Taíno 159160 225345462 2008-07-13T05:24:20Z 160.7.246.108 /* Culture and lifestyle */ {{otheruses2|Taino}} [[Image:Reconstruction of Taino village, Cuba.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Reconstruction of a Taíno village in Cuba]] The '''Taínos''' were [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|pre-Columbian inhabitants]] of the [[Bahamas]], [[Greater Antilles]], and the northern [[Lesser Antilles]]. It is believed that the seafaring Taínos were relatives of the [[Arawak]]an people of [[South America]]. Their language is a member of the [[Maipurean]] [[Language family|linguistic family]], which ranges from South America across the [[Caribbean]]. At the time of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]'s arrival in 1492, there were five Taíno kingdoms and territories on [[Hispaniola]] (modern day [[Dominican Republic]] and [[Haiti]]), each led by a principal [[Cacique]] ([[tribal chief|chieftain]]), to whom tribute was paid. As the hereditary head chief of Taíno tribes, the cacique was paid significant tribute. Caciques enjoyed the privilege of wearing golden pendants called guani, living in square bohíos instead of the round ones the villagers inhabited, and sat on wooden stools when receiving guests. At the time of the [[Spanish conquest]], the largest Taíno population centers may have contained around 3,000 people or more. The Taínos were historical neighbors and enemies of the fierce [[Carib]] tribes, another group with origins in South America who lived principally in the Lesser Antilles. The relationship between the two groups has been the subject of much study. For much of the 15th century, the Taíno tribe was being driven to the Northeast in the Caribbean (out of what is now South America) because of raids by fierce [[Carib]]s (Many Carib women spoke Taíno because of the large number of female Taíno captives among them).<ref>[http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/ant/ROYAL-01.ANT 1492 and Multiculturalism]</ref> By the 18th century, Taíno society had been devastated by introduced [[infectious diseases|diseases]] such as [[smallpox]], as well as other problems like [[intermarriages]] and forced assimilation into the plantation economy that [[Spain]] imposed in its Caribbean colonies, with its subsequent importation of African [[slavery|slave]] workers. The first recorded smallpox outbreak in [[Hispaniola]] occurred in 1507.<ref>[http://www.dshs.state.tx.us/preparedness/bt_public_history_smallpox.shtm Texas Department of State Health Services, History of Smallpox]</ref> It is argued that there was substantial [[mestizo|mestizaje]] as well as several Indian pueblos that survived into the 19th century in [[Cuba]]. The [[Spaniards]] who first arrived in the Bahamas, Cuba and Hispaniola in 1492, and later in Puerto Rico, did not bring women. They took Taíno women for their wives, which resulted in [[mestizo]] children.<ref>[http://www.kacike.org/GuitarEnglish.html Documenting the Myth of the Taino Extinction, by Lynne Guitar]</ref> ==Terminology== The word "Taíno" comes directly from Columbus. The indigenous people he encountered in his first voyage called themselves "Taíno", meaning "good" or "noble", to differentiate themselves from Island-Caribs.<ref>Rouse, p.5.</ref> This name applied to all the Island Taínos including those in the Lesser Antilles. Locally, the Taínos referred to themselves by the name of their location. For example, those in Puerto Rico called themselves Boricua (which means people from the island of the valiant noble lords) their island was called Borike'n (Great land of the valiant noble lord) and those occupying the Bahamas called themselves Lucayo (small islands).<ref>Rouse, p.5.</ref> Some ethnohistorians, such as [[Daniel Garrison Brinton]], called the same culture of people "Island Arawak" from the Arawakan word for [[cassava]] flour, a staple of the race. From this, the language and the people were eventually called "Arawak". However, modern scholars consider this a mistake. The people who called themselves Arawak lived only in the [[Guianas]] and Trinidad and their language and culture differ from those of the Taíno.<ref>Rouse, p.5.</ref> Going through time, different writers, travellers, historians, linguists, anthropologists, etc., have interchangeably used these terms. Taíno has been used to mean the Greater Antillean tribes only, those plus the Bahamas tribes, those and the Leeward Islands tribes or all those excluding the Puerto Rican tribes and Leeward tribes. Island Taíno has been used to refer to those living in the Windward Islands only, those in the northern Caribbean only or those living in any of the islands. Modern historians, linguists and anthropologists now hold that the term Taíno should refer to all the Taíno/Arawak tribes except for the Caribs. The Caribs are not seen by anthropologists nor historians as being the same people although linguists are still debating whether the Carib language is an Arawakan [[dialect]] or [[creole language]] — or perhaps a distinct language, with an Arawakan [[pidgin]] often used in communication. Rouse classifies all inhabitants of the Greater Antilles (except the western tip of Cuba), the Bahamian archipelago, and the northern Lesser Antilles as Taínos. The Taínos are subdivided into three main groups: Classic Taíno, from Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, Western Taíno or sub-Taíno, from Jamaica, Cuba (except for the western tip) and the Bahamian archipelago, and Eastern Taíno, from the [[Virgin Islands]] to [[Montserrat]].