Sukarno
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226097945
2008-07-16T20:32:27Z
Cassie Puma
5918435
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.160.241.161|68.160.241.161]] to last version by Merbabu (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]])
{{Infobox Politician
| name = Sukarno
| image = Soekarno.jpg
| office = 1st [[President of Indonesia]]
| term_start = [[August 18]], [[1945]]
| term_end = [[March 12]], [[1967]]
| successor = [[Suharto]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1901|6|6|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Blitar]], [[Dutch East Indies]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1970|6|21|1901|6|6|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]]
| party = [[Indonesian National Party]]
| religion = [[Islam]]
}}
'''Sukarno''' ([[June 6]], [[1901]] – [[June 21]], [[1970]]) was the first [[President of Indonesia]]. He helped the country win its independence from [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]] and was President from 1945 to 1967, presiding with mixed success over the country's turbulent transition to independence. Sukarno was forced down from power by one of his generals, [[Suharto]], who formally became President in March 1967.
==Name==
The spelling "Sukarno" has been official in Indonesia since 1947 but the older spelling '''Soekarno''' is still frequently used, mainly because he signed his name in the old spelling. Official Indonesian presidential decrees from the period 1947-1968, however, printed his name using the 1947 spelling.
Indonesians also remember him as '''''Bung'' Karno''' or '''''Pak'' Karno'''.<ref>''Bung'' is an [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] term of endearment analogous to 'older brother', ''Pak'' is used more formally as 'sir' or 'father'.</ref> Like many [[Java (island)|Javanese]] people, he had [[Javanese name|only one name]]; in religious contexts, he was occasionally referred to as 'Achmad Sukarno'. <ref>[http://coombs.anu.edu.au/SpecialProj/ASAA/biennial-conference/2006/Drakeley-Steven-ASAA2006.pdf In Search of Achmad Sukarno] Steven Drakeley, University of Western Sydney</ref>
==Background==
The son of a Javanese school teacher and his [[Bali]]nese wife from [[Buleleng]] regency, Sukarno was born in [[Blitar]], East Java in the [[Dutch East Indies]] (now [[Indonesia]]). He was admitted into a [[Netherlands|Dutch]]-run school as a child. When his father sent him to [[Surabaya]] in 1916 to attend a secondary school, he met [[Tjokroaminoto]], a future nationalist. In 1921 he began to study at the ''Technische Hogeschool'' (Technical Institute) in [[Bandung]]. He studied civil engineering and focused on architecture.
Atypically, even among the colony's small educated elite, Sukarno was fluent in several languages. In addition to the [[Javanese language|Javanese]] language of his childhood, he was a master of [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]] and of [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], and especially strong in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. He was also quite comfortable in [[German language|German]], [[English language|English]], and [[French language|French]]. Sukarno once remarked that when he was studying in Surabaya, he often sat behind the screen in movie theaters reading the Dutch [[Subtitle (captioning)|subtitle]]s in reverse because the front seats were only for elite Dutch people.
In his studies, Sukarno was "intensely modern," both in architecture and in politics. Sukarno interpreted these ideas in his dress, in his urban planning for the capital (eventually [[Jakarta]]), and in his socialist politics. For Sukarno, modernity was blind to race, neat and Western in style, and anti-imperialist.<ref>{{cite book | last =Mrazek | first =Rudolf| title =Engineers of Happy Land: Technology and Nationalism in a Colony | publisher = Princeton University Press | date = 2002 | ISBN 0691091625 | pages =pp. 60-1, 123, 125, 148, 156, 191}}; {{cite book | last =Kusno | first =Abidin | title = Behind the Postcolonial: Architecture, Urban Space and Political Cultures | publisher = Routledge | date = 2000 | ISBN 0415236150}}</ref>
==Independence struggle==
{{seealso|Dutch Ethical Policy and Indonesian National Revival}}
Sukarno became a leader of a pro-independence party, ''[[Indonesian National Party|Partai Nasional Indonesia]]'' when it was founded in 1927. He opposed imperialism and capitalism because he thought both systems worsened the life of Indonesian people.
He also hoped that Japan would commence a war against the western powers and that Java could then gain its independence with Japan's aid. He was arrested in 1929 by Dutch colonial authorities and sentenced to two years in prison. By the time he was released, he had become a popular hero. He was arrested several times during the 1930s and was in jail when Japan occupied the archipelago in 1942.
==World War II and the Japanese occupation==
{{see also|Japanese occupation of Indonesia}}
In early 1929, during the so-called [[Indonesian National Revival]], Sukarno and fellow Indonesian nationalist leader [[Mohammad Hatta]] (later [[List of Vice Presidents of Indonesia|Vice President)]], first foresaw a Pacific War and the opportunity that a Japanese advance on Indonesia might present for the Indonesian independence cause.<ref>{{cite book | last =Sukarno | authorlink = Sukarno| coauthors = Adams, Cindy | title =Sukarno: An Autobiography| publisher = Bobbs-Merrill | date = 1965 | pages =p. 92|id =}}; {{cite book | last =Legge| first = John David | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Sukarno: A Political Biography| publisher = | date = | location = | pages =pp. 101-102| url = | doi =
| id =ISBN 978-9814068642 }}</ref> In February 1942 [[Imperial Japan]] invaded the [[Dutch East Indies]] quickly over-running outmatched Dutch forces who marched, bussed and trucked Sukarno three hundred kilometres to [[Padang, Indonesia|Padang]], [[Sumatra]]. They intended keeping him prisoner, but abruptly abandoned him to save themselves.<ref>{{cite book| last =Friend| first =Theodore| authorlink =| coauthors =| title =Indonesian Destinies| publisher =The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press| date =2003| location =| pages =p. 27| url =| doi = | id =ISBN 0-674-01834-6}}</ref>
The Japanese had their own files on Sukarno and approached him with respect wanting to use him to organise and pacify the Indonesians. Sukarno on the other hand wanted to use the Japanese to free Indonesia: "The Lord be praised, God showed me the way; in that valley of the Ngarai I said: Yes, Independent Indonesia can only be achieved with Dai Nippon...For the first time in all my life, I saw myself in the mirror of Asia."<ref>{{cite book| last =Friend| first =Theodore| authorlink =| coauthors =| title =The Blue-Eyed Enemy: Japan Against the West in Java and Luzon 1942-1945| publisher =Princeton University Press| date =1988| location =| pages =p. 82-84 | url =| doi = | id =ISBN 0691055246}}</ref>
Subsequently, indigenous forces across both Sumatra and Java aided the Japanese against the Dutch but would not cooperate in the supply of the aviation fuel which was essential for the Japanese war effort. Desperate for local support in supplying the volatile cargo, Japan now brought Sukarno back to Jakarta. He helped the Japanese in obtaining its aviation fuel and labor conscripts, called ''sukarela'' in Indonesian and ''[[Romusha]]'' in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. Sukarno was lastingly ashamed of his role with the ''romusha''.<ref>{{cite book
| last =[[Sukarno]]| title =Sukarno: An Autobiography| publisher = Bobbs-Merrill | date = 1965 | location = | pages =pp. 192
| id = }} cited in {{cite book| last =Friend| first =Theodore| authorlink =| coauthors =| title =Indonesian Destinies| publisher =The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press| date =2003| location =| pages =p. 29| url =| doi = | id =ISBN 0-674-01834-6}}; {{cite book
| last =Adams | first =Cindy | title =My Friend the Dictator | publisher =Bobbs-Merrill | date =1967 | pages =pp 184-186}}</ref> He also was involved with Peta and Heiho (Javanese volunteer army troops) via speeches broadcast on the Japanese radio and loud speaker networks across Java. By mid-[[1945]] these units numbered around two million, and were preparing to defeat any Allied forces sent to re-take Java.
On [[November 10]], [[1943]] Sukarno was decorated by the [[Emperor of Japan]] in [[Tokyo]]. He also became head of Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia ([[BPUPKI]]), the Japanese-organized committee through which Indonesian independence was later gained. On 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, [[Koiso|Prime Minister Koiso]] promised independence for Indonesia, although no date was set.<ref name="RICKLEFSp207">Ricklefs (1991), page 207 </ref> This announcement was seen as immense vindication for Sukarno's apparent collaboration with the Japanese.<ref name="USCONGRESS_REV">{{cite web
| last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =The National Revolution, 1945-50 | work =Country Studies, Indonesia | publisher =U.S. Library of Congress | date = | url =http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/16.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref>
==Early independence==
{{see also|Indonesian National Revolution|Liberal Democracy Era in Indonesia (1950-1957)}}
Following the Japanese surrender, Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta, and Dr. Radjiman Wediodiningrat were summoned by Marshal Terauchi, Commander-in-Chief of Japan's Southern Expeditionary Forces in [[Saigon]]. Sukarno initially hesitated in declaring Indonesia's independence. He and Mohammad Hatta were kidnapped by Indonesian youth groups to [[Rengasdengklok]], west of Jakarta.
Finally Sukarno and Hatta declared the [[Indonesian Declaration of Independence|independence of the Republic of Indonesia]] on [[August 17]], [[1945]].
Sukarno's vision for the 1945 Indonesian [[Constitution of Indonesia|constitution]] comprised the [[Pancasila Indonesia|Pancasila]] ([[Sanskrit]] - ''five principles''). Sukarno's political philosophy, [[Marhaenism]], was guided by (in no particular order) elements of [[Marxism]], [[nationalism]] and [[Islam]]. This is reflected in the Pancasila, in the order in which he originally espoused them in a speech on [[June 1]], 1945<sup>1</sup>:
# [[Nationalism]] (with a focus on national unity)
# [[Internationalism]] ('one nation sovereign amongst equals')
# [[Representative democracy]] (all significant groups represented)
# [[Social Justice]] ([[Marxist]] influenced)
# [[Theism]] (with a secular bent)
In the same speech, he argued that all of the principles of the nation could be summarized in the phrase ''[[gotong royong]].''<ref>["Bung Karno" http://www.antenna.nl/wvi/eng/ic/pki/sal/salim.html]</ref> The Indonesian parliament, founded on the basis of this original (and subsequently revised) constitution, proved all but ungovernable. This was due to irreconcilable differences between various social, political, religious and ethnic factions<sup>2</sup>.
Sukarno's government initially postponed the formation of a national army, for fear of antagonizing the Allied [[occupation forces]] and their doubt over whether they would have been able to form an adequate military apparatus to maintain control of seized territory. The various [[militia]] groups at that time were encouraged to join the [[BKR]] -- '''Badan Keamanan Rakyat''' (The People's Security Organization) -- itself a subordinate of the "War Victims Assistance Organization". It was only in October 1945 that the BKR was reformed into the TKR -- '''Tentara Keamanan Rakyat''' (The People's Security Army) in response to the increasing Dutch presence in Indonesia. In the ensuing chaos between various factions and Dutch attempts to re-establish colonial control, Dutch troops captured Sukarno in December 1948, but were forced to release him after the [[ceasefire]]. He returned to [[Jakarta]] in [[December 28]] [[1949]]. At this time, Indonesia adopted a new [[Federal Constitution of 1949|federal constitution]] that made the country a federal state. This was replaced by another [[Provisional Constitution of 1950|provisional constitution]] in [[1950]] that restored a unitary form of government. Both constitutions were parliamentary in nature, which--on paper--limited presidential power. However, even with his formally reduced role, he commanded a good deal of moral authority as [[Father of the Nation]].
Sukarno's government was not universally accepted in Indonesia. Indeed, many factions and regions attempted to separate themselves from his government, and there were several internal conflicts even during the period of armed insurgency against the Dutch. One such example is the [[left-wing|leftist]]-backed coup attempt by elements of the military in [[Madiun]], [[East Java]] in 1948, in which many supporters of communism were allegedly executed.
There were further attempts of [[military coup]]s against Sukarno in 1956, including the [[PRRI]]-[[Permesta]] rebellion in [[Sulawesi]] supported by the [[CIA]], during which an American aviator, [[Allen Lawrence Pope]], operating in support of the rebels was shot down and captured. <sup>6</sup>
=='Guided Democracy' and increasing autocracy==
{{main|Guided Democracy (1957-1965)}}
Sukarno resented his figurehead position and used the increasing disorder to intervene more in the country's political life. Claiming [[Liberal democracy|Western-style democracy]] wasn't suitable for Indonesia, he called for a system of "guided democracy" based on what he called traditional Indonesian principles. The Indonesian way of deciding important questions, he argued, was by way of prolonged [[deliberation]] designed to achieve a [[consensus]]. He proposed a government based not only on [[political parties]] but on "functional groups" composed of the nation's basic elements, in which a national consensus could express itself under presidential guidance.
During this later part of his presidency, Sukarno came to increasingly rely on the army and the support of the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI).
In the 1950s he increased his ties to [[Peoples Republic of China|China]] and admitted more [[communist]]s into his government. He also began to accept increasing amounts of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] bloc military aid. This aid, however, was surpassed by military aid from the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] Administration, which worried about a leftward drift should Sukarno rely too much on Soviet bloc aid. However, Sukarno increasingly attempted to forge a new alliance called the "New Emerging Forces", as a counter to the old superpowers, whom he accused of spreading "Neo-Colonialism, Colonialism and Imperialism" (NEKOLIM). His political alliances gradually shifted towards Asian powers such as the PRC and [[North Korea]]. In 1961, this first president of Indonesia also found another political alliance, an organization, called the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM, in Indonesia known as Gerakan Non-Blok, GNB) with [[Egypt]]'s President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], [[India]]'s Prime Minister [[Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]'s President [[Josip Broz Tito]], and [[Ghana]]'s President [[Kwame Nkrumah]], in an action called The Initiative of Five (Sukarno, Nkrumah, Nasser, Tito, and Nehru). This action was a movement to not give any favour to the two superpower blocs, who were involved in the [[Cold War]].
The [[Bandung Conference]] was held in 1955, with the goal of uniting developing Asian and African countries into a non-aligned movement to counter against the competing superpowers at the time. In order to increase Indonesia's prestige, Sukarno supported and won the bid for the [[1962 Asian Games]] held in [[Jakarta]]. Many sporting facilities such as the Senayan sports complex (now [[Bung Karno Stadium]]), and supporting infrastructure were built to accommodate the games. There was political tension when the Indonesians refused the entry of delegations from [[Israel]] and the [[Republic of China|Taiwan]].
On [[November 30]], [[1957]], there was a grenade attack against Sukarno when he was visiting a school in [[Cikini]], [[Central Jakarta]]. Six children were killed, but Sukarno did not suffer any serious wounds. In December he ordered the nationalization of 246 Dutch businesses. In February he began a crackdown on the [[Pemerintah Revolusioner Republik Indonesia|PRRI]] rebels at [[Bukittinggi]].
These PRRI rebels, a mix of anti-communist and Islamic movements, received arms and aid from Western sources, including the CIA, until J. Allan Pope, an American pilot, was shot down after a bombing raid in northern Indonesia in 1958. The CIA sent arms to rebel movements on Sumatra as well as Sulawesi. The downing of this pilot, together with impressive victories of government forces against the PRRI, evoked a shift in US policy, leading to closer ties with Sukarno as well as Major General [[Abdul Haris Nasution]], the head of the army and the most powerful anti-communist in the Jakarta government.
Sukarno also established government control over media and book publishing as well as laws discriminating against Chinese permanent residents (China Totok). On [[July 5]] [[1959]] he reestablished the 1945 constitution by [[President Sukarno's 1959 Decree|presidential edict]]. It established a presidential system which he believed would make it easier to implement the principles of guided democracy. He called the system ''Manifesto Politik'' or Manipol--but was actually government by decree. He sent his opponents to internal exile.
In March 1960 Sukarno dissolved the elected Assembly ([[People%27s_Representative_Council|Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]]) and replaced it with an appointed Assembly--the Gotong Royong Parliament.
In August Sukarno broke off diplomatic relations with the Netherlands over [[Dutch New Guinea]] (West Papua.) After West Papua declared itself independent in December of 1961, Sukarno ordered raids on [[West Irian]] ([[Dutch New Guinea]]). There were more assassination attempts when he visited [[Sulawesi]] in 1962. West Irian was brought under Indonesian authority in May 1963 under the [[Bunker Plan]].
In July of the same year People's Consultative Assembly ([[People%27s_Consultative_Assembly|Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat]]) proclaimed Sukarno as [[President for Life]].
Sukarno also opposed the British-supported Federation of [[Malaysia]], claiming that it was a neocolonial plot to advance British interests. In spite of his political overtures, which was partly justified when some political elements in British Borneo territories [[Sarawak]] and [[Brunei]] opposed the Federation plan and aligned themselves with Sukarno, Malaysia was proclaimed in September 1963. This led to the [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation]] (''Konfrontasi'') and the end of remaining US military aid to Indonesia. Sukarno withdrew Indonesia from the [[UN Security Council]] in 1965 when, with US backing, the nascent Federation of Malaysia took a seat. Sukarno's increasing illness was demonstrated when he collapsed in public in August 9, 1965, and he was secretly diagnosed with kidney disease.
==Removal from power==
{{main|Transition to the New Order}}
On the night of 30 September 1965, six of [[Indonesia]]'s most senior generals were killed by a movement calling themselves the "[[30 September Movement]] (G30S)." With much of its senior leadership killed or missing, Major General [[Suharto]], commander of the Army's strategic reserves took control of the army the following morning.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), p. 282.</ref> Suharto issued an ultimatum to the Halim Air Force Base, where the G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno (the reasons for his presence are unclear and were subject of claim and counter-claim), [[General Omar Dhani]] and Aidit had gathered. By the following day, it was clear that the incompetently organised and poorly coordinated coup had failed.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), pp. 281–282.</ref> By 2 October, Suharto's faction was firmly in control of the army. Sukarno's obedience to Suharto's 1 October ultimatum to leave Halim is seen as changing all power relationships.<ref>Friend (2003), p. 105.</ref> Sukarno's fragile balance of power between the military, political Islam, communists, and nationalists that underlay his "[[Guided Democracy (1957–1965)|Guided Democracy]]" was now collapsing.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), pp. 281–282.</ref>
In early October, a military propaganda campaign began to sweep the country, successfully convincing both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a Communist coup, and that the murders were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes.<ref>Vickers (2005), p. 157.</ref> The PKI's denials of involvement had little effect.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), p. 287.</ref> The army led campaign to purge Indonesian society, government and armed forces of the communist party and other leftist organisations. Leading PKI members were immediately arrested, some summarily executed.<ref>Vickers (2005), p. 157.</ref> The purge quickly spread from Jakarta to the rest of the country, and the worst massacres were in Java and Bali.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), p. 287.</ref> (see: [[Indonesian killings of 1965–66]]) The situation varied across the country; in some areas the army organised civilian groups and local militias, in other areas communal vigilante action preceded the army.<ref>Vickers (2005), pages 158–159</ref> The most widely accepted estimates are that at least half a million were killed.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), p. 288; Friend (2003), p. 113; Vickers (2005), p. 159; {{cite journal |title=Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966 |author=Robert Cribb |journal=Asian Survey |volume=42 |issue=4 |date=2002 |pages=550–563 |doi=10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550}}</ref> Many others were also imprisoned and for the next ten years people were still being imprisoned as suspects. It is thought that as many as 1.5m were imprisoned at one stage or another.<ref>Vickers (2005), pp. 159–60.</ref> As a result of the purge, one of Sukarno's three pillars of support, the Indonesian Communist Party, had been effectively eliminated by the other two, the military and political Islam.
On [[March 11]], [[1966]], Suharto and his supporters in the military forced Sukarno to issue a Presidential Order called [[Supersemar]] (''Surat Perintah Sebelas Maret'' -- The March 11 Order), in which Sukarno gave orders to Suharto only to restore peace and order, not to transfer of power to him. After obtaining the Presidential Order, Suharto had the PKI declared illegal and the party was abolished. He also arrested many high ranking officials that were loyal to Sukarno on the charge of being PKI members and/or sympathizers, further reducing Sukarno's political power and influence. In 1991 a government minister admitted that the national archives only possessed a copy of this letter, and in 1992 another government minister called for whoever is in possession of the original document to submit it to the national archives. However, there is testimony from several eyewitnesses who claim that such a document did exist and that the copy in the archives is a faithful reproduction of the original.
Sukarno was stripped of his presidential title by [[People%27s_Consultative_Assembly|Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat]] (Provisional Peoples Representative Assembly) on March 12, 1967, led by his former ally, Nasution, and remained under [[house arrest]] until his death at age 69 in Jakarta in 1970. He was buried in [[Blitar]], [[East Java]], [[Indonesia]]. In recent decades, his grave has been a significant venue in the network of places that Javanese visit on [[ziarah]] and for some is of equal significance to those of the [[Wali Songo]].
While the semi-official version of the events of 1965-1966 claims that the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) ordered the murders of the six generals, others blame Sukarno, and still others believe Suharto orchestrated the assassinations to remove potential rivals for the presidency.<ref>{{cite book| last =Friend| first =Theodore| authorlink =| coauthors =| title =Indonesian Destinies| publisher =The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press| date =2003| location =| pages =pp. 103-109.| url =| doi = | id =ISBN 0-674-01834-6}}</ref>
==Family==
[[Megawati Sukarnoputri]], who served as the fifth president of Indonesia, is his daughter by his wife Fatmawati. By another wife, a Japanese art student (some sources say [[geisha]]) named Naoko Nemoto (now known as Ratna Sari [[Dewi Sukarno]]), he had a daughter Kartika. <ref>"[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B06E2DD173FF934A25751C0A96E958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print Jakarta Journal; Weighty Past Pins the Wings of a Social Butterfly]," ''[[The New York Times]]''</ref> Kartika Sukarno married, in 2006, [[Frederik Seegers|Frits Seegers]], the Netherlands-born chief executive officer of the [[Barclays]] Global Retail and Commercial Bank. <ref>"[http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/banking_and_finance/article673513.ece Seegers joins the Barclays superstars]," ''[[Times Online]]''</ref>
==Awards==
*[[International Lenin Peace Prize]] (1960)
==See also==
* [[History of Indonesia]]
==External links==
{{portal|Indonesia}}
{{wikiquote}}{{commons|Category:Sukarno|Sukarno}}
* [http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah09.shtml Timeline: The Sukarno Years]
* [http://www.iisg.nl/w3vlindonesia/ WWW-VL WWW-VL History: Indonesia] - Extensive list of online reading on Sukarno
* [http://aga.nvg.org/oppgaver/chapter1.html#cont363 Relations to the US Presidency] - From a 1999 dissertation
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB52/ The Official US position on released CIA documents]
* [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/CIA/McGehee_CIA_Indo.html Report from former CIA officer assigned to Indonesia]
*[https://www.odci.gov/csi/kent_csi/docs/v14i2a02p_0002.htm the "official" CIA version - further documents released]
==References==
===General===
*Kahin, Audrey R. and George McT. "Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia", The New Press, 1995.
*Smith, Roger M (ed). ''Southeast Asia. Documents of Political Development and Change'', Ithaca and London, 1974, pp. 174-183.
*Blum, William. ''Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II'', Black Rose, 1998, pp. 193-198
*U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, ''Research Study: Indonesia -- The Coup that Backfired,'' 1968, p. 71n.
*Robert Cribb, ‘Nation: Making Indonesia’, in Donald K. Emmerson (ed.), Indonesia Beyond Suharto: Polity, Economy, Society, Transition. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1999, pp.3-38
*Andrew Roadnight, United States Policy towards Indonesia in the Truman and Eisenhower Years. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002
*Bob Hering, 2001, ''Soekarno, architect of a nation, 1901-1970'', KIT Publishers Amsterdam, ISBN 90-6832-510-8, [[KITLV]] Leiden, ISBN 90-6718-178-1
*Oei Tjoe Tat, 1995, Memoar Oei Tjoe Tat: Pembantu Presiden Soekarno(The memoir of Oei Tjoe Tat, assistant to President Sukarno), Hasta Mitra, ISBN 979-8659-0-31 (banned in Indonesia)
*Lambert J. Giebels, 1999, ''Soekarno. Nederlandsch onderdaan. Biografie 1901-1950''. Biography part 1, Bert Bakker Amsterdam, ISBN 90-351-2114-7
*Lambert J. Giebels, 2001, ''Soekarno. President, 1950-1970'', Biography part 2, Bert Bakker Amsterdam, ISBN 90-351-2294-1 geb., ISBN 90-351-2325-5 pbk.
*Lambert J. Giebels, 2005, ''De stille genocide: de fatale gebeurtenissen rond de val van de Indonesische president Soekarno'', ISBN 90-351-2871-0
*{{cite book | last =Ricklefs | first =M.C. | title =A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300 | publisher =MacMillan | date =1991 | id =0-333-57690-X}}
===Notes===
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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Presidents of Indonesia|President of Indonesia]] | years=1945–1967}}
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[[Category:1901 births]]
[[Category:Javanese people]]
[[Category:People from Blitar, East Java]]
[[Category:Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) alumni]]
[[Category:Presidents of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Revolutionaries]]
[[Category:National Heroes of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Cold War leaders]]
[[Category:1970 deaths]]
[[Category:Indonesian Muslims]]
[[Category:Indonesian National Awakening]]
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