer.
* [http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects/S_coelicolor/ ''S. coelicolor'' A3(2) genome homepage] ([http://www.sanger.ac.uk Sanger Institute])
* [http://streptomyces.org.uk/ Streptomyces.org.uk homepage] ([http://www.jic.bbsrc.ac.uk John Innes Centre])
* [http://strepdb.streptomyces.org.uk/ StrepDB - the ''Streptomyces'' genomes annotation browser]
*[http://www.genomesonline.org/search.cgi?colcol=all&goldstamp=ALL&gen_type=ALL&org_name1=genus&gensp=Streptomyces&org_domain=ALL&org_status=ALL&size2=ALL&org_size=Kb&gen_gc=ALL&phylogeny2=ALL&gen_institution=ALL&gen_funding=ALL&gen_data=ALL&cont=ALL&gen_country=ALL&gen_pheno=ALL&gen_eco=ALL&gen_disease=ALL&gen_relevance=ALL&gen_avail=ALL&selection=submit+search Streptomyces Genome Projects] from [http://www.genomesonline.org Genomes OnLine Database]
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