Syria-Lebanon Campaign 1647400 225834137 2008-07-15T16:46:12Z Jim Sweeney 6542747 /* Allied forces */ fix link {{FixBunching|beg}} {{Infobox Military Conflict |conflict=Syria-Lebanon campaign |image=[[Image:AWM 010546 allen lebanon.jpg|300px]] |caption=[[Hammana]], September 1941. With terrain typical of the region in the background, Maj. Gen. [[Arthur Samuel Allen|A. S. Allen]] (centre), commander of the [[7th Division (Australia)|Australian 7th Division]], inspects some of his men. [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] units [[garrison]]ed [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]] for several months, following the end of the campaign. (Photographer: [[Frank Hurley]].) |partof=[[Middle East campaign]], [[World War II]] |date=[[June 8]] – [[July 14]], [[1941]] |place=[[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]] |result=[[Allies of World War II|Allied]] victory |combatant1={{flagicon|Australia|size=25px}} [[Australia]] {{flagicon|United Kingdom|size=25px}} [[United Kingdom]] *{{flagicon|India|British|size=25px}} [[British Raj|British India]] *{{flagicon|Palestine|Mandate|size=25px}} [[British Mandate of Palestine|British Palestine]] {{flagicon|Free French|size=25px}} [[Free French Forces|Free France]]<br> {{Flagicon|Czechoslovakia|size=25px}} [[Czechoslovak government-in-exile|Free Czechoslovakia]]<br> |combatant2={{flagicon|France|size=25px}} [[Vichy France]]<br> *[[Image:Flag of Syria French mandate.svg|border|25px]] [[French Mandate of Syria|French Syria]] *[[Image:Lebanese French flag.svg|border|25px]] [[French Mandate of Lebanon|French Lebanon]] |commander1={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Henry Maitland Wilson]] |commander2={{flagicon|France|size=20px}} [[Henri Dentz]] |strength1=Approximately 35,000 troops<br/>Australian: 18,000<br />British: 9,000<br />Indian: 2,000<br />Free French: 5,000 |strength2=Between 35,000 and 40,000 troops<br/>French: 8,000<br />Syrian/Lebanese: 25,000 |casualties1=Australia:<br>416 killed<br>1,136 wounded<br />UK & India:<br>600 killed or wounded<br />Free French:<br>300 Killed or Wounded<br> |casualties2=3,341 Killed or Wounded.<br />3,004 Captured (during campaign). |}} {{Campaignbox African, Mediterranean and Middle East theater (World War Two)}} {{FixBunching|mid}} {{Campaignbox Middle East Campaign}} {{FixBunching|mid}} {{Campaignbox Syria-Lebanon}} {{FixBunching|end}} The '''Syria-Lebanon campaign''', also known as '''Operation Exporter''', was the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] invasion of [[Vichy France|Vichy French]]-controlled [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]], in June-July 1941, during [[World War II]]. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine referred to the fighting as a "mixed show",<ref>Time Magazine, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851152,00.html Mixed Show]</ref> while it was taking place, and the campaign remains little known, even in the countries that took part. There is evidence that Allied [[censor]]s acted to suppress or reduce reportage of the fierce fighting.<ref>Brune, p.48</ref> Senior Allied commanders and/or politicians believed that knowledge of fighting against French forces could have a negative effect on public opinion in Allied countries. ==Causes== The Allied offensive was aimed at preventing [[Nazi Germany]] from using the Vichy French [[French Mandate of Syria|Mandate of Syria]] and [[French Mandate of Lebanon|Mandate of Lebanon]] as springboards for attacks on the Allied stronghold of [[Egypt]], as the Allies fought a major campaign against [[Axis Powers|Axis]] forces further west, in [[North Africa]]. Although the French had ceded autonomy to Syria in September 1936, they had retained treaty rights to maintain armed forces and two airfields in the territory. In May 1941, Admiral [[François Darlan]] signed an agreement with the Germans known as the "[[Paris Protocols]]." Darlan signed on behalf of [[Vichy France]] and the agreement granted the Germans access to military facilities in Syria.<ref> Keegan p. 676</ref> Though the protocols were never ratified, French high commissioner for the region, General [[Henri Dentz]] had, in accordance with orders received from the Vichy Minister of War, allowed aircraft of the German Air Force (''[[Luftwaffe]]'') and the Italian Royal Air Force (''[[Regia Aeronautica]]'') to refuel in Syria. These planes, who pretended to be Iraqi and had been painted as such, were ''en route'' to Iraq during the [[Anglo-Iraqi War]]. The Germans also requested Vichy authorities to use the Syrian railways to send armaments to Iraqi rebels in [[Mosul]]. There was a threat of [[Anglo-Iraqi War#Causes|Axis support for anti-British parties in Iraq]], thus endangering strategic oil supplies and communications. British Field Marshal [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]], Commander in Chief of the [[Middle East Command]], had to respond to the threat posed by Vichy collaboration with Germany and Italy. ==The balance of forces== The Vichy French and Allied forces confronting each other in Syria and Lebanon were evenly matched in general. ===Vichy French forces=== The ground forces available to General [[Henri Dentz]] were termed the [[Army of the Levant]] (''Armée du Levant''). This formation was divided into the regular metropolitan colonial troops and the "special troops" (''troupes speciales'', which were indigenous Syrian and Lebanese soldiers). <ref>Mollo, p.144</ref> Dentz had seven infantry battalions of regular French troops at his disposal. These battalions included the [[1st Foreign Engineer Regiment|6th Infantry Regiment of the French Foreign Legion]] and the 24th Colonial Infantry Regiment. <ref>Mollo, p.144</ref> Dentz had eleven infantry battalions of "special troops." In addition, Dentz had two artillery groups and supporting units. The "special troops" included at least 5,000 cavalry -- horse and motorized. <ref>Mollo, p.144</ref> The Vichy French air force was relatively strong at the outbreak of hostilities. But the initial advantage they enjoyed did not last. The Vichy French lost most of their aircraft during the campaign. The majority of the lost aircraft were destroyed on the ground<ref>Mollo, p.146</ref>, where the flat terrain, absence of infrastructure and modern anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) made them vulnerable to air attacks. On June 26th, a [[strafing]] run by [[Curtiss P-40|Tomahawks]] of [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF]] on [[Homs]] airfield destroyed five and damaged six [[Dewoitine D.520]]s of Fighter Squadron II/3 (''Groupe de Chasse II/3'') in a matter of seconds.<ref>Shores & Ehrengardt p. 94</ref> While German interest in the French mandates of Syria and Lebanon turned out to be limited, German dictator [[Adolf Hitler]] permitted reinforcement of the French troops by allowing French planes en route from Algeria to Syria to safely fly over Axis-controlled territory and refuel in German-controlled [[Eleusina]] air base in Greece<ref>Shores & Ehrengardt p. 30</ref>. Activity of German aircraft based in [[Greece]] and the [[Dodecanese Islands]] was interpreted by the Allies as being in support of Vichy troops. In reality, though Dentz briefly considered accepting German support, he turned down the offer on 13th June <ref> de Wailly, Henri, ''Syrie 1941, la guerre occultée'', p. 246</ref>. ===Allied forces=== Allied forces to the south of Syria in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] used in the campaign consisted of the following units: * [[Australian 7th Division]] (minus the 18th Brigade, which was in North Africa at the [[Siege of Tobruk]]) * Gentforce: two [[Free French]] brigades of the [[1st Free French Division]] (including two battalions of the [[13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade]] attached to the 1st Free French Brigade) and the Indian 5th Brigade (of the [[Indian 4th Infantry Division]]) with artillery, engineers, and other support services attached to form the "5th Indian Brigade Group" * [[Iraqforce]], Allied forces in [[Iraq]] that were commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir [[Edward Quinan]], was used in this campaign. The Iraqforce formations used in Syria consisted of the following units: * The [[Indian 10th Infantry Division]] and the Indian 17th Infantry Brigade (of the [[Indian 8th Infantry Division]]) * Habforce: the British [[4th Cavalry Brigade]] and the [[Arab Legion]], under [[John Glubb]] ("Glubb Pasha") [[Commando]] and raiding operations were undertaken by the British Army's [[British Commandos#Middle East|No. 11 Commando]], and ''[[Palmach]]'', a unit recruited from [[Jew]]s in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]]. ''Palmach'' also provided interpreters and guides to other Allied units. [[Image:SyriaWWII en.svg|300px|thumb|left|Map of Syria and Lebanon during World War II.]] The Allied forces involved in the campaign were under the command of British General [[Henry Maitland Wilson]]. [[Close air support]] was provided by squadrons from the British [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Royal Australian Air Force]] and the ground forces on the coast were supported by [[artillery|shelling]] from British [[Royal Navy]] and [[Royal Australian Navy]] units. Concerning fighters, [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Wavell]] provided [[Henry Maitland Wilson|Wilson]] with 70 aircraft. By comparison, the Vichy French had at least 100 fighters. The forces were more evenly matched than numbers alone would indicate, with British [[Hawker Hurricane]]s and brand-new, US-built [[Curtiss P-40|Curtiss Tomahawk]]s, matching up well against French [[Dewoitine D.520|Dewoitine 520]]s and [[Potez 63]]s. Allied forces in reserve included the [[British 6th Infantry Division]] (including the [[Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion|Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion &mdash; East]] attached to the [[23rd Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)|23rd Brigade]]) and the [[Australian 6th Division|Australian 17th Brigade]]. ==The plan of attack== The [[Allied]] plan of attack was devised by [[General]] [[Henry Maitland Wilson|Wilson]]. The plan called for four lines of attack: on Damascus from Palestine; on Beirut from Palestine; on northern Syria from Iraq and; on Palmyra (in central Syria) and Tripoli from Iraq. ===Damascus=== The 5th Indian Brigade Group, commanded by [[Brigadier]] [[Wilfrid Lewis Lloyd]], were ordered to cross the Syrian border from the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] and take [[Quneitra]] and [[Deraa]]. It was anticipated that this would open the way for the [[1st Free French Division]] forces to advance to [[Damascus]]. Four days after the commencement of the operation, this force was bought under unified command and was named ''Gentforce'' after its French commander, [[Major-General]] [[Paul Legentilhomme|Paul Louis Le Gentilhomme]]. ===Beirut=== The [[Australian 7th Division]], commanded by [[Major-General]] [[Arthur Samuel Allen|Arthur "Tubby" Allen]], had the responsibility of advancing from [[Palestine]] along the coastal road from [[Haifa]] towards [[Beirut]]. The Australian 21st Brigade was tasked with taking Beirut. The Australian 25th Brigade was tasked with attacking the major Vichy French airbase at [[Rayak (Riyaq)|Rayak]]. The operation was also to include a supporting [[commando]] landing from [[Cyprus]] at the south of the [[Litani River]]. [[Image:AWM 009747 .jpg|180px|thumb|left|The fall of [[Damascus]] to the Allies, late June 1941. A car carrying the Free French commanders, [[General]] [[Georges Catroux]] and [[Major-General]] [[Paul Legentilhomme|Paul Louis Le Gentilhomme]], enters the city. They are escorted by Vichy French [[Circassian]] cavalry (''Gardes Tcherkess'').]] ===Northern Syria=== Once the two southern prongs were well engaged, it was planned that a third force, comprising formations drawn from ''[[Iraqforce]]'', would attack Syria from Iraq. The bulk of [[10th Indian Infantry Division]], commanded by [[Major-General]] [[William Slim|William "Bill" Slim]], were to advance northwest up the [[Euphrates River]] from [[Haditha]] in [[Iraq]] (upstream from Baghdad) towards [[Deir ez Zor]] and thence to [[Raqqa]] and [[Aleppo]] to threaten the communication and supply lines of the Vichy forces defending Beirut against the Australians advancing from the south, in particular the railway line running northwards through Aleppo to [[Turkey]] (at the time, Turkey was thought by some to be sympathetic to the Vichy government and to Germany). Meanwhile, a group comprising two infantry battalions from the 10th Indian Division's 20th Brigade and two from [[8th Infantry Division (India)|8th Indian Division's]] 17th Brigade, would operate independently to capture all the territory in north-east Syria including the ''Bec du Canard'' (or Duck's Bill) region through which a railway from Aleppo ran eastward to [[Mosul]] and then to [[Baghdad]]. <ref>Mackenzie, p. 121</ref> ===Central Syria=== Finally Wilson's plan called for ''Habforce'', consisting of the [[4th Cavalry Brigade]], the 1st Battalion of the [[The Essex Regiment|Essex Regiment]], the [[Arab Legion|Arab Legion Mechanised Regiment]], and a battery each of field, anti-tank, and anti-aircraft artillery to gather in western [[Iraq]] between Rutba and the [[Transjordan]] border. At the same time as the thrust up the Euphrates, this force would advance in a northwesterly direction to take [[Palmyra]] in Syria. ''Habforce'' was to secure the oil pipeline from [[Haditha]] to [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]]. ''Habforce'' was in Iraq, attached to ''Iraqforce'', because it had previously struck across the desert from the [[Transjordan]] border as part of the relief of [[RAF Habbaniya]] during the [[Anglo-Iraqi War]]. Transjordan is modern day [[Jordan]] and at that time was part of the [[British Mandate of Palestine]]. ==The campaign== Hostilities commenced on [[8 June]] [[1941]]. The major battles of the campaign were: *[[Battle of the Litani River]] ([[9 June]] [[1941]]): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine *[[Battle of Jezzine]] ([[13 June]] [[1941]]): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine *[[Battle of Kissoué]] ([[15 June]] [[1941]] to [[17 June]] [[1941]]): part of the advance on Damascus from Palestine *[[Battle of Damascus]] ([[18 June]] [[1941]] to [[21 June]] [[1941]]): part of the advance on Damascus from Palestine *[[Battle of Merdjayoun]] ([[19 June]] [[1941]] to [[24 June]] [[1941]]): part of the advance on Beirut and Damascus from Palestine *[[Battle of Palmyra]] ([[1 July]] [[1941]]): part of the advance on Palmyra and Tripoli from Iraq *[[Battle of Deir ez Zor]] ([[3 July]] [[1941]]): part of the advance on central and northern Syria from Iraq *[[Battle of Damour]] ([[5 July]] [[1941]] to [[9 July]] [[1941]]): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine *[[Battle of Beirut]] ([[12 July]]): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine On [[July 10]], as the Australian 21st Brigade was on the verge of entering Beirut, Dentz sought an armistice. At one minute past midnight on [[July 12]] a ceasefire came into effect. To all intents and purposes this ended the campaign and an armistice known as [[Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre]] (also known as the "Convention of Acre") was signed on [[July 14]] at the "[[William Sidney Smith|Sidney Smith]] Barracks" on the outskirts of the city of [[Akko|Acre]].<ref>Time Magazine, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,765788,00.html Acre Pact]</ref> ==Aftermath== [[Image:AUS Sidon 1941.jpg|thumb|200px|Australian troops among the ruins of the old [[Crusader]] castle at [[Sidon]], Lebanon, July 1941.]] The [[Vichy French]] forces lost approximately 6,000 men. Of these, roughly 1,000 had been killed. This left 37,736 Vichy French prisoners of war. But, when given the choice of being repatriated to [[France]] or joining the [[Free French]], only 5,668 men chose to join the forces of General [[Charles De Gaulle]]. <ref>Mollo, p.144</ref> In late July 1941, De Gaulle flew from [[Brazzaville]] to personally congratulate the victors. <ref>Time Magazine, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,884370,00.html Reconquering an Empire]</ref> Free French General [[Georges Catroux]] was placed in control of Syria and Lebanon. On [[26 November]] [[1941]], shortly after taking up this post, Catroux recognised the independence of Syria and Lebanon in the name of the Free French movement.<ref>Time Magazine, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,849648,00.html Free Again]</ref> On [[8 November]] [[1943]], after elections, Lebanon became an independent state. On [[27 February]] [[1945]], it declared war on Germany and the [[Empire of Japan]]. Syria became independent on [[1 January]] [[1944]]. On [[26 February]] [[1945]], Syria declared war on Germany and Japan. ==Notable participants== ===Victoria Cross recipients=== *[[Arthur Roden Cutler|Sir Arthur Roden Cutler]], later an Australian diplomat and Governor of New South Wales. A Lieutenant at the time, Cutler was awarded the British Commonwealth's highest award for gallantry, the [[Victoria Cross]] (VC), for his actions at the [[Battle of Merdjayoun]]. Cutler lost a leg as a consequence of the fighting. *[[James Heather Gordon|Jim Gordon]], Australian Private soldier, awarded the VC for his actions at the [[Battle of Jezzine]]. *[[Geoffrey Charles Tasker Keyes|Geoffrey Keyes]], celebrated British [[British Commandos|commando]] officer involved with the crossing of the [[Litani River]] and with operations against German General [[Irwin Rommel]] in [[North Africa]]. Keyes was awarded his VC posthumously. ===Others=== *[[Frank Horton Berryman|Frank Berryman]], later a prominent Australian General. *[[Moshe Dayan]], later an Israeli general, who lost an eye while serving as an interpreter with an Australian unit. Dayan received the Military Cross for his actions in the campaign. *[[Bobby Gibbes]], member of [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF]], who claimed the first of ten victories during the campaign and went on to become the squadron's longest-serving wartime commander. *[[Douglas Gracey]], who commanded an Indian brigade during the campaign; later a prominent British general and Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army. *[[John Winthrop Hackett Junior|Sir John Hackett]], an Australian-born junior officer in the British Army at the time; prominent after the war as both a British General and author. Hackett was wounded during the campaign. *[[Pierre Le Gloan]], French air ace, who served on the Vichy side during the campaign. He shot down seven Allied aircraft. *[[Paddy Mayne]], celebrated British [[Special Air Service]] (SAS) officer. *[[Stanley Savige]], commander of the [[Australian 6th Division|Australian 17th Brigade]], later a prominent Australian General. *[[Roald Dahl]], a fighter pilot at the time who had previously fought in the Greek campaign, later a prominent British author. ==See also== * [[Attack on Mers-el-Kébir]] * [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran]] * [[Haganah]] * [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]] * [[Italian bombings on Palestine in World War II]] ==Bibliography== *{{cite book| last = Brune| first = Peter| title = A bastard of a Place: The Australians in Papua| publisher =Allen & Unwin| date = 2003| location =Crows Nest, NSW}} * {{cite book |last=Keegan |first=John |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor=Dear, I.C.B.; Foot, M.R.D.|others= |title=Oxford Companion to World War II |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date= |year=2005 |month= |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |location= |language= |isbn=978-0192806703 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages=1064 pages |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }} *{{cite book |first=Compton|last=Mackenzie |authorlink=Compton Mackenzie |title=Eastern Epic |location=London |date=1951 |publisher=Chatto & Windus|pages=623 pages}} *{{cite book| last = Mollo| first = Andrew| title = The Armed Forces of World War II| publisher =Crown| date = 1981| location =| isbn=0-517-54479-4}} *{{cite book| last=Shores| first=Christopher F. | coauthors= Ehrengardt, Christian-Jacques| title=L' aviation de Vichy au combat 2 La campagne de Syrie, 8 juin - 14 juillet 1941| location=Paris | publisher=Lavauzelle | date=1987| isbn=978-2702501719| language=French}} ==Footnotes== {{Reflist}} ==External links== *[http://www.awm.gov.au/units/event_295.asp Australian War Memorial, 2005, "Syrian Campaign"] *[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,795404,00.html "Exit With A Flourish"] - Time Magazine Article, 1941 *[http://homepages.force9.net/rothwell/palestine.htm The Palmach] {{Czechoslovakia in World War Two}} [[Category:World War II Middle East Theatre]] [[Category:World War II Mediterranean Theatre]] [[Category:History of Lebanon]] [[Category:History of Syria]] [[Category:Military history of Australia during World War II]] [[Category:Battles involving Australia|Syria]] [[Category:Military history of India during World War II]] [[Category:Vichy regime]] [[Category:Battles and operations of World War II|Exporter]] [[Category:World War II occupied territories]] [[Category:1941 in France]] [[Category:1941 in Syria]] [[Category:20th century in Lebanon]] [[Category:French mandate of Syria]] [[fr:Campagne de Syrie (1941)]] [[he:המערכה בסוריה ולבנון (1941)]] [[pl:Operacja Exporter]]