Strontium
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2008-07-17T04:49:23Z
Arkuat
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/* Characteristics */ section title per discussion at [[WP:WikiProject Elements]]
{{Elementbox_header | number=38 | symbol=Sr | name=strontium | left=[[rubidium]] | right=[[yttrium]] | above=[[calcium|Ca]] | below=[[barium|Ba]] | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[alkaline earth metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=2 | period=5 | block=s }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Sr,38| silvery white metallic }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|87.62]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | [[[krypton|Kr]]] 5s<sup>2</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 8, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 2.64 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 2.375 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1050 | c=777 | f=1431 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=1655 | c=1382 | f=2520 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 7.43 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 136.9 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 26.4 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 796 | 882 | 990 | 1139 | 1345 | 1646 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic face centered }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 2, 1,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bernath.uwaterloo.ca/media/149.pdf|title=Strontium: strontium(I) fluoride compound data|accessdate=2007-12-10|publisher=Bernath.UWaterloo.ca}}</ref><br />(strongly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 0.95 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 549.5 | 1064.2 | 4138 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|200]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|219]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|192]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 132 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 35.4 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 22.5 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 6.1 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.28 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 1.5 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-24-6 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=82 | sym=Sr
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=25.36 [[day|d]]
| dm=[[electron capture|ε]] | de=- | pn=82 | ps= [[rubidium|Rb]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=83 | sym=Sr
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=1.35 d
| dm1=ε | de1=- | pn1=83 | ps1=[[rubidium|Rb]]
| dm2=[[positron emission|β<sup>+</sup>]] | de2=1.23 | pn2=83 | ps2=[[rubidium|Rb]]
| dm3=[[gamma radiation|γ]] | de3=0.76, 0.36 | pn3= | ps3=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=84 | sym=Sr | na=0.56% | n=46 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=85 | sym=Sr
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=64.84 d
| dm1=ε | de1=- | pn1=85 | ps1=[[rubidium|Rb]]
| dm2=γ | de2=0.514[[delayed nuclear radiation|D]] | pn2= | ps2=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=86 | sym=Sr | na=9.86% | n=48 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=87 | sym=Sr | na=7.0% | n=49 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=88 | sym=Sr | na=82.58% | n=50 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=89 | sym=Sr
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=50.52 d
| dm1=ε | de1=1.49 | pn1=89 | ps1=[[rubidium|Rb]]
| dm2=[[beta decay|β<sup>-</sup>]] | de2=0.909D | pn2=89 | ps2=[[yttrium|Y]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=90 | sym=Sr
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=28.90 [[year|y]]
| dm=β<sup>-</sup> | de=0.546 | pn=90 | ps=[[yttrium|Y]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
'''Strontium''' ({{pronEng|ˈstrɒntiəm}}) is a [[chemical element]] with the symbol '''Sr''' and the [[atomic number]] 38. An [[alkaline earth metal]], strontium is a soft silver-white or yellowish metallic element that is highly reactive chemically. The metal turns yellow when exposed to air. It occurs naturally in the minerals [[Celestine (mineral)|celestine]] and [[strontianite]]. The [[strontium-90|<sup>90</sup>Sr]] [[isotope]] is present in [[radioactive]] [[nuclear fallout|fallout]] and has a [[half-life]] of 28.90 years.
== Characteristics ==
Due to its extreme reactivity to air, this element occurs naturally only in compounds with other elements, as in the minerals [[strontianite]] and [[celestine (mineral)|celestite]].
Strontium is a bright silvery metal that is softer than [[calcium]] and even more reactive in [[water]], with which strontium reacts on contact to produce [[strontium hydroxide]] and [[hydrogen]] gas. It burns in air to produce both [[strontium oxide]] and [[strontium nitride]], but since it does not react with [[nitrogen]] below 380°C it will only form the oxide spontaneously at room temperature. It should be kept under [[kerosene]] to prevent [[oxidation]]; freshly exposed strontium metal rapidly turns a [[yellow]]ish color with the formation of the oxide. Finely powdered strontium metal will ignite spontaneously in air. Volatile strontium salts impart a [[crimson]] color to [[fire|flames]], and these salts are used in [[pyrotechnic]]s and in the production of [[flare (pyrotechnic)|flares]]. Natural strontium is a mixture of four stable [[isotope]]s.
== Applications ==
As a pure metal strontium is being used in strontium 90%-aluminium 10% [[alloy]]s of an [[eutectic]] composition for the modification of aluminium-silicon casting alloys. The primary use for strontium compounds is in [[glass]] for [[colour]] television [[cathode ray tube]]s to prevent [[X-ray]] emission.
Other uses:
*[[strontium-89|<sup>89</sup>Sr]] is the active ingredient in Metastron, a [[radiopharmaceutical]] used for bone pain secondary to [[metastatic]] [[prostate cancer]]. The strontium acts like [[calcium]] and is preferentially incorporated into bone at sites of increased [[osteogenesis]]. This localization focuses the radiation exposure on the cancerous lesion.
*[[strontium-90|<sup>90</sup>Sr]] has been used as a power source for [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]s (RTGs). <sup>90</sup>Sr produces about 0.93 watts of heat per gram (it is lower for the grade of <sup>90</sup>Sr used in RTGs, which is [[strontium fluoride]]).<ref>[http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs/Power/3-what-are-the-fuels-for-rtgs.html What are the fuels for radioisotope thermoelectric generators?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> However, <sup>90</sup>Sr has a lifetime approximately 3 times shorter and has a lower density than [[plutonium-238|<sup>238</sup>Pu]], another RTG fuel. The main advantage of <sup>90</sup>Sr is that it is cheaper than <sup>238</sup>Pu and is found in [[nuclear waste]].
*<sup>90</sup>Sr is also used in [[cancer]] therapy. Its beta emission and long half-life is ideal for superficial [[radiotherapy]].
* Strontium is one of the constituents of [[AJ62]] alloy, a durable magnesium alloy used in car and motorcycle engines by [[BMW]].
* Since Strontium is so similar to calcium, it is incorporated in the bone. All four isotopes are incorporated, in roughly similar proportions as they are found in nature (please see below). However the actual distribution of the isotopes tends to vary greatly from one geographical location to another. Thus analyzing the bone of an individual can help determine the region it came from. This approach helps to identify the ancient migration patterns as well as the origin of commingled human remains in battlefield burial sites. Strontium thus helps forensic scientists too.
<sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios are commonly used to determine the likely provenance areas of sediment in natural systems, especially in marine and fluvial environments. Dasch (1969) showed that surface sediments of Atlantic displayed <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios that could be regarded as bulk averages of the <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios of geological terranes from adjacent landmasses. A good example of a fluvial-marine system to which Sr isotope provenance studies have been successfully employed is the River Nile-Mediterranean system (Krom et al, 1999; Krom et al, 2002; Talbot et al. 2000). Due to the differing ages of the rocks that constitute the majority of the Blue and White Nile catchment areas the changing provenance of sediment reaching the River Nile delta and East Mediterranean Sea can be discerned through Sr isotopic studies. Such changes are climatically controlled in the Late Quaternary.
More recently, <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios have also been used to determine the source of ancient archaeological materials such as timbers and corn in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico (English et al, 2001; Benson et al, 2003). <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios in teeth may also be used to track animal migrations (Barnett-Johnson, 2007; Porder et al., 2003) or in criminal forensics.
Strontium atoms are used in an experimental [[atomic clock]] with record-setting accuracy.<ref>A.D. Ludlow, T. Zelevinsky, G.K. Campbell, S. Blatt, M.M. Boyd, M.H.G. de Miranda, M.J. Martin, S.M. Foreman, J. Ye, T.M. Fortier, J.E. Stalnaker, S.A. Diddams, Y. Le Coq, Z.W. Barber, N. Poli, N.D. Lemke, K.M. Beck, & C. Oates. 2008. Sr lattice clock at 1x10-16 fractional uncertainty by remote optical evaluation with a Ca clock. Science Express. Posted online Feb. 14.</ref>
==Compounds==
*[[Ferrite magnet]]s and refining [[zinc]].
*[[Strontium titanate]] has an extremely high [[refractive index]] and an [[optical dispersion]] greater than that of [[diamond]], making it useful in a variety of optics applications. This quality has also led to it being cut into [[gemstone]]s, in particular as a [[diamond simulant]]. However, it is very soft and easily scratches so it is rarely used.
*[[Strontium carbonate]], [[Strontium nitrate]], and [[Strontium sulfate]] are commonly used in [[firework]]s for red color.
*[[Strontium aluminate]] is used as a bright [[phosphor]] with long persistence of [[phosphorescence]].
*[[Strontium chloride]] is sometimes used in [[toothpaste]]s for sensitive teeth. One popular brand includes 10% total strontium chloride hexahydrate by weight.
*[[Strontium oxide]] is sometimes used to improve the quality of some [[pottery]] [[Ceramic glaze|glazes]].
*Strontium is also commonly used in aerosol paint, such as the [[Spanish Montana]] (Montana Hardcore). This is one of the most likely sources of exposure to the public.
*[[Strontium ranelate]] is used in the treatment of osteoporosis. It is a prescription drug in the EU and UK, but not in the USA, and is marketed by Servier, a French drug house, as Protelos.
== History ==
The [[mineral]] [[strontianite]] is named after the [[Scotland|Scottish]] village of [[Strontian]], having been discovered in the lead mines there in [[1787]].<ref>Murray, W.H. (1977) The Companion Guide to the West Highlands of Scotland. London. Collins</ref> [[Adair Crawford]] recognized it as differing from other [[barium]] minerals in [[1790]]. Strontium itself was discovered in [[1798]] by [[Thomas Charles Hope]], and metallic strontium was first isolated by Sir [[Humphry Davy]] in [[1808]] using [[electrolysis]] and announced by him in a lecture to the Royal Society on [[30th June]] 1808<ref>[http://www.lochaber-news.co.uk/news/fullstory.php/aid/2644/Strontian_gets_set_for_anniversary.html Strontian gets set for anniversary] Lochaber News 19th June 2008</ref>.
Strontium was among the radioactive materials released by the [[1957]] [[Windscale fire]].
== Occurrence ==
[[Image:2005strontium.PNG|thumb|left|Strontium output in 2005]]
In 2005, China was the top producer of strontium with almost two-thirds world share followed by Spain and Mexico, reports the [[British Geological Survey]].
Strontium commonly occurs in nature, the 15th most abundant element on earth, averaging 0.034% of all igneous rock and is found chiefly as the form of the [[sulfate]] [[mineral]] [[celestite]] (SrSO<sub>4</sub>) and the [[carbonate]] [[strontianite]] (SrCO<sub>3</sub>). Of the two, celestite occurs much more frequently in sedimentary deposits of sufficient size to make development of mining facilities attractive. Strontianite would be the more useful of the two common minerals because strontium is used most often in the carbonate form, but few deposits have been discovered that are suitable for development. The [[metal]] can be prepared by [[electrolysis]] of melted [[strontium chloride]] mixed with [[potassium chloride]]:
:Sr<sup>2+</sup> + 2 e<sup>-</sup> → Sr
:2 Cl<sup>-</sup> → Cl<sub>2 ([[gas|g]]) </sub> + 2 e<sup>-</sup>
Alternatively it is made by reducing strontium [[oxide]] with [[aluminium]] in a [[vacuum]] at a temperature at which strontium [[distillation|distills]] off. Three [[allotropes]] of the metal exist, with [[transition point]]s at 235 and 540 °C. The largest commercially exploited deposits are found in [[England]].
''See also [[:category:Strontium minerals|strontium minerals]].''
== Isotopes ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Cambrian explosion]] -->
{{main|Isotopes of strontium}}
The [[alkali earth metal]] strontium has four stable, naturally occurring [[isotope]]s:
<sup>84</sup>Sr (0.56%), <sup>86</sup>Sr (9.86%), <sup>87</sup>Sr (7.0%) and <sup>88</sup>Sr (82.58%). Only <sup>87</sup>Sr is [[radiogenic]]; it is produced by decay from the [[radioactive]] alkali metal <sup>87</sup>[[rubidium|Rb]], which has a [[half-life]] of 4.88 × 10<sup>10</sup> years. Thus, there are two sources of <sup>87</sup>Sr in any material: that formed during primordial nucleo-synthesis along with <sup>84</sup>Sr, <sup>86</sup>Sr and <sup>88</sup>Sr, as well as that formed by radioactive decay of <sup>87</sup>Rb. The ratio <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr is the parameter typically reported in [[geology|geologic]] investigations; ratios in minerals and [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s have values ranging from about 0.7 to greater than 4.0. Because strontium has an [[atomic radius]] similar to that of [[calcium]], it readily substitutes for Ca in [[mineral]]s.
Sixteen unstable isotopes are known to exist. Of greatest importance are <sup>90</sup>Sr with a [[half-life]] of 28.78 years and <sup>89</sup>Sr with a [[half-life]] of 50.5 days.
* <sup>90</sup>Sr is a by-product of [[nuclear fission]] which is found in [[nuclear fallout]] and presents a health problem since it substitutes for calcium in [[bone]], preventing expulsion from the body. This isotope is one of the best long-lived high-energy [[beta ray|beta]] emitters known, and is used in SNAP ([[Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power]]) devices. These devices hold promise for use in [[spacecraft]], remote weather stations, navigational buoys, etc, where a lightweight, long-lived, nuclear-electric power source is required. The [[Chernobyl accident|1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident]] contaminated a vast area with <sup>90</sup>Sr. <sup>90</sup>Sr confined inside a concave silver plaque is also used for the medical treatment of a resected [[Pterygium (conjunctiva)|pterygium]].
*<sup>89</sup>Sr is a short-lived artificial radioisotope which provides a health benefit since it substitutes for calcium in [[bone]]. In circumstances where cancer patients have widespread and painful bony [[Metastasis|metastases (secondaries)]], the administration of <sup>89</sup>Sr results in the delivery of radioactive emissions ([[beta particle]]s in this case) directly to the area of bony problem (where calcium turnover is greatest). The <sup>89</sup>Sr is manufactured as the chloride salt (which is soluble), and when dissolved in normal saline can be injected intravenously. Typically, cancer patients will be treated with a dose of 150 [[Becquerel|MBq]]. The patient needs to take precautions following this because their urine becomes contaminated with radioactivity, so they need to sit to urinate and double flush the toilet. The [[beta particle]]s travel about 3.5mm in bone (energy 0.583 MeV) and 6.5mm in tissue, so there is no requirement to isolate patients who have been treated except to say they should not have any one (especially young children) sitting in their laps for 10-40 days. The variation in time results from the variable clearing time for <sup>89</sup>Sr which depends on renal function and the number of bony metastases. With a lot of bony metastases, the entire <sup>89</sup>Sr dose can be taken up into bone and so the entire radioactivity is retained to decay over a 50.5 day half-life. However, where there are few bony metastases, the large proportion of <sup>89</sup>Sr not taken up by the bone will be filtered by the kidney, so that the effective half-life (a combination of the physical and biological half-life) will be much shorter.
== Precautions ==
In its pure form strontium is extremely reactive with air and spontaneously combusts. It is therefore considered to be a [[fire hazard]].
==Effect on the human body==
The [[human]] body absorbs strontium as if it were [[calcium]]. Due to the elements being sufficiently similar chemically, the stable forms of strontium might not pose a significant health threat, but the radioactive <sup>90</sup>Sr can lead to various [[bone]] disorders and [[disease]]s, including [[bone cancer]]. The [[strontium unit]] is used in measuring radioactivity from absorbed <sup>90</sup>Sr.
A recent in-vitro study conducted the NY College of Dental Sciences using strontium on osteoblasts showed marked improvement on bone-building osteoblasts (http://iadr.confex.com/iadr/2007orleans/techprogram/abstract_89231.htm.)
An innovative drug made by combining strontium with [[ranelic acid]] has aided in [[bone]] growth, boosted bone density and lessened vertebral, peripheral and hip [[Fracture (bone)|fracture]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Meunier PJ, Roux C, Seeman E et al. | title=effects of strontium ranelate on the risk of vertebral fracture in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. | journal=New England Journal of Medicine | volume=350 | year=2004 |pages=459–468 | pmid=14749454 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa022436 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Reginster JY, Seeman E, De Vernejoul MC et al. | title=Strontium ranelate reduces the risk of nonvertebral fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: treatment of peripheral osteoporosis (TROPOS) study | journal=J Clin Metab. | volume=90 | year=2005 |pages=2816–2822 | pmid=15728210 | doi=10.1210/jc.2004-1774}}</ref> Women receiving the drug showed a 12.7% increase in bone density. Women receiving a placebo had a 1.6% decrease. Half the increase in bone density (measured by x-ray densitometry) is attributed to the higher atomic weight of Sr compared with calcium, whereas the other half a true increase in bone mass. It means that strontium ranelate creates new, stronger bone. Strontium ranelate (marketed under the trade names Protelos, Osseor, Protos, Bivalos, Protaxos, Ossum) is registered for treatment of osteoporosis in many countries all over the world.
Strontium ranelate has been shown to strengthen bones, according to presentations given at the IOF World Congress on Osteoporosis, in June of 2006. It also reduced bone resorption.
Strontium ranelate is registered as a prescription drug in Europe and many countries worldwide. It needs to be prescribed by a doctor, delivered by a pharmacist, and requires strict medical supervision. Currently, (early 2007) it is not available in Canada or the United States.
Several other salts of strontium such as strontium citrate or strontium carbonate are often presented as natural therapies and sold at a dose that is several hundred times higher than the usual strontium intake. Despite the lack of strontium deficit referenced in the medical literature and the lack of information about possible toxicity of strontium supplementation, such compounds can still be sold in the United States under the Dietary Supplements Health and Education Act of 1994. However, their long-term safety and efficacy have never been evaluated on humans using large-scale medical trials. Such compounds should not be administered to humans before further studies are conducted.
Allegedly, an attempt was made in [[1968]] to poison [[Alexander Dubček]] with Sr-90, but it failed.
It is thought that, contrary to popular belief, [[Gladiators]] were mostly vegetarian which ensured a greater intake of strontium leading to stronger bones and therefore more resistance to the otherwise bone-breaking and crushing attacks of other gladiators.<ref>[http://www.medicinemagazine.info/consumer/index.php/articles/5-human-evolution-biology-and-anthropology/10-roman-gladiators-beat-pharma-company-to-osteoporosis-drug Roman Gladiators beat Pharma company to Osteoporosis drug [[Medicine Magazine]]]</ref>
==See also==
* [[:category:Strontium compounds|Strontium compounds]]''
==References==
<references/>
* {{cite web | title=Los Alamos National Laboratory – Strontium | url=http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/38.html | accessmonthday=August 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
*Dasch, J. (1969). Strontium isotopes in weathering profiles, deep-sea sediments, and sedimentary rocks. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 33, pp. 1521-1552.
*Krom et al. (1999). The characterisation of Saharan Dusts and Nile particulate matter in surface sediments from the Levantine basin using Sr isotopes. Marine Geology, Vol. 155, pp. 319-330.
*Krom et al. (2002). Nile River sediment fluctuations over the past 7000 yr and their key role in sapropel development. Geology, Vol. 30, pp. 71-74.
*Talbot et al., (2000). Strontium isotope evidence for late Pleistocene reestablishment of an integrated Nile drainage network. Geology, Vol. 28, pp. 343-346.
*Barnett-Johnson, R., Grimes, C.B., Royer C.F., Donohoe, C.J. (2007) Identifying the contribution of wild and hatchery Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) to the ocean fishery using otolith microstructure as natural tags. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Vol.64, pp. 1683-1692.
*Benson, L., Cordell, L., Vincent, K., Taylor, H., Stein, J., Farmer, G., and Kiyoto, F. (2003) Ancient maize from Chacoan great houses: where was it grown?: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 22, pp. 13111-13115.
*English, N.B., Betancourt, J.L., Dean, J.S. and J. Quade (2001) Strontium Isotopes Reveal Distant Sources of Architectural Timber in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 98, pp. 11891-11896
*Porder, S., Paytan, A., and E.A. Hadly (2003) Mapping the origin of faunal assemblages using strontium isotopes. Paleobiology, 29: 197 - 204.
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{{compact periodic table}}
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Alkaline earth metals]]
[[Category:Lochaber]]
[[Category:Strontium]]
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[[sk:Stroncium]]
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[[sr:Стронцијум]]
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[[ta:ஸ்ட்ரோன்ஷியம்]]
[[th:สทรอนเทียม]]
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