Sun tanning
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225914525
2008-07-16T00:09:49Z
82.30.243.143
/* Society’s lifestyle of ease and quick gratification */
[[Image:Sunbath.jpg|thumb|A woman sunbathing]]
[[Image:DSC 0990.JPG|thumb|A suntanned arm showing browner skin where it has been exposed. This pattern of tanning is often called a [[farmer's tan]]]]
'''Sun tanning''' describes a darkening of the skin (especially of fair-skinned individuals) in a natural physiological response stimulated by exposure to [[ultraviolet radiation]] from [[sunlight|sunshine]] or from artificial sources such as a [[tanning bed]]. With excess exposure to ultraviolet, a [[sunburn]] can develop.
==Cause and effect==
Two different mechanisms contribute to the UV-induced darkening of the skin. Firstly the UVA-radiation generates oxidative stress which in turn oxidises pre-existing melanin. This leads to rapid darkening of already existing melanin. The second mechanism is the increased production of melanin ([[melanogenesis]]).<ref name=tanning>[http://www.lookingfit.com/articles/indoor_tanning/729_621feat2.html The Tanning Process]</ref> It is a reaction of the body to photodamage from UVB.<ref name="Agar2005"/> This melanogenesis is triggered by the same DNA damage that causes sunburn. Melanogenesis leads to delayed tanning. It first becomes visible about 72 hours after exposure.<ref name="tanning"/> The tan that is created by an increased melanogenesis lasts much longer than the one that is caused by oxidation of existing melanin.
Darkening of the skin is caused by an increased release of the pigment [[melanin]] into the skin's cells after exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Melanin is produced by cells called [[melanocyte]]s and protects the body from [[indirect DNA damage|direct]] and [[indirect DNA damage]] absorbing an excess of solar radiation, which can be harmful. Depending on genetics, some people can darken quickly and deeply whereas others do not darken much at all.
The ultraviolet frequencies responsible for tanning are often divided into the [[Ultraviolet|UVA]] (315 to 400nm wavelength) and [[Ultraviolet|UVB]] (280 to 315nm wavelength) ranges.
'''UVB'''
* triggers the formation of [[cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer|CPD]]-DNA damage ([[direct DNA damage]]) which in turn induces an increased melanin production<ref name=Agar2005> {{cite journal |author=Nita Agar; Antony R. Young |title=Review: Melanogenesis: a photoprotective response to DNA damage? |journal=Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis |volume=571 |issue=1-2 |pages=121–132 |year=2005 |pmid=10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2004.11.016 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15748643|doi=10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2004.11.016}}</ref>
* is more likely to cause a sunburn than UVA as a result of overexposure. The mechanism for sunburn and increased melanogenesis is identical.<ref name=Parrish1982> {{cite journal |author=John A. Parrish, Kurt F. Jaenicke, R. Rox Anderson |title=Erythema And Melanogenesis Action Spectra Of Normal Human Skin |url= http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1751-1097.1982.tb04362.x |journal=Photochemistry and Photobiology |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages= 187–191 |year=1982 |doi=10.1111/j.1751-1097.1982.tb04362.x}}</ref> Both are caused by the [[direct DNA damage]] (formation of [[cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer|CPD]]s)
* reduced by virtually all sunscreens in accordance with their [[Sun protection factor|SPF]]
* is thought to cause the formation of [[Melanocytic nevus|moles]] and some types of skin cancer (but not [[melanoma]])
* causes skin aging (but at a ''far'' slower rate than UVA.)
* produces [[Vitamin D]] in human skin
'''UVA'''
*causes release of preexisting melanin from the melanocytes
*causes the melanin to combine with oxygen (oxidize), which creates the actual tan color in the skin
*seems to cause cancer less than UVB, but causes [[melanoma]], a far more dangerous type of skin cancer than other types
*is blocked less than UVB by many sunscreens but is blocked to some degree by clothing
*is present more uniformly throughout the day, and throughout the seasons than UVB
==Health benefits==
The skin produces [[vitamin D]] in response to sun exposure (in particular, UVB waves in the 285nm to 287nm range), which can be a health benefit for those with vitamin D deficiency. In 2002, Dr. William B. Grant published an article claiming that 23,800 premature deaths occur in the US annually from cancer due to insufficient UVB exposures (apparently via [[vitamin D]] deficiency).<ref> http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/91016211/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0</ref> This is higher than 8,800 deaths occurred from melanoma or squamous cell carcinoma. This does not mean that sun tanning is categorically safe or beneficial. Spending several minutes in the sun is long enough to obtain your daily dose of vitamin D. Another research<ref>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17357586 Cat.Inist<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>
Grant WB, Garland CF, Holick MF. Comparisons of estimated economic burdens due to insufficient solar ultraviolet irradiance and vitamin D and excess solar UV irradiance for the United States. Photochem Photobiol. 2005 Nov-Dec;81(6):1276-86.</ref> estimates that 50,000–63,000 individuals in the United States and 19,000 - 25,000 in the UK die prematurely from cancer annually due to insufficient [[vitamin D]].
Another effect of vitamin D deficiency is [[osteomalacia]], which can result in bone pain, difficulty in weight bearing and sometimes fractures. This work has been updated in Grant et al. 2005<ref> http://phot.allenpress.com/photonline/?request=get-abstract&issn=0031-8655&volume=81&page=1276</ref> and Grant and Garland, 2006<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16886679&query_hl=45&itool=pubmed_docsum The association of solar ultraviolet B (UVB) with ...[Anticancer Res. 2006 Jul-Aug] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
In addition, it was reported that in Spain, risk of non-melanoma skin cancer is balanced by reduced risk of 16 types of cancer [Grant, 2006]<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17149699&query_hl=45&itool=pubmed_docsum An ecologic study of cancer mortality rates in Spa...[Int J Cancer. 2007] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
According to research conducted in 2007 by Cozen, Gauderman, Islam, and Mack <ref>[http://www.neurology.org/cgi/content/abstract/69/4/381?etoc Childhood sun exposure influences risk of multiple sclerosis in monozygotic twins.] Talat Islam, MBBS, PhD, W. James Gauderman, PhD, Wendy Cozen, DO, MPH and Thomas M. Mack, MD, MPH. ''Neurology'' 2007;69:381-388 </ref> <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6906712.stm Sunshine 'protective' against MS]. BBC News, 28 July 2007, 23:40 </ref>, sun exposure during childhood prevents [[multiple sclerosis]] later in life.
Ultraviolet radiation has other medical applications, in the treatment of skin conditions such as [[psoriasis]] and [[vitiligo]]. Sunshine is informally used as a short term way to treat or hide acne, but research shows that in the long term, acne worsens with sunlight exposure and safer treatments now exist (see [[phototherapy]]).
==Cultural history==
[[Image:Sunbathing.jpg|thumb|Sunbathing Russian woman on a Turkish beach]]
Throughout history, tanning has seen several fluctuations in popularity. In ancient times the sun played a central religious role in Egyptian, Greek, and Peruvian culture. For Egyptians “[[Ra]]” was the sun god, the Greeks had “[[Apollo]],” and "[[Helios]]" and the Peruvian ruler was believed to be the sun incarnate. With the introduction of the class system in societies throughout the world, religious beliefs connected to the sun gave way to social distinctions between those of tanned complexion and those without. This class system often separated those deemed to be high class and those who were not. This distinction was physically manifested in the color of one’s skin. Those who often spent long hours in the sun with their laborsome jobs were often grouped together as lower class. A sociology professor at Trent University, Stephen Katz, sums up this point best with his quote, “Tans were labor tans, and not leisure tans like they are today” <ref> http://www.sportscartel.com/lounge/f7/cancer-damned-kids-wanna-tan-28512/?referrerid=1192</ref>.
Women even went as far as to put lead based cosmetics on their skin to artificially augment their appearance <ref>http://www.melanomaresearch.com/pt/re/melres/abstract.00008390-200602000-00012.htm;jsessionid=LWWply01m7ChYGhsBLTcGZMt3hf8Bhg4G98p1ShpkG5QzRZ4d7rH!1167962659!181195628!8091!-1</ref>. However, these cosmetics slowly caused their death through [[lead poisoning]]. Achieving this light skinned appearance was brought about in many ways through the aforementioned lead-based cosmetics, use of [[arsenic]] to whiten skin, on to more modern methods of full length clothes, powders, and parasols. This fair-skinned trend continued up until the end of the [[Victorian era]]. [[Niels Finsen]] was awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1903 for his “Finsen Light Therapy” <ref> http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/inside.asp?AID=3271&UID=</ref>. This therapy was to cure infectious diseases such as [[lupus vulgaris]] and [[rickets]] disease. [[Vitamin D]] deficiency was found to be a cause of rickets disease, and exposure to the sun would allow Vitamin D to be produced in a person. Therefore, sun exposure was a remedy to curing several diseases, especially rickets. Shortly thereafter, in the 1920’s, [[Coco Chanel]] accidentally got burnt while visiting the [[French Riviera]]. Her fans apparently liked the look and started to adopt darker skin tones themselves. Tanned skin became a trend partly because of Coco’s status and the longing for her lifestyle by other members of society. In addition, Parisians fell in love with [[Josephine Baker]], a “caramel-skinned” singer in [[Paris]]. Those who liked and idolized her wanted darker skin so they could be more like her. These two French women were two trendsetters of the transformation of tanned skin being viewed as fashionable, healthy, and luxurious <ref> http://cosmeticos-ufrj.blogspot.com/2007/05/beware-afterglow.html </ref>.
[[Image:TanTom.JPG|thumb|Sometimes tanning can be used for comedic purposes]]
In the 1940’s, women’s magazines started using advertisements that encouraged sun bathing. At this time, tanning oil and bathing suits that left little to the imagination were coming out. The [[bikini]] made its appearance in 1946. Louis Reard was the French designer who introduced the bikini. In the 1950’s, an ever-growing trend was to use baby oil as a method to tan more quickly. The first self-tanner came about in the same decade and was known as “Man-Tan,” and often led to undesirable orange skin <ref> http://www.melanomaresearch.com/pt/re/melres/abstract.00008390-200602000-00012.htm;jsessionid=LWWply01m7ChYGhsBLTcGZMt3hf8Bhg4G98p1ShpkG5QzRZ4d7rH!1167962659!181195628!8091!-1</ref>. [[Coppertone]], in 1953, brought out the little blond girl and her cocker spaniel tugging on her bathing suit bottoms on the cover of their sunscreen bottles; this is still the same advertisement they use today on their bottles of sunscreen. In the latter part of the 50’s, silver metallic UV reflectors were common to enhance one’s tan. The “1960’s reveled in the sand-and-surf ethos epitomized by the [[Beach Boys]]” <ref> http://www.sportscartel.com/lounge/f7/cancer-damned-kids-wanna-tan-28512/?referrerid=1192</ref>. Their superstar status helped to promote tanned skin as desirable. In 1971, [[Mattel]] introduced Malibu Barbie, “the ultimate beach bunny,” <ref> http://cosmeticos-ufrj.blogspot.com/2007/05/beware-afterglow.html </ref> with tanned skin, sunglasses, and her very own bottle of sun tanning lotion. The same decade, specifically 1978, gave rise to [[tanning beds]] and [[sunscreen]] with SPF 15. Today there is an estimated 50,000 outlets for tanning, whereas in the 90’s there were only around 10,000. The tanning business is a five-billion dollar industry.<ref> http://www.sportscartel.com/lounge/f7/cancer-damned-kids-wanna-tan-28512/?referrerid=1192</ref>.
In some other parts of the world, fair skin remains the standard of beauty. The [[geisha]] of Japan were renowned for their brilliant white painted faces, and the appeal of the
{{nihongo|'''bihaku'''|美白}}, or "beautiful white", ideal leads many Japanese women to avoid any form of tanning<ref>{{cite web | title=Japanese girls choose whiter shade of pale | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/japan/story/0,7369,1185335,00.html | publisher=Guardian Unlimited}}</ref>. There are exceptions to this, of course, with Japanese fashion trends such as [[ganguro]] emphasizing almost black skin. The color white is associated with purity and divinity in many Eastern religions. In [[post-colonial]] [[Africa]] and [[India]], dark skin is heavily associated with a lower class status, and some people resort to [[skin bleaching]] to achieve a skin color they view as more socially acceptable.{{Fact|date=September 2007}}
===Sociological perspective===
====Separation of social classes====
Tanning has seen a marked increase in popularity in recent years. One evidence of this trend has been seen in the growth of [[skin cancer]], outdoor tanning, and tanning salons. The reason for this increase is because of society’s altered definition for the significance of a tan. Having, or not having, a tan has always had a deeper meaning within society. The upper classes have especially changed the meaning of a tan. When the sun was worshipped tanning was popular, but in later years when a tan was associated with the lower class lifestyle it was no longer desirable. The rise and fall in popularity of tanning has less to do with the color of one’s skin and more to do with the means by which the tan was obtained. Tanning again became popular when low class jobs moved indoors and the upper classes had more leisure time to spend outdoors. Tanning was no longer a sign of low class jobs so upper classes embraced the bronzed look. Still today, having a tan is a sign of status and is associated with being a member of the upper classes{{Fact|date=June 2008}}. Having darker skin is not the only desirable product of tanning, but it is also to show that one is wealthy enough to be able to spend time working on their tan <ref> http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/inside.asp?AID=3271&UID=</ref>.
====Society’s concept of image====
Tanning allows for many different perceived images of others and of oneself. Today, tanning is a sign of being healthy, even if that is not remotely accurate. Upon many studies, both men and women view a tanned body as more healthy than a pale body <ref> http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1992.tb01527.x </ref>, even if tanning leads to an unhealthy body by way of [[skin cancer]], blistered skin, burnt skin, freckles, and wrinkles among others. Society, women especially, constantly alter their bodies to conform to society’s expectations whether it be through [[dieting]], [[eating disorders]], [[cosmetic surgery]], or in this case tanning. Though women know the consequences of tanning, they continue to do it. This represents the conflict between one’s health and the social values of being physically attractive. People prefer to appear healthy and conform to society’s expectations, rather than ensure a long, prosperous life by avoiding sun damage <ref> http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=8&hid=101&sid=e34e5223-6dc9-4208-ad7f-1baf41097c00%40sessionmgr109</ref>. In most cases, women do not tan because of how they are going to view their body (though some do), but more so how others are going to view it. A person’s self-identity and self-image are strongly influenced by social constructions. The image one conveys through having bronzed skin is largely responsible for the ever-growing trend of tanning today <ref> http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=8&hid=101&sid=e34e5223-6dc9-4208-ad7f-1baf41097c00%40sessionmgr109</ref>.
====Society’s lifestyle of ease and quick gratification====
Another reason tanning has been adopted so readily is because it fits in with society’s lifestyle, especially the obsession with instant gratification. The rewards and benefits of tanning are immediate while the risks and negative side effects are delayed and sometimes never experienced. Also, the easy accessibility toward obtaining a tan leads to people continuing the habit, no matter what time of year. With tanning salons open year-round, one can maintain their fresh, summer glow all year long, rather than just for a few months during the summer <ref> http://heb.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/1/29</ref>. Due to the fact that there are tanning salons in almost every [[strip mall]] and mid-size shopping center, people see tanning salons as acceptable. The accessibility makes tanning convenient, enjoyable, and accepted by society as a common habit not to be ashamed of.
Status, self-image, and ease of accessibility are important among today’s society. Tanning has become a sign of one’s status among the upper class, of the wealthy, of the healthy, and of those concerned with their appearance <ref> Thomas, H. (Ed.), Ahmed, J. (Ed.). (2004). Cultural Bodies: Ethnography and Theory. Massachusetts, United Kingdom, and Australia: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. </ref>. In the same manner that a woman wearing diamonds is a sign of wealth, today, being tanned is a sign of high social class. People will go to great lengths to achieve the 'perfect' tan, no matter what the costs.
==Dressing for sun tanning==
[[Image:Topless Barcelona.jpg|thumb||Women wearing [[bikini#Monokini|monokinis]] sunbathing on a beach in [[Barcelona]], [[Spain]] to avoid [[tan lines]].]]
Some people choose to sun tan [[nudity|without clothes]] to maximize tanning coverage, maximizing health benefits of sun exposure, increasing the [[sense|sensitory]] experience and reducing or eliminating tan lines caused by the contrast of exposed and unexposed tanned skin. While some are content to simply sun tan in the privacy of their own private property, some governmental agencies have responded to more demand for clothing-optional sun tanning in [[public nudity|public spaces]].
As an example, [[Englischer Garten]] in urban [[Munich]] has meadows where nude sun tanning is the norm. In [[Denmark]], clothing-optional sun tanning is the default [[dress code]] on all beaches, with the exception of two[http://goscandinavia.about.com/od/denmar1/qt/nudism_denmark.htm]. In other areas of the world, clothing-free sun tanning could be met with citation or fines. [[Nude beach|Clothing-optional beaches]] (also known as [[naturist]], nude or nudist beaches) and other areas where quiet use or traditional use is tolerated, generally allow for such opportunities without fear of legal harassment or penalty. Even more beaches allow [[topfree]] tanning for women. Some describe beaches where nudity or topfree tanning is tolerated to be "more [[Culture of Europe|European]]".[http://honeymoons.about.com/cs/nakedescapes/a/europenudebeach.htm]. Geographic areas in the US with warm to tropical climates with extensive beach fronts often cater to such tourist opportunities, e.g. [[Haulover Beach]], [[Gunnison Beach, Sandy Hook|Gunnison Beach]], [[Black's Beach]] and [[Baker Beach]].
==Preventing overexposure==
[[Image:Sunbathing couple.jpg|thumb|Personal tanning dress is usually a reflection of preference.]]
[[Image:Man sitting under beach umbrella.JPG|right|thumb|Protection of the skin through use of a beach umbrella]]
To avoid [[sunburn]] or excessive exposure, staying out of direct sunlight is the primary defense.
If long sun exposure cannot be avoided or is desired one may use [[sunscreen]] or various over-the-counter creams to reduce sun exposure. The SPF ([[Sun Protection Factor]]) number on a sunscreen product shows its rated effectiveness. Products with a higher SPF number are those designed to provide more defense for the skin against the effects of solar radiation. However in 1998, the Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science reported that some sunscreens advertising UVA and UVB protection do not provide adequate safety from UVA radiation and could give sun tanners a false sense of protection.
Tanning oils or creams, when applied, are usually thicker on some parts of skin than on others. This causes some parts of skin to get more UVA and UVB than others and thus get sunburns. For this reason, improper application of tanning oils or creams may increase the occurrence of skin cancer and other skin diseases. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}
For those who choose to tan, some dermatologists recommend the following preventative measures:
* Make sure the sunscreen blocks both UVA and UVB rays. These types of sunscreens, called ''broad-spectrum sunscreens'', contain more active ingredients. Ideally a sunscreen should also be hypoallergenic and noncomedogenic so it doesn't cause a rash or clog the pores, which can cause acne.
* Sunscreen needs to be applied thickly enough to make a difference. People often do not put on enough sunscreen to get the full SPF protection. In case of uncertainty about how much product to use, or discomfort with the amount applied, switching to a sunscreen with a higher SPF may help.
* Research has shown that the best protection is achieved by application 15 to 30 minutes before exposure, followed by one reapplication 15 to 30 minutes after the sun exposure begins. Further reapplication is only necessary after activities such as swimming, sweating, and rubbing. <ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=11712033&dopt=Citation|author=Diffey, B.L.|title=When should sunscreen be reapplied?|journal= J Am Acad Dermatol.|year=2001|volume=45|page=882|pages=882|doi=10.1067/mjd.2001.117385}}</ref>
* The rays of the sun are strongest between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m (see http://www.epa.gov/sunwise/actionsteps.html), so frequent shade breaks are recommended during these hours. Sun rays are stronger at higher [[elevation]]s (mountains) and lower [[latitude]]s (near the [[equator]]). One way to deal with [[time zones]], [[daylight saving time]] ([[summer]] time) and latitude is to check [[shadow]] length. If a person's shadow is shorter than their actual height, the risk of sunburn is much higher.
* Wear a hat with a brim and anti-UV sunglasses which can provide almost 100% protection against ultraviolet radiation entering the eyes.
* Be aware that reflective surfaces like snow and water can greatly increase the amount of UV radiation to which the skin is exposed.
The American Academy of Dermatology recommends the use of [[sunscreen]]s, wearing [[sun protective clothing]] and avoiding the sun altogether.
==Tanning and sunscreen==
In his book: "Physician's guide to sunscreens" Nicholas J. Lowe pointed out, that one of the reasons for customers to reject sunscreen use is the reduction of tanning that is associated with good sunscreen protection.(chapter 7 page 81)<ref name=Lowe1991>{{cite journal |author=Lowe, Nicholas J |title=Physician's guide to sunscreens |url= |journal= |pages=|year=1991 |pmid= |issn=0824784960}}</ref>
He then reports about several [[tanning activator]]s. The specific substances which he writes about are different forms of [[Psoralen]]. These substances were known to be [[photocarcinogen]]ic since 1979.<ref name=Ashwood1979> {{cite journal |author=Ashwood-Smith MJ. |title=Possible cancer hazard associated with 5-methoxypsoralen in suntan preparations |url= |journal= BMJ |volume=2 |issue= |pages=1144 |year=1979 |pmid= |issn=}}</ref><ref name=Ashwood1980> {{cite journal |author=M. J. Ashwood-Smith; G. A. Poulton; M. Barker; M. Mildenberger E |title=5-Methoxypsoralen, an ingredient in several suntan preparations, has lethal, mutagenic and clastogenic properties |url= http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v285/n5764/abs/285407a0.html |journal=Nature |volume=285 |issue=5 |pages=407–409 |year=1980 |pmid=1546792 |issn= |doi=10.1038/285407a0}}</ref><ref name=Zajdela1981> {{cite journal |author=Zajdela F, Bisagni E. |title=5-Methoxypsoralen, the melanogenic additive in sun-tan preparations, is tumorigenic in mice exposed to 365 nm UV radiation |url= http://carcin.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/2/2/121 |journal=Carcinogenesis |volume=1981 |issue=2 |pages=121–7 |year=1981 |pmid= 7273295|issn= |doi=10.1093/carcin/2.2.121}}</ref>
Despite the obvious photocarcinogenic effects the authorities dissallowed Psoralen only in July 1996.<ref name=Autier1997> {{cite journal |author=AUTIER P. ; DORE J.-F. ; CESARINI J.-P. |title=Should subjects who used psoralen suntan activators be screened for melanoma?|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/t6222620211w50w9/ |journal=Annals of oncology |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=435–437 |year=1997|issn=0923-7534 |doi=10.1023/A:1008205513771 |pmid=9233521}}</ref>
Good sunscreens do not penetrate into the skin, but stay in the uppermost layer of dead cells ([[stratum corneum]]). If sunscreens would work in the way which is assumed by those who endorse the use of sunscreen, then they would prevent suntanning.
(see [[sunscreen#How does sunscreen work?| How does sunscreen work?]]) (see [[tanning activator]])
Considering that sunburn and an increased melanogenesis are initiated by the same mechanism ([[direct DNA damage]]) <ref name=Parrish1982> {{cite journal |author=John A. Parrish, Kurt F. Jaenicke, R. Rox Anderson |title=Erythema And Melanogenesis Action Spectra Of Normal Human Skin |url= http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1751-1097.1982.tb04362.x |journal=Photochemistry and Photobiology |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages= 187–191 |year=1982 |doi=10.1111/j.1751-1097.1982.tb04362.x |issn=}}</ref> it is an unrealistic expectation to acquire a long lasting tan through melanogenesis while avoiding those DNA damages that lead to sunburn if they occur in excess.
==See also==
* [[Freckles]]
* [[Melanotan]] (Peptide based tanning)
* [[Skin cancer]]
* [[Skin whitening]]
* [[Slip-Slop-Slap]]
* [[Social nudity]]
* [[Sunless tanning]]
* [[Sun protective clothing]]
* [[Sunscreen]]
* [[Tanning bed]]
== External links ==
{{commonscat|Sun tanning}}
* [http://www.skincancer.org/component/page,shop.browse/category_id,46/option,com_virtuemart/Itemid,59/ Make sure that the sunscreen you use has The Skincancer Foundation's Seal of Recommendation]
* [http://www.skincarederm.com/history.htm History of Suntanning]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/hottopics/sunshine/index.shtml BBC info page on tanning]
* [http://www.sundicator.net/uv_calculator.html Calculate how long sunscreen protects you]
* [http://www.sunarc.org/ Research on the benefits of UV exposure]
* [http://www.tanningtruth.com/ The Truth about Tanning]
* [http://www.uvadvantage.org/ Benefits of the sun]
* [http://www.healthresearchforum.org.uk/reports/sunlightrobbery.pdf Sunlight Robbery]
== Articles ==
* Grant, William B. (2002). [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/91016211/ABSTRACT An estimate of premature cancer mortality in the US due to inadequate doses of solar ultraviolet-B radiation.] ''Cancer'' '''94''' (6), 1867–1875.
* Matsumura Y, Ananthaswamy HN (2004). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15020192 Toxic effects of UV radiation on the skin.] ''Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.'' '''195''' (3), 298-308.
* Hu S, ''et al.'' (2004). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15262692 UV radiation and melanoma in US Hispanics & blacks.] ''Arch Dermatol.'' '''140''' (7), 819-824.
* Bhatia, Suruchi, MD. , (2002). [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/08/28/BAGS7KQHBF1.DTL Increase of rickets in young tracked in Bay Area]
* [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=40860 Over One Billion People May Suffer From Vitamin D Deficiency]
== References ==
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[[Category:Sun tanning]]
[[Category:Dermatology]]
[[Category:Massage]]
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[[it:Abbronzatura]]
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[[nl:Zonnebaden]]
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[[pl:Opalenizna]]
[[pt:Bronzeamento solar]]
[[ru:Загар]]
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[[tr:Bronzlaşma]]
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