<ref>Rouse, p.7.</ref> ==Origins== Two schools of thought have emerged regarding the origin of the indigenous people of the West Indies. One group contends that the ancestors of the Taínos came from the center of the [[Amazon Basin]], subsequently moving to the [[Orinoco]] valley. From there they reached the [[West Indies]] by way of what is now [[Guyana]] and [[Venezuela]] into [[Trinidad]], proceeding along the Lesser Antilles all the way to Cuba and the Bahamian archipelago. Evidence that supports this theory includes the tracing of the ancestral cultures of these people to the Orinoco Valley and their languages to the Amazon Basin.<ref name=Origins>Rouse, p.30-48.</ref> The alternate theory, known as the circum-Caribbean theory, contends that the ancestors of the Taínos diffused from the Colombian Andes. Julian H. Steward, the theory's originator, suggested a radiation from the Andes to the West Indies and a parallel radiation into Central America and into the Guianas, Venezuela and the Amazon Basin.<ref name=Origins/> Taíno culture is believed to have developed in the West Indies. ==Culture and lifestyle== [[Image:Duho.jpg|thumb|right|''Dujo'', a wooden chair crafted by Taínos.]] Taíno society was divided into two classes: '' naborias'' (commoners) and '' nitaínos'' (nobles). These were governed by chiefs known as ''caciques'' (who were either male or female) which were advised by priests/healers known as ''bohiques''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elmuseo.org/taino/caciques.html |title=Caciques, nobles and their regalia |accessdate=2006-11-09 |work= |publisher=elmuseo.org}}</ref> Bohiques were extolled for their healing powers and ability to speak with gods and as a result, they granted Taínos permission to engage in important tasks. Taínos lived in a [[matrilineal]] society. When a male heir was not present the inheritance or succession would go to the eldest child (son or daughter) of the deceased’s sister. Taínos practised a mainly agrarian lifestyle but also fished and hunted. A frequently worn hair style featured bangs in front and longer hair in back. They sometimes wore gold jewelry, paint, and/or shells. Taíno men sometimes wore short skirts. Taíno women wore a similar garment (''nagua'') after marriage. Some Taíno practiced [[polygamy]]. Men, and sometimes women, might have 2 or 3 spouses. Taínos lived in villages (called ''yucayeques'') which varied in size depending on the location; those in the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico being the largest and those in the Bahamas being the smallest. In the center of a typical village was a plaza used for various social activities such as games, festivals, religious rituals, and public ceremonies. These plazas had many shapes including oval, rectangular, or narrow and elongated. Ceremonies where the deeds of the ancestors were celebrated, called ''areitos'', were performed here.<ref>Rouse, p.15</ref> Often, the general population lived in large circular buildings (''bohio''), constructed with wooden poles, woven straw, and [[Palm tree|palm]] leaves. These houses would surround the central plaza and could hold 10-15 families. The cacique and his family would live in rectangular buildings (''caney'') of similar construction, with wooden porches. Taíno home furnishings included cotton hammocks (''hamaca''), mats made of palms, wooden chairs (''dujo'') with woven seats, platforms, and cradles for children. [[Image:Parco Cerimoniale Indigeno di Caguana.jpg|thumb|left|Caguana Ceremonial ball court (''batey''), outlined with monoliths.]] The Taínos played a ceremonial ball game called ''[[batey (game)|batey]]''. The game was played between opposing teams consisting of 10 to 30 players per team using a solid [[rubber]] ball. Normally, the teams were composed of only men, but occasionally women played the game as well.<ref>Alegría, p.348.</ref> The Classic Taínos played in the village's center plaza or on especially designed rectangular ball courts also called ''batey''. ''Batey'' is believed to have been used for conflict resolution between communities; the most elaborate ball courts are found in chiefdoms' boundaries.<ref>Rouse, p.15.</ref> Often, chiefs made wagers on the possible outcome of a game.<ref>Alegría, p.348.</ref> Taínos spoke a [[Maipurean languages|Maipurean language]] but lacked a written language. Some of the words used by them such as ''barbacoa'' ("barbecue"), ''hamaca'' ("hammock"), ''canoa'' ("canoe"), ''tabaco'' ("tobacco"), ''[[yuca]]'', and ''Huracan'' ("hurricane") ''Tatuaje''(tattoo) have been incorporated into the Spanish and English languages. ==Food and agriculture== [[Image:Manihot esculenta dsc07325.jpg|thumb|right|Cassava (''yuca'') roots, the Taínos' main crop]] The Taíno diet centered around vegetables and fruits, meat, and fish. Large animals were absent from the fauna of the West Indies, but small animals such as hutias, earthworms, lizards, turtles, birds, and other mammals were consumed. Manatees were speared and fish were caught in nets, speared, poisoned, trapped in [[weir]]s, or caught with hook and line. Wild parrots were decoyed with domesticated birds and iguanas were extracted from trees and other vegetation. Taínos stored live animals until they were ready to be consumed—fish and turtles were stored in weirs, and [[hutia]]s and dogs were stored in corrals.<ref>Rouse, p.13.</ref> Taíno groups in the more developed islands, such as Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica, relied more on agriculture. For important crops they used a sophisticated procedure in which they "heaped up mounds of soil", called ''conucos'', which improved drainage, delayed erosion, and allowed for a longer storage of crops in the ground; for less important crops such as corn they used the more common and rudimentary [[slash and burn]] technique. ''Conucos'' were 3 feet high and 9 feet in circumference and were arranged in rows.<ref>Rouse, p.12.</ref> The primary root crop was [[cassava]], a woody [[shrub]] cultivated for its edible [[starch]]y [[tuberous root]]. It was planted using a ''coa'', an early kind of [[Hoe (tool)|hoe]] made completely out of wood. Women squeezed cassava to extract its poisonous juice and ground the roots into flour from which they baked bread. ''Batata'' ([[Sweet potato]]) was the Taínos' secondary crop; it was consumed as a vegetable.<ref>Rouse, p.12.</ref> Contrary to mainland practices, corn was not ground into flour and baked into bread. Instead, it was eaten off the cob. A possible explanation for this is that corn bread becomes moldy faster than cassava bread in the high humidity of the West Indies. Taínos grew [[Squash (fruit)|squash]], [[beans]], [[capsicum|peppers]], [[peanuts]], and [[pineapple]]s. Tobacco, [[calabash]]es (West Indian pumpkins) and cotton were grown around the houses. Other fruits and vegetables, such as palm nuts, [[guava]]s, and ''[[Zamia]]'' roots, were collected from the wild.<ref>Rouse, p.12.</ref> ==Technology== Taínos used [[cotton]], [[hemp]] and [[Palm tree|palm]] extensively for fishing nets and ropes. Their dugout [[canoe]]s (Kanoa) were made in various sizes, which could hold from 2 to 150 people. An average sized Kanoa would hold about 15 - 20 people. They used bows and arrows, and sometimes put various poisons on their arrowheads. For warfare, they employed the use of a wooden war club, which they called a [[macana]], that was about one inch thick and was similar to the [[cocomacaque]]. ==Religion== Taíno religion centered on the worship of ''zemís'' or ''cemís''. ''Cemís'' were either gods, spirits, or ancestors. There were two supreme gods: Yúcahu,<ref>The Taínos of Quisqueya (Dominican Republic) called him "Yucahú Bagua Maorocotí", which means "White Yuca, great and powerful as the sea and the mountains".</ref> which means spirit of cassava, was the god of cassava (the Taínos main crop) and the sea and Atabey,<ref>Other names for this goddess include "Guabancex", "Atabei", "Atabeyra", "Atabex", and "Guimazoa".</ref> mother of Yúcahu, was the goddess of fresh waters and fertility.<ref>Rouse, p.13.</ref> Other minor gods existed in Taíno religion; some of them related to the growing of cassava while others were related to the process of life, creation and death. Baibrama was a god worshiped for his assistance in growing cassava and curing people from its poisonous juice. Boinayel and his twin brother Márohu were the gods of rain and fair weather respectively.<ref>Rouse, p.119.</ref> Guabancex was the goddess of storms (hurricanes). Popular belief names Juracán as the god of storms but ''juracán'' was only the word for hurricane in the Taíno language. Guabancex had two assistants: Guataubá, a messenger who created hurricane winds, and Coatrisquie, who created floodwaters.<ref>Rouse, p.121.</ref> Maquetaurie Guayaba or Maketaori Guayaba was god of Coaybay, the land of the dead. Opiyelguabirán, a dog-shaped god, watched over the dead. Deminán Caracaracol, a male cultural hero from which the Taíno believed to descend, was worshipped as a ''cemí''.<ref>Rouse, p.119.</ref> [[Image:Petroglyph at Caguana.jpg|thumb|right|Rock petroglyph overlayed with chalk in the Caguana Indigenous Ceremonial Center in Utuado, Puerto Rico.]] ''Cemí'' was also the name of the physical representations of the gods. These representations came in many forms and materials and could be found in a variety of settings. The majority of ''cemís'' were crafted from wood but stone, bone, shell, pottery, and cotton were also used.<ref>Rouse, p.13,118.</ref> ''Cemí'' [[petroglyph]]s were carved on rocks in streams, ball courts, and on [[stalagmite]]s in caves. ''Cemí'' [[pictograph]]s were found on secular objects such as pottery, and on tattoos. Yucahú, the god of cassava, was represented with a three-pointed ''cemí'' which could be found in ''conucos'' to increase the yield of cassava. Wood and stone ''cemís'' have been found in caves in Hispaniola and Jamaica.<ref>Rouse, p.118.</ref> ''Cemís'' are sometimes represented by toads, turtles, snakes, and various abstract and human-like faces. Some of the carved ''Cemís'' include a small table or tray which is believed to be a receptacle for hallucinogenic snuff called [[cohoba]] prepared from the beans of a species of ''[[Piptadenia]]'' tree. These trays have been found with ornately carved snuff tubes. Before certain ceremonies, Taínos would purify either by inducing vomiting with a swallowing stick or by [[fasting]].<ref>Rouse, p.14.</ref> After the serving of communal bread, first to the Cemi, then to the cacique, and then to the common people; the village epic would be sung and accompanied by [[maraca]] and other instruments. Tainos also used body modification in order to express their faith. The higher the piercing or tattoo on the body signified their closeness to their gods. Men usually wore decorative 'tatuajes' and the women wore mainly piercings. Taíno oral tradition explains that the sun and moon come out of caves. Another story tells that people once lived in caves and only came out at night, because it was believed that the Sun would transform them. The Taíno believed to be descended from the union of Deminaán Caracaracol and a female turtle. The origin of the oceans is described in the story of a huge flood which occurred when a father murdered his son (who was about to murder the father), and then put his bones into a gourd or [[calabash]]. These bones then turned to fish and the gourd broke and all the water of the world came pouring out. Taínos believed that the souls of the dead go to Coaybay, the underworld, and there they rest by day, and when night comes they assume the form of bats and eat the fruit "[[guava|guayaba]]". ==Spaniards and Taínos== [[Image:Agueybana.JPG|right|thumb|Chief Agüeybana greeting Juan Ponce de León]] Columbus and his crew, landing on an island in the Bahamas on [[October 12]], [[1492]] were the first [[European ethnic groups|Europeans]] to encounter the Taíno people. At this time, the neighbors of the Taínos were the [[Guanahatabey]]s in the western tip of Cuba, and the Island-Caribs in the Lesser Antilles from [[Guadaloupe]] to [[Grenada]]. The Taínos called the island Guanahaní which Columbus renamed as ''San Salvador'' (Spanish for "Holy Savior"). It was Columbus who called the Taíno "Indians", an identification that has grown to encompass all the indigenous peoples of the Western Hemisphere. A group of Taíno people accompanied Columbus on his return voyage back to Spain.<ref>{{cite book |title=North American Exploration: A New World Disclosed. Volume: 1 |author=Allen, John Logan |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=1997 |pages=p. 13}}</ref> Early population estimates of Hispaniola, probably the most populous island inhabited by Taínos, range from 100,000 to 1,000,000 people. The maximum estimates for Jamaica and Puerto Rico, the most densely populated islands after Hispaniola, are 600,000 people.<ref>Rouse, p.7.</ref> The Dominican priest [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] wrote (1561) in his multivolume ''History of the Indies'': <ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.interamerdeminst.org/H8.html|title= Endless War of Domination|accessdate=2007-10-02 |format= |work= Student-Employee Assistance Program Against Chemical Dependency}}</ref> <blockquote>There were 60,000 people living on this island [when I arrived in 1508], including the Indians; so that from 1494 to 1508, over three million people had perished from war, slavery and the mines. Who in future generations will believe this?</blockquote> Researchers today doubt Las Casas's figures for the pre-contact levels of the Taíno population, considering them an exaggeration. For example, Anderson Córdova estimates a maximum of 500,000 people inhabiting the island.<ref>{{cite book |author=Karen Anderson Córdova |title=Hispaniola and Puerto Rico: Indian Acculturation and Heterogeinity, 1492-1550 |year=1990 |publisher=University Microfilms International |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |format=PhD dissertation|id= