Symbiosis
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2008-07-17T01:46:08Z
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: ''This article is about the biological phenomenon, for other uses see [[Symbiosis (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Common clownfish curves dnsmpl.jpg|thumb|250px|right|An example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between [[Ocellaris clownfish]] that dwell among the [[tentacle]]s of [[Heteractis magnifica|Ritteri sea anemone]]s. The territorial [[fish]] protects the anemone from anemone-[[eating]] fish, and in turn the [[sting (biology)|stinging]] tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from its [[predator]]s (a special [[mucus]] on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles).<ref>{{Harvnb|Lee|2003}}</ref>]]
The term '''symbiosis''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]]: συμ, ''sym'', "[[with]]"; and βίοσίς, ''biosis'', "[[living]]") commonly describes close and often long-term interactions between different biological [[species]]. The term was first used in 1879 by the [[Germany|German]] [[mycologist]], [[Heinrich Anton de Bary]], who defined it as: "the living together of unlike organisms".<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilkinson|2001}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Douglas|1994|p=1}}</ref>
The definition of symbiosis is in flux and the term has been applied to a wide range of [[biological interaction]]s. The symbiotic relationship may be categorized as being [[mutualism|mutualistic]], [[parasitism|parasitic]], or [[commensalism|commensal]] in nature <ref name="Dethlefsen et al">{{cite journal|author=Dethlefsen L, McFall-Ngai M, Relman DA|year= 2007|title=An ecological and evolutionary perspective on human-microbe mutualism and disease|journal=Nature|volume=449|pages=811–808|pmid=17943117 | doi = 10.1038/nature06245 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref><ref name="Paszkowski">{{cite journal|author=Paszkowski U.|year=2006|title=Mutualism and parasitism: the yin and yang of plant symbioses|journal=Curr Opin Plant Biol|volume=9|pages=364–370|pmid=16713732 | doi = 10.1016/j.pbi.2006.05.008 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref>. Others define it more narrowly, as only those relationships from which both organisms benefit, in which case it would be synonymous with mutualism.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wilkinson|2001}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Isaac|1992|p=266}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Saffo|1993}}</ref>
Symbiotic relationships included those associations in which one organisms lives on another ([[ectosymbiosis]], such as [[mistletoe]]), or where one partner lives inside another ([[Endosymbiont|endosymbiosis]], such as [[lactobacilli]] and other bacteria in humans or [[zooxanthellae|zooxanthelles]] in [[coral]]s). Symbiotic relationships may be either ''[[Obligate parasite|obligate]]'', i.e., necessary to the survival of at least one of the organisms involved, or ''[[wikt:facultative|facultative]]'', where the relationship is beneficial but not essential to survival of the organisms. <ref>{{Harvnb|Moran|2006}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Ahmadjian|Paracer|2000|p=12}}</ref>
== Physical interaction ==
[[Image:An alder root nodule gall.JPG|left|thumb|<Center>A whole Alder tree root nodule.]]
[[Endosymbiosis]] is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiote lives within the tissues of the host; either in the intracellular space or extracellularly.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ahmadjian|Paracer|2000|p=12}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Sapp|1994|p=142}}</ref> Examples are nitrogen-fixing [[bacterium|bacteria]] (called [[rhizobia]]) which live in [[root nodules]] on [[legume]] roots, [[Actinomycete]] nitrogen-bacteria called [[Frankia]] which live in Alder tree root nodules, single-celled [[algae]] inside reef-building [[corals]], and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10%–15% of insects.
[[Ectosymbiosis]], also referred to as ''exosymbiosis'', is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the [[digestion|digestive]] tract or the ducts of [[exocrine]] glands.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ahmadjian|Paracer|2000|p=12}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Nardon|Charles|2002}}</ref> Examples of this include [[ectoparasites]] such as [[lice]], [[commensalism|commensal]] ectosymbionts, such as the [[barnacles]] that attach themselves to the jaw of [[baleen whales]], and [[mutualist]] ectosymbionts such as [[cleaner fish]].
== Mutualism ==
{{main article|Mutualism}}
[[Image:Anemone hermit crab 2 frames in one.jpg|[[Sea anemone|anemone]] hermit crab|thumb|300px]]
The term Mutualism describes any relationship between individuals of different [[species]] where both individuals derive a [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] benefit.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ahmadjian|Paracer|2000|p=6}}</ref> Generally only lifelong interactions involving close physical and [[biochemical]] contact, can properly be considered symbiotic. Mutualistic relationships, may be either obligate for both species, obligate for one but facultative for the other, or facultative for both. Many [[biologist]]s restrict the definition of symbiosis to close mutualist relationships.
A large percentage of [[herbivores]] have mutualistic [[gut fauna]] that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey.<ref>{{Harvnb|Moran|2006}}</ref> [[Coral]] reefs are the result of mutualisms between coral organisms and various types of algae that live inside them.<ref>{{Harvnb|Toller|Rowan|Knowlton|2001}}</ref> Most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualisms between the plants which [[carbon fixation|fix]] carbon from the air, and [[Mycorrhyzal]] fungi which help in extracting minerals from the ground.<ref>{{Harvnb|Harrison|2005}}</ref>
Another example is the [[goby|goby fish]], which sometimes lives together with a [[shrimp]]. The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby fish live. The shrimp is almost blind leaving it vulnerable to predators when above ground. In case of danger the goby fish touches the shrimp with its tail to warn it. When that happens both the shrimp and goby fish quickly retract into the burrow.<ref>{{Harvnb|Facey|Helfman|Collette|1997}}</ref>
One of the most spectacular examples of obligate mutualism is between the [[siboglinid]] [[tube worms]] and symbiotic [[bacteria]] that live at [[hydrothermal vents]] and [[Cold seep|cold seeps]]. The worm has no digestive tract and is solely reliant on their internal symbionts for nutrition. The bacteria oxidize either hydrogen sulfide or methane which the host supplies to them. These worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the Galapagos Islands and have since been found at [[deep-sea]] hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world's oceans.<ref>{{harvnb|Cordes|2005}}</ref>{{clear}}
== Commensalism ==
{{main article|Commensalism}}
Commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. It is derived from the English word [[wikt:commensal|commensal]], meaning the sharing of food, and used of human [[social interaction]]. The word derives from the Latin com mensa, meaning sharing a table.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ahmadjian|Paracer|2000|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Nair|2005}}</ref>
Commensal relationships may involve an organism using another for transportation ([[phoresy]]), for housing ([[inquilinism]]), or it may also involve an organism using something another created, after the death of the first ([[metabiosis]]). An example is the [[hermit crab]]s that use [[gastropod]] shells to protect their bodies. Further examples include spiders building their webs on trees.
== Parasitism ==
{{main article|Parasitism}}
A [[parasitic]] relationship is one in which one member of the association benefits while the other is harmed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ahmadjian|Paracer|2000|p=7}}</ref> Parasitic symbioses take many forms, from [[endoparasites]] that live within the host's body, to [[ectoparasites]] that live on its surface. In addition, parasites may be ''necrotrophic'', which is to say they kill their host, or ''biotrophic'', meaning they rely on their host surviving. Biotrophic parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life. Depending on the definition used, as many as half of all [[animal]]s have at least one parasitic phase in their life cycles, and it is also frequent in [[plant]]s and [[fungi]]. Moreover, almost all free-living animals are host to one or more parasite [[taxon|taxa]].
==Symbiosis and evolution==
[[Image:Common jassid nymphs and ants02.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Leaf Hopper]]s protected by an army of [[meat ant]]s]]
While historically, symbiosis has received less attention than other interactions such as [[predation]] or [[Competition (biology)|competition]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Townsend|Begon|Harper|1996}}</ref> it is increasingly recognised as an important selective force behind evolution,<ref>{{Harvnb|Wernegreen|2004}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Moran|2006}}</ref>
with many species having a long history of interdependent [[co-evolution]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ahmadjian|Paracer|2000|p=3-4}}</ref> In fact the evolution of all [[eukaryotes]] (plants, animals, fungi, [[protists]]) is believed to have resulted from a [[endosymbiotic theory|symbiosis between various sorts of bacteria]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Brinkman|2002}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Golding|Gupta|1995}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Moran|2006}}</ref>
=== Symbiogenesis ===
The biologist [[Lynn Margulis]], famous for the work on [[endosymbiosis]], contends that symbiosis is a major driving force behind [[evolution]]. She considers [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] notion of evolution, driven by competition, as incomplete, and claims evolution is strongly based on [[Co-operation_%28evolution%29|co-operation]], [[interaction]], and [[mutual dependence]] among organisms. According to Margulis and Dorion Sagan, "[[Life]] did not take over the [[Earth|globe]] by [[combat]], but by [[social network|networking]]."<ref>{{harvnb|Sagan|Margulis|1986}}</ref>
=== Co-evolution ===
Symbiosis played a major role in the [[co-evolution]] of [[flower]]ing plants and the animals that [[pollinate]] them. Many plants that are pollinated by [[insect]]s, [[bat]]s or [[bird]]s, have very specialized flowers modified to promote pollination by a specific pollinator that is also correspondingly adapted. The first flowering plants in the fossil record had relatively simple flowers. Adaptive speciation quickly gave rise to many diverse groups of plants, and at the same time, corresponding speciation occurred in certain insects groups. Some groups of plants developed [[nectar]] and large sticky [[pollen]] while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources. In some taxa of plants and insects the relationship has become dependent,<ref>{{Harvnb|Harrison|2002}}</ref> where the plant species can only be pollinated by one species of insect. <ref>{{Harvnb|Danforth|Ascher|1997}}</ref>
== Notes ==
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==See also==
*[[aposymbiotic]]
*[[aquaponics]]
*[[decompiculture]]
*[[list of symbiotic relationships]]
==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.gmo-safety.eu/en/grain/502.docu.html Mycorrhizas – a successful symbiosis] Biosafety research into gm-barley.
* [http://www.biologyreference.com/Se-T/Symbiosis.html Symbiosis] at Biology Reference.
* [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Symbiosis.html Symbiosis] Online Biology textbook, by Dr. John W. Kimball
* [http://ca.youtube.com/watch?v=gEcv3dBuOe4 Video: Symbiosis, Orchids and Orchid Bees]
{{Biological_interaction-footer}}
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[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Symbiosis]]
[[af:Simbiose]]
[[ar:معايشة]]
[[be-x-old:Сымбіёз]]
[[bg:Симбиоза]]
[[ca:Simbiosi]]
[[cs:Symbióza]]
[[da:Symbiose]]
[[de:Symbiose]]
[[et:Sümbioos]]
[[el:Συμβίωση (βιολογία)]]
[[es:Simbiosis]]
[[eo:Simbiozo]]
[[eu:Sinbiosi]]
[[fr:Symbiose]]
[[gl:Simbiose]]
[[id:Simbiosis]]
[[is:Samlífi]]
[[it:Simbiosi (ecologia)]]
[[he:סימביוזה]]
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[[hu:Szimbiózis]]
[[mk:Симбиоза]]
[[nl:Symbiose]]
[[ja:共生]]
[[no:Symbiose]]
[[nn:Symbiose]]
[[om:Symbiosis]]
[[pl:Symbioza]]
[[pt:Simbiose]]
[[ru:Симбиоз]]
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[[sr:Симбиоза]]
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[[uk:Симбіоз]]
[[zh:共生]]