Sugar
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2008-07-15T15:34:48Z
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.4.124.171|210.4.124.171]] ([[User talk:210.4.124.171|talk]]) to last version by NawlinWiki
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{{this|sugar as [[food]] and as an important and widely-traded commodity}}
[[Image:Sugar 2xmacro.jpg|right|thumb|Magnification of grains of sugar, showing their [[monoclinic]] hemihedral crystalline structure.]]
{{nutritionalvalue | name = Sugar, granulated | kJ=1619 | protein=0 g | fat= 0 g | carbs = 99.98 g | sugars=99.91 g | fiber = 0 g | riboflavin_mg=0.019 | calcium_mg=1 | iron_mg=0.01 | potassium_mg=2 | water=0.03 g | source_usda=1 | right=1}}
{{nutritionalvalue | name = Sugars, brown | kJ=1576 | protein=0 g | fat= 0 g | carbs = 97.33 g | sugars=96.21 g | fiber = 0 g | thiamin_mg=0.008 | riboflavin_mg=0.007 | niacin_mg=0.082 | folate_ug=1 | vitB6_mg=0.026 | calcium_mg=85 | iron_mg=1.91 | magnesium_mg=29 | phosphorus_mg=22 | potassium_mg=346 | sodium_mg=39 | zinc_mg=0.18 | water=1.77 g | source_usda=1 | right=1}}
[[Image:Zucker.jpg|right|thumb|Magnified crystals of refined sugar.]]
'''Sugar''' is a class of edible [[crystal]]line substances including [[sucrose]], [[lactose]], and [[fructose]]. Common table sugar (sucrose) is made from [[sugar beet]]s or [[sugar cane]]. Human [[taste bud]]s interpret its [[flavor]] as [[sweet]]. Sugar as a basic [[food]] [[carbohydrate]] primarily comes from [[sugar cane]] and from [[sugar beet]], but also appears in [[fruit]], [[honey]], [[sorghum]], [[sugar maple]] (in [[maple syrup]]), and in many other sources. It forms the main ingredient in much [[candy]]. "Excessive" consumption of sugar has been associated<ref name=webmd>Wuebben, Joseph and Mike Carlson. "Sugar: What Kinds to Eat and When." http://men.webmd.com/features/sugar-what-kinds-eat-when</ref> with increased incidences of type 2 [[diabetes]], of [[obesity]] and of [[tooth decay]].
==Terminology==
===Popular===
In non-scientific use, the term ''sugar'' refers to [[sucrose]] (also called "table sugar" or "saccharose") — a white [[crystal]]line [[solid]] [[disaccharide]]. In this informal sense, the word "sugar" principally refers to crystalline sugars.
Humans most commonly use sucrose as their sugar of choice for altering the [[flavor]] and properties (such as [[mouthfeel]], preservation, and texture) of [[beverage]]s and food. Commercially produced table sugar comes either from [[sugar cane]] or from [[sugar beet]]. Manufacturing and preparing food may involve other sugars, including [[palm sugar]] and [[fructose]], generally obtained from corn ([[maize]]) or from fruit.
Sugar may dissolve in water to form a [[syrup]]. A great many foods exist which principally contain dissolved sugar. Generically known as "syrups", they may also have other more specific names such as "[[honey]]" or "[[molasses]]".
===Scientific===
Scientifically, ''sugar'' refers to any [[monosaccharide]] or [[disaccharide]]. Monosaccharides (also called "simple sugars"), such as [[glucose]], store chemical [[potential energy|energy]] which [[biology|biological]] [[cell (biology)|cell]]s convert to other types of energy.
In a list of ingredients, any word that ends with "[[-ose]]" (such as "glucose", "dextrose", "fructose", etc.) will likely denote a sugar. Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of [[carbohydrates]] soluble in [[water]].
[[Glucose]] (a type of sugar found in human [[blood plasma]]) has the [[molecular formula]]
C<sub>6</sub> H<sub>12</sub> O<sub>6</sub>.
===Culinary/nutritional===
In culinary terms, the foodstuff known as '''sugar''' delivers a [[basic taste|primary taste]] sensation of [[sweetness]]. Apart from the many forms of sugar and of sugar-containing foodstuffs, alternative non-sugar-based [[sweetener]]s exist, and these particularly attract interest from people who have problems with their [[Blood sugar|blood sugar level]] (such as [[diabetics]]) and people who wish to limit their [[calorie]]-intake while still enjoying sweet foods. Both natural and synthetic substitutes exist with no significant [[carbohydrate]] (and thus low-calorie) content: for instance [[stevia]] (an [[herb]]), and [[saccharin]] (produced from naturally occurring but not necessarily naturally [[edible]] substances by inducing appropriate [[chemical reactions]]).
{{anchor|History}}
== History of sugar ==
{{main|History of sugar}}
Originally, people chewed the cane raw to extract its sweetness. [[India| Indians]] discovered how to crystallize sugar during the [[Gupta dynasty]], around 350 AD.<ref name=Adas>
Adas, Michael (January 2001). ''Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History''. Temple University Press. ISBN 1566398320. Page 311.
</ref>
John F. Robyt (1998) locates the two most probable origins of sugar cultivation as [[North East India]] or the [[Oceania|South Pacific]], which provide evidence of sugarcane cultivation as early as 10,000 BC and 6,000 BC respectively.<ref name=Robyt>Robyt 1998: 19-21</ref> Further archaeological evidence associates sugar with the [[Indus valley]].<ref name=Robyt/>
During the [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution]], [[Arab]] entrepreneurs adopted the techniques of sugar production from [[History of India|India]] and then refined and transformed them into a large-scale [[industry]]. Arabs set up the first large scale [[Sugar refinery|sugar mills, refineries, factories]] and [[plantation]]s.
The 1390s saw the development of a better press, which doubled the juice obtained from the cane. This permitted economic expansion of sugar plantations to [[Andalusia|Andalucia]] and to the [[Algarve]]. The 1420s saw sugar production extended to the [[Canary Islands]], [[Madeira]] and the [[Azores]].
The Portuguese took sugar to [[History of Brazil|Brazil]]. [[Hans Staden]], published in 1555, writes that by 1540 [[Santa Catarina (island)|Santa Catarina Island]] had 800 sugar mills and that the north coast of Brazil, [[Demarara]] and [[Surinam]] had another 2000. Approximately 3000 small mills built before 1550 in the New World created an unprecedented demand for [[cast iron]] [[gear]]s, levers, axles and other implements. Specialist trades in mold-making and iron-casting developed in Europe due to the expansion of sugar production. Sugar mill construction developed technological skills needed for a nascent [[industrial revolution]] in the early 17th century.{{Fact|date=October 2007}}
After 1625 the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] carried sugarcane from South America to the Caribbean islands — where it became grown from [[Barbados]] to the [[Virgin Islands]]. The years 1625 to 1750 saw sugar become worth its weight in gold.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} With the [[European colonization of the Americas]], the [[History of the Caribbean|Caribbean]] became the world's largest source of sugar. These islands could supply sugarcane using [[slave labor]] and produce sugar at prices vastly lower than those of cane sugar imported from the East.
During the eighteenth century, sugar became enormously popular and the sugar market went through a series of [[economic boom|boom]]s. As Europeans established sugar plantations on the larger Caribbean islands, prices fell, especially in [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. By the [[eighteenth century]] all levels of society had become common consumers of the former luxury product. At first most sugar in Britain went into tea, but later [[candy|confectionery]] and [[chocolate]]s became extremely popular. Suppliers commonly sold sugar in solid cones and consumers required a [[sugar nip]], a pliers-like tool, to break off pieces.
Beginning in the late 18th century, the production of sugar became increasingly mechanized. The [[steam engine]] first powered a sugar mill in [[Jamaica]] in 1768, and soon after, steam replaced direct firing as the source of process heat. Today, a large beet refinery producing around 1,500 tonnes of sugar a day needs a permanent workforce of about 150 for 24-hour production.
==Etymology==
In the case of sugar, the [[etymology]] reflects the spread of the commodity. The [[English language|English]] word "sugar" originates from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] word ''shakar'',<ref>
Compare the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]] and the [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=sugar ''Online Etymology Dictionary''].
</ref>
itself derived from [[Sanskrit]] ''Sharkara''.<ref name=Hassan>
[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2072.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part III: Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.
</ref> It came to English by way of [[French language|French]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and/or [[Italian language|Italian]], which derived their word for sugar from the Arabic and Persian ''shakar'' (whence the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word ''açúcar'', the Spanish word ''azúcar'', the Italian word ''zucchero'', the Old French word ''zuchre'' and the contemporary French word ''sucre''). (Compare the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]].) The [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "sugar", ''zahari'', means "pebble". Note that the English word ''jaggery'' (meaning "coarse brown Indian sugar") has similar ultimate etymological origins (presumably in [[Sanskrit]]).
==As a food==
Originally a luxury, sugar eventually became sufficiently cheap and common to influence standard cuisine. [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and the [[Caribbean islands]] have cuisines where the use of sugar became particularly prominent.
Sugar forms a major element in [[confectionery]] and in [[dessert]]s. [[Cook (profession)|Cook]]s use it as a [[preservative|food preservative]] as well as for sweetening.
==Human health==
{{Expert-subject|Health|date=April 2008}}
[http://www.nancyappleton.com/ Some commentators] have suggested links between sugar consumption and health hazards, including obesity and tooth decay. [[John Yudkin]] showed that the consumption of sugar and refined sweeteners is closely associated with [[coronary heart disease]].
=== Tooth decay===
[[Tooth decay]] has arguably become the most prominent health hazard associated with the consumption of sugar. Oral bacteria such as ''[[Streptococcus mutans]]'' live in dental plaque and metabolize sugars into [[lactic acid]]. High concentrations of acid may result on the surface of a tooth, leading to tooth demineralization.<ref>[http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/548toothdecay.html Tooth Decay<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm What causes tooth decay?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
The [[American Dental Association]] sees{{Fact|date=March 2008}} tooth decay as caused "mostly" by starchy foods like breadsticks, cereals and [[potato chip]]s that linger on teeth and prolong acid production, not by simple sugars that dissolve rapidly in the mouth.
===Diabetes===
[[Diabetes]], a disease that causes the body to metabolize sugar poorly, occurs when either:
#the body attacks the cells producing insulin, the chemical that allows the metabolizing of sugar in the body's cells (Type 1 diabetes)
#the body's cells ignore [[insulin]] (Type 2 diabetes)
When glucose builds up in the bloodstream, it can cause two problems:
#in the short term, cells become starved for energy because they do not have access to the glucose
#in the long term, frequent glucose build-up increases the acidity of the blood, damaging many of the body's organs, including the eyes, kidneys, nerves and/or heart
Authorities advise diabetics to avoid sugar-rich foods to prevent adverse reactions.<ref>[http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/eating_ez/ What I need to know about Eating and Diabetes<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
===Obesity===
In the [[United States of America]], a scientific/health debate has started{{Fact|date=June 2007}} <!-- when ? --> over the causes of a steep rise in obesity<!-- since when ? --> in the general population — and one view posits increased consumption of carbohydrates in [[as of 2007|recent]] decades as a major factor.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9F04E2D61F3EF934A35754C0A9649C8B63 What if It's All Been a Big Fat Lie? - New York Times<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Obesity can result from a number of factors including:
*an increased intake of energy-dense foods — high in fat and sugars but low in vitamins, minerals and other micronutrients (see United Nations advice below); and
*decreased physical activity.<ref>[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/index.html WHO | Obesity and overweight<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I and Continuous indicates that the population in the United States has increased its proportion of energy consumption from carbohydrates and decreased its proportion from total fat while obesity has increased. This implies, along with the United Nations report cited below, that obesity may correlate better with sugar consumption than with fat consumption, and that reducing fat consumption while increasing sugar consumption actually increases the level of obesity. The following table summarizes this study (based on the proportion of energy intake from different food sources for US Adults 20-74 years old, as carried out by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD<ref>
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes.htm National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
</ref>):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Sex
! Carbohydrate
! Fat
! Protein
! Obesity
|-
| 1971
| Male
| 42.4%
| 36.9%
| 16.5%
| 12.1%
|-
| 1971
| Female
| 45.4%
| 36.1%
| 16.9%
| 16.6%
|-
| 2000
| Male
| 49.0%
| 32.8%
| 15.5%
| 27.7%
|-
| 2000
| Female
| 51.6%
| 32.8%
| 15.1%
| 34.0%
|}
Another study{{Fact|date=March 2008}} published in 2002 and conducted by the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] over a 3-year period concluded: “There is no clear and consistent association between increased intakes of added sugars and BMI.” (BMI or "[[Body mass index]]" measures body-weight and height.)
===Gout===
Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge in cases of the painful joint disease [[gout]].<ref>
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7219473.stm retrieved [[2008-02-06]]
</ref>
===United Nations nutritional advice===
In 2003, four [[United Nations]] agencies, (including the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) and the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO)) commissioned a report compiled by a panel of 30 international experts. The panel stated that the total of free sugars (all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by manufacturers, cooks or consumers, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices) should not account for more than 10% of the [[energy]] intake of a healthy diet, while [[carbohydrate]]s in total should represent between 55% and 75% of the energy intake.<ref>
See table 6, page 56 of the WHO Technical Report Series 916, ''Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases'': online at http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/AC911E/ac911e07.htm#bm07.1.3
</ref>
===Debate on extrinsic sugar===
Argument continues as to the value of extrinsic sugar (sugar added to food) compared to that of intrinsic sugar (naturally present in food). Adding sugar to food particularly enhances taste, but does increase the total number of [[calorie]]s, among other negative effects on health and physiology.
In the [[United States of America]], sugar has become increasingly evident in food products, as more food manufacturers add sugar or [[high fructose corn syrup]] to a wide variety of consumables. [[Candy bar]]s, [[soft drink]]s, [[chip]]s, [[snack]]s, [[fruit juice]], [[peanut butter]], [[soup]]s, [[ice cream]], [[jam]]s, [[jelly|jellies]], [[yogurt]], and many breads have added sugars. [[Five Alive]], for example, portrayed by its suppliers as "all natural" and featuring pictures of five different types of fruit on its label, comprises only 41% fruit juice, having high fructose corn syrup as its primary ingredient.
===Concerns of vegetarians and vegans===
The sugar refining industry often uses [[bone char]] ([[calcinated]] animal bones) for decolorizing.<ref>[http://www.vegfamily.com/articles/sugar.htm The Great Sugar Debate: Is it Vegan?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name="VegetarianJournal">{{cite journal
| last = Yacoubou, MS
| first = Jeanne
| title = Is Your Sugar Vegan? An Update on Sugar Processing Practices
| journal = Vegetarian Journal
| volume = 26
| issue = 4
| pages = 16–20
| publisher = The Vegetarian Resource Group
| location = Baltimore, MD
| date = 2007
| url = https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/vj2007issue4.pdf
| accessdate = 2007-04-04
}}</ref> This may concern some vegans and vegetarians; about a quarter of the sugar in the U.S. gets processed using bone char as a filter and the rest gets processed with [[activated carbon]]. As bone char does not get into the sugar, the relevant authorities consider sugar processed this way as [[parve]]/[[kosher]].<ref name="VegetarianJournal"/>
[[Vegetarian]]s and [[vegan]]s may also object to the impact that the burning of the cane fields (a common part of the harvesting practice) has on insects, rats, snakes, and other [[life]] residing in the fields.<ref>[http://www.sucrose.com/harvest.html SKIL - How Sugar Cane Is Made<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
==Production==
[[Image:Cut sugarcane.jpg|right|thumb|Harvested sugarcane from India ready for processing.]]
Table sugar (sucrose) comes from plant sources. Two important sugar crops predominate: [[sugarcane]] (''Saccharum spp.'') and [[sugar beet]]s (''Beta vulgaris''), in which sugar can account for 12% to 20% of the plant's dry weight. Some minor commercial sugar crops include the [[date palm]] (''Phoenix dactylifera''), [[sorghum]] (''Sorghum vulgare''), and the [[sugar maple]] (''Acer saccharum''). In the [[financial year]] 2001/2002, worldwide production of sugar amounted to 134.1 million [[tonne]]s.
The first production of sugar from sugarcane took place in [[India]]. [[Alexander the Great]]'s companions reported seeing "[[honey]] produced without the intervention of bees" and it remained exotic in Europe until the Arabs started cultivating it in [[Sicily]] and [[Spain]]. Only after the [[Crusades]] did it begin to rival honey as a sweetener in Europe. The Spanish began cultivating sugarcane in the [[West Indies]] in 1506 (and in [[Cuba]] in 1523). The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] first cultivated sugarcane in [[Brazil]] in 1532.
Most cane sugar comes from countries with warm climates, such as [[Brazil]], [[India]], [[China]], [[Thailand]], [[Mexico]] and [[Australia]], the <!-- five -- or six ? --> top sugar-producing countries in the world.<ref>
[http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]
</ref>
Brazil overshadows most countries, with roughly 30 million [[tonne]]s of cane sugar produced in 2006, while India produced 21 million, China 11 million, and Thailand and Mexico roughly 5 million each. Viewed by region, Asia predominates in cane sugar production, with large contributions from China, India and Thailand and other countries combining to account for 40% of global production in 2006. South America comes in second place with 32% of global production; Africa and Central America each produce 8% and Australia 5%. The United States, the Caribbean and Europe make up the remainder, with roughly 3% each.<ref>
[http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]
</ref>
Beet sugar comes from regions with cooler climates: northwest and eastern Europe, northern Japan, plus some areas in the United States (including California). In the northern hemisphere, the beet-growing season ends with the start of harvesting around September. Harvesting and processing continues until March in some cases. The availability of processing plant capacity, and the weather both influence the duration of harvesting and processing - the industry can lay up harvested beet until processed, but frost-damaged beet becomes effectively unprocessable.
The [[European Union]] (EU) has become the world's second-largest sugar exporter. The [[Common Agricultural Policy]] of the EU sets maximum quotas for members' production to match supply and demand, and a price. Europe exports excess production quota (approximately 5 million tonnes in 2003). Part of this, "quota" sugar, gets subsidised from industry levies, the remainder (approximately half) sells as "C quota" sugar at market prices without subsidy. These [[subsidy|subsidies]] and a high import [[tariff]] make it difficult for other countries to export to the EU states, or to compete with the Europeans on world markets.
The United States sets high sugar prices to support its producers, with the effect that many former consumers of sugar have switched to [[corn syrup]] (beverage manufacturers) or moved out of the country (candymakers).
The cheap prices of [[glucose syrup]]s produced from [[wheat]] and corn ([[maize]]) threaten the traditional sugar market. Used in combination with [[artificial sweetener]]s, they can allow drink manufacturers to produce very low-cost goods.
===Cane===
{{main|Sugarcane}}
Since the 6th century BC cane sugar producers have crushed the harvested vegetable material from sugarcane in order to collect and filter the juice. They then treat the liquid (often with [[calcium oxide|lime (calcium oxide)]]) to remove impurities and then neutralize it. Boiling the juice then allows the sediment to settle to the bottom for dredging out, while the scum rises to the surface for skimming off. In cooling, the liquid crystallizes, usually in the process of stirring, to produce sugar crystals. [[Centrifuge]]s usually remove the uncrystallized syrup. The producers can then either sell the resultant sugar, as is, for use; or process it further to produce lighter grades. This processing may take place in another factory in another country. Sugar cane appears fourth in the list{{Fact|date=April 2008}} for agriculture in China.
===Beet===
[[Image:SugarBeet.jpg|thumb|left|Sugar beets]]
{{main|Sugar beet}}
Beet sugar producers slice the washed beets, then extract the sugar with hot water in a "[[diffuser]]". An alkaline solution ("[[milk of lime]]" and [[carbon dioxide]] from the lime kiln) then serves to [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitate]] impurities (see [[carbonatation]]). After filtration, evaporation concentrates the juice to a content of about 70% solids, and controlled crystallisation extracts the sugar. A centrifuge removes the sugar crystals from the liquid, which gets recycled in the crystalliser stages. When economic constraints prevent the removal of more sugar, the manufacturer discards the remaining liquid, now known as [[molasses]].
Sieving the resultant white sugar produces different grades for selling.
===Cane versus beet===
Little perceptible difference exists between sugar produced from beet and that from cane. Chemical tests can distinguish the two, and some tests aim to detect fraudulent abuse of [[European Union]] subsidies or to aid in the detection of adulterated [[fruit juice]].
The production of sugarcane needs approximately four times as much water as the production of sugar beet, therefore some countries that traditionally produced cane sugar (such as [[Egypt]]) have seen the building of new beet sugar factories [[as of 2008| recently]]. On the other hand, sugar cane tolerates hot climates better. Some sugar factories process both sugar cane and sugar beets and extend their processing period in that way.
The production of sugar results in residues which differ substantially depending on the raw materials used and on the place of production. While cooks often use cane [[molasses]] in food preparation, humans find molasses from sugar beet unpalatable, and it therefore ends up mostly as industrial [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]] feedstock (for example in [[alcohol]] distilleries), or as [[animal feed]]. Once dried, either type of molasses can serve as fuel for burning.
===Culinary sugars===
[[Image:Raw sugar closeup.jpg|thumb|right|Grainier, raw sugar.]]
So-called '''raw sugars''' comprise yellow to brown sugars made by clarifying the source syrup by boiling and drying with heat, until it becomes a crystalline solid, with minimal chemical processing.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} Raw beet sugars result from the processing of sugar beet juice, but only as intermediates ''en route'' to white sugar. Types of raw sugar include ''[[Demerara (sugar)|demerara]]'', ''[[muscovado]]'', and ''[[turbinado]]''. [[Mauritius]] and [[Malawi]] export significant quantities of such specialty sugars. Manufacturers sometimes prepare raw sugar as loaves rather than as a crystalline powder, by pouring sugar and molasses together into molds and allowing the mixture to dry. This results in sugar-cakes or loaves, called ''[[jaggery]]'' or ''gur'' in India, ''pingbian tang'' in China, and ''panela'', ''panocha'', ''pile'', ''piloncillo'' and ''pão-de-açúcar'' in various parts of Latin America. In South America, truly raw sugar, unheated and made from sugarcane grown on farms, does not have a large market-share.
'''Mill white sugar''', also called '''plantation white''', '''crystal sugar''', or '''superior sugar''', consists of raw sugar where the production process does not remove colored impurities, but rather bleaches them white by exposure to [[sulfur dioxide]]. Though the most common form of sugar in sugarcane-growing areas, this product does not store or ship well; after a few weeks, its impurities tend to promote discoloration and clumping. {{Refimprove|date=June 2007}}
'''Blanco directo''', a white sugar common in India and other south Asian countries, comes from precipitating many impurities out of the cane juice by using ''phosphatation'' — a treatment with [[phosphoric acid]] and [[calcium hydroxide]] similar to the carbonatation technique used in beet sugar refining. In terms of sucrose purity, blanco directo is more pure than mill white, but less pure than white refined sugar.
'''White refined sugar''' has become the most common form of sugar in [[North America]] as well as in [[Europe]]. Refined sugar can be made by dissolving raw sugar and purifying it with a [[phosphoric acid]] method similar to that used for blanco directo, a [[carbonatation]] process involving calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide, or by various filtration strategies. It is then further purified by filtration through a bed of [[activated carbon]] or [[bone char]] depending on where the processing takes place. Beet sugar refineries produce refined white sugar directly without an intermediate raw stage. White refined sugar is typically sold as ''granulated sugar,'' which has been dried to prevent clumping.
Granulated sugar comes in various crystal sizes — for home and industrial use — depending on the application:
*Coarse-grained sugars, such as ''sanding sugar'' (also called "pearl sugar", "decorating sugar", ''nibbed sugar'' or ''sugar nibs'') adds "sparkle" and flavor for decorating to baked goods, candies, [[cookie]]s/[[biscuits]] and other desserts. The sparkling effect occurs because the sugar forms large crystals which reflect light. Sanding sugar, a large-crystal sugar, serves for making edible decorations. It has larger granules that sparkle when sprinkled on baked goods and candies and will not dissolve when subjected to heat.
*Normal granulated sugars for table use: typically they have a grain size about 0.5 mm across
*Finer grades result from selectively sieving the granulated sugar
**''caster'' (or ''castor''<ref>The [http://www.askoxford.com/asktheexperts/faq/aboutspelling/castorsugar?view=uk Oxford] English Dictionary ([[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]]) classifies both spellings as correct, but "castor" used to prevail.</ref>) (0.35 mm), commonly used in baking
**''superfine'' sugar, also called ''baker's sugar'', ''berry sugar'', or ''bar sugar'' — favored for sweetening drinks or for preparing [[meringue]]
*Finest grades
**''[[Powdered sugar]]'', ''10X sugar,'' ''confectioner's sugar'' (0.060 mm), or ''icing sugar'' (0.024 mm), produced by grinding sugar to a fine powder. The manufacturer may add a small amount of [[anticaking agent]] to prevent clumping — either [[cornstarch]] (1% to 3%) or tri-[[calcium phosphate]]. [[Image:Sugarcubes.jpg|right|thumb|Sugarcubes close-up.]]
Retailers also sell '''sugar cubes''' or lumps for convenient consumption of a standardised amount. Suppliers of sugarcubes make them by mixing sugar crystals with sugar syrup. [[Jakub Kryštof Rad]] invented sugarcubes in 1841.
[[Image:Sa brownsugar.jpg|left|thumb|Brown sugar crystals.]]
'''[[Brown sugars]]''' come from the late stages of sugar refining, when sugar forms fine crystals with significant molasses content, or from coating white refined sugar with a cane molasses [[syrup]]. Their color and taste become stronger with increasing molasses content, as do their moisture-retaining properties. Brown sugars also tend to harden if exposed to the atmosphere, although proper handling can reverse this.
The World Health Organisation and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations expert report (WHO Technical Report Series 916 Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases) defines '''free sugars''' as all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices. This includes all the sugars referred to above. The term distinguishes these forms from all other ''culinary sugars'' added in their natural form with no refining at all.
'''Natural sugars''' comprise all completely unrefined sugars: effectively all sugars not defined as ''free sugars''. The WHO Technical Report Series 916 Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases approves only natural sugars as carbohydrates for unrestricted consumption. Natural sugars come in fruit, grains and vegetables in their natural or cooked form.
==Chemistry==<!-- The article [[Smoking (cooking)]] links to this section -->
[[Image:Saccharose.svg|frame|Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose (right), important molecules in the body.]]
[[Biochemistry|Biochemists]] regard sugars as relatively simple [[carbohydrate]]s. Sugars include [[monosaccharide]]s, [[disaccharide]]s, [[trisaccharide]]s and the [[oligosaccharide]]s - containing 1, 2, 3, and 4 or more monosaccharide units respectively. Sugars contain either [[aldehyde]] groups (-CHO) or [[ketone]] groups (C=O), where there are [[carbonyl|carbon-oxygen]] double bonds, making the sugars reactive. Most simple sugars (monosaccharides) conform to (CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub> where n is between 3 and 7. A notable exception, [[deoxyribose]], as its name suggests, has a "missing" oxygen atom. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water (H<sub>2</sub>O) per bond.
As well as using classifications based on their reactive group, chemists may also subdivide sugars according to the number of carbons they contain. Derivatives of trioses (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) are intermediates in [[glycolysis]]. Pentoses (5-carbon sugars) include [[ribose]] and [[deoxyribose]], which form part of [[nucleic acid]]s. Ribose also forms a component of several chemicals that have importance in the metabolic process, including [[Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide| NADH]] and [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Hexoses (6-carbon sugars) include glucose, a universal substrate for the production of energy in the form of ATP. Through [[photosynthesis]] plants produce [[glucose]], which has the formula C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>, and then convert it for storage as an energy reserve in the form of other carbohydrates such as [[starch]], or (as in cane and beet) as [[sucrose]] (table sugar). Sucrose has the chemical formula C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>.
Many pentoses and hexoses can form [[ring structure]]s. In these closed-chain forms, the aldehyde or ketone group remains unfree, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot occur. Glucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form at [[chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]], with less than 0.1% of the molecules in the open-chain form.
Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form [[glycosidic]] bonds with other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as starch). [[Enzymes]] must [[hydrolysis|hydrolyse]] or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds become [[metabolism|metabolised]]. After digestion and absorption. the principal monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
The prefix "glyco-" indicates the presence of a sugar in an otherwise non-carbohydrate substance. Note for example [[glycoprotein]]s, proteins connected to one or more sugars.
Monosaccharides include [[fructose]], [[glucose]], [[galactose]] and [[mannose]]. Disaccharides occur most commonly as sucrose (cane or beet sugar - made from one glucose and one fructose), [[lactose]] (milk sugar - made from one glucose and one galactose) and [[maltose]] (made of two glucoses). These disaccharides have the formula C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>.
[[Hydrolysis]] can convert sucrose into a syrup of fructose and glucose, producing [[Inverted sugar syrup|''invert sugar'']]. This resulting syrup, sweeter than the original sucrose,<ref>[http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/carbohydrates1.html scientificpsychic.com]: link inaccessible as of [[2008-06-04]] </ref> has uses in making confections because it does not crystallize as easily and thus produces a smoother finished product.
If combined with fine ash, sugar will burn with a blue flame.
==Measuring sugar==
See also [http://www.icumsa.org/ International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis]
===Dissolved sugar content ===
Scientists and the [[sugar industry]] use degrees [[Brix]] (symbol °Bx), introduced by [[Antoine Brix]], as units of measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved substance to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx sucrose solution has 25 grams of sucrose per 100 grams of liquid; or, to put it another way, 25 grams of sucrose sugar and 75 grams of water exist in the 100 grams of solution.
An infrared Brix sensor measures the vibrational frequency of the sugar molecules, giving a Brix degrees measurement. This does not equate to Brix degrees from a density or refractive index measurement because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When using a refractometer, one should report the result as "refractometric dried substance" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as having 20 °Bx RDS. This refers to a measure of percent by weight of ''total'' dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content, since sucrose in fact forms the majority of dried solids. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors has made measuring the amount of dissolved sugar in products economical using a direct measurement.
===Purity===
Technicians usually measure the purity (sucrose content) of sugar by [[polarimetry]] — the measurement of the rotation of [[plane-polarized light]] by a solution of sugar.
===Baking weight/mass volume relationship===
Different culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture.
The Domino Sugar Company has established the following volume to weight conversions:
*Brown sugar 1 cup = 195g = 6.88 oz
*Granular sugar 1 cup = 200g = 7.06 oz
*Powdered sugar 1 cup = 120g = 4.23 oz
==Trade and economics==
Historically one of the most widely-traded commodities in the world, sugar accounts for around 2% of the global dry cargo market.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} International sugar prices show great volatility, ranging from around 3 to over 60 cents per pound in the [[as of 2007|past]] 50 years. Of the world's 180-odd countries, around 100 produce sugar from beet or cane, a few more refine raw sugar to produce white sugar, and all countries consume sugar. Consumption of sugar ranges from around 3 kilograms per person per annum in Ethiopia to around 40 kg/person/yr in Belgium.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Consumption per capita rises with income per capita until it reaches a plateau of around 35kg per person per year in middle income countries.
[[Image:Worldsugarprices19602006.svg|thumb|World raw sugar price for the calendar years 1960 to 2006.]]
Many countries subsidize sugar production heavily. The European Union, the United States, Japan and many developing countries subsidize domestic production and maintain high tariffs on imports. Sugar prices in these countries have often exceeded prices on the international market by up to three times; [[as of 2007|today]], with world market sugar futures prices [[as of 2007|currently]] strong, such prices typically exceed world prices by two times.
Within international trade bodies, especially in the [[World Trade Organization]], the "[[G20 developing nations|G20]]" countries led by Brazil have long argued that because these sugar markets essentially exclude cane sugar imports, the G20 sugar producers receive lower prices than they would under [[free trade]]. While both the [[European Union]] and United States maintain trade agreements whereby certain developing and [[less developed country]] (LDCs) can sell certain quantities of sugar into their markets, free of the usual import tariffs, countries outside these preferred trade régimes have complained that these arrangements violate the "[[most favoured nation]]" principle of international trade. This has led to numerous tariffs and levies in the past.<ref>www.americansugarcouncil.gov/info/tariffhist/history01</ref>
In 2004, the [[WTO]] sided with a group of cane sugar exporting nations (led by Brazil and Australia) and ruled the EU sugar-régime and the accompanying ACP-EU Sugar Protocol (whereby a group of African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries receive preferential access to the European sugar market) illegal.<ref>http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/1pagesum_e/ds266sum_e.pdf</ref> In response to this and to other rulings of the WTO, and owing to internal pressures on the EU sugar-régime, the European Commission proposed on [[22 June]] 2005 a radical reform of the EU sugar-régime, cutting prices by 39% and eliminating all EU sugar exports.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/markets/sugar/index_en.htm Agriculture - Sugar<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
The African, Caribbean, Pacific and [[least developed country]] sugar exporters reacted with dismay to the EU sugar proposals,<ref>[http://www.acpsec.org/en/trade/sugar/fiji_sugar_communique_e.htm ACP Group of States - The Fiji Communiqué on Sugar<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. On [[25 November]] 2005 the Council of the EU agreed to cut EU sugar prices by 36% as from 2009. In 2007 it seemed<ref>
[http://www.sugarcoalition.org/ International Sugar Trade Coalition<!-- Bot generated title -->]
</ref>
that the [[U.S. Sugar Program]] could become the next target for reform. However, some commentators expected heavy lobbying from the U.S. sugar industry, which donated $2.7 million to US House and US Senate incumbents in the 2006 US election, more than any other group of US food-growers.<ref>
''[[New York Times]]'', [[October 18]], 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/18/business/18sugar.html
</ref>
Especially prominent lobbyists include [[The Fanjul Brothers]], so-called "sugar barons" who made the single [[as of 2003| largest]] individual contributions of [[soft money]] to both the Democratic and Republican parties in the political system of the United States of America.<ref>
''[[New York Times]]'', [[November 11]], 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/29/opinion/29SAT1.html
</ref><ref>http://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/coinop_congress/97mojo_400/boller.html</ref>
Small quantities of sugar, especially specialty grades of sugar, reach the market as '[[fair trade]]' commodities; the [[fair trade]] system produces and sells these products with the understanding that a larger-than-usual fraction of the revenue will support small farmers in the developing world. However, whilst the Fairtrade Foundation offers a premium of USD 60.00 per tonne to small farmers for sugar branded as "Fairtrade",<ref>[http://fairtrade.net/sites/products/sugar/why.html FLO (Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
government schemes such the U.S. Sugar Program and the [[ACP Sugar Protocol]]<ref>
[http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/bilateral/regions/acp/mao040407_en.htm European Commission - External Trade - Trade Issues<!-- Bot generated title -->]
</ref>
offer premiums of around USD 400.00 per tonne above world market prices. However, the EU announced on [[14 September]] 2007 that it had offered "to eliminate all duties and quotas on the import of sugar into the EU".<ref>
[http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/bilateral/regions/acp/pr140907_en.htm European Commission - External Trade - Trade Issues<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
The [[Sugar Association]] <!-- of London? of Mongolia? -->has launched a campaign to promote sugar over artificial substitutes. The Association [[as of 2007| now]] aggressively challenges many common beliefs regarding negative side effects of sugar consumption. The campaign aired a high-profile television commercial during the 2007 [[Prime Time Emmy Awards]] on FOX Television. The Sugar Association uses the trademark tagline "Sugar: sweet by nature."<ref>[http://www.sugar.org/ Sugar Association<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
==See also==
{{Commonscat|Sugars}}
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
*[[Barley sugar]]
*[[Biobutanol]]
*[[Brown sugar]]
*[[Brix]]
*[[Caramel]]
*[[Corn syrup]]
*[[Fermentation (food)|Fermentation]]
*[[Glycomics]]
*[[Golden syrup]]
*[[Holing cane]]
*[[List of unrefined sweeteners]]
*[[Maple sugar]]
*[[Natural brown sugar]]
*[[Palm sugar]]
*[[Rock candy]]
*[[Stevia]]
*[[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean]]
*[[Sugar loaf]]
*[[Sugar packet]]
*[[Sugar substitute]]
*The Hawaiian [[Vibora Luviminda]] [[trades union]]
* [[Saccharophilic pathogen]]
</div>
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==References ==
* {{cite book
| last =Adas
| first =Michael
| title = Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History
| publisher =Temple University Press
| date =January 2001
| isbn = 1566398320}}
* {{cite book
| last =Robyt
| first =John
| title = Essentials of Carbohydrate Chemistry
| publisher =Springer-Verlag New York, LLC
| date =January 1998
| isbn = 0387949518}}
* {{cite book
| last =James
| first =Glyn
| title = Sugarcane
| publisher =Blackwell Publishing
| date =2004
| isbn =063205476X}}
* A C Hannah, ''The International Sugar Trade'', Cambridge: Woodhead, 1996. ISBN 1-85573-069-3
* William Dufty, ''Sugar Blues'', ISBN 0-446-34312-9
==External links==
*[http://www.icumsa45.com/ Icumsa 45] - Everything about the highest grade of refined white sugar
*[http://www.foodsubs.com/Sweeten.html Cook's Thesaurus: Sugar]
*[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/releases/2003/pr20/en/ Expert Report on diet and chronic disease] ([[WHO]]/[[FAO]])
*[http://www.theoildrum.com/node/2390 "From sweet on the table to fuel in the tank: the millenary history of Sugar Cane"] Retrieved [[2007-10-04]]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/29/opinion/29SAT1.html?ex=1385442000&en=6c3b44e5d7b72a09&ei=5007&partner=USERLAND| Harvesting Poverty: America's Sugar Daddies]
*{{dmoz|/Recreation/Collecting/Food_and_Drink_Related/Sugar/|sugar}}
*[http://www.macrobiotics.co.uk/sugar.htm The Hidden Story of Big Sugar]
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[[Category:Sugar| ]]
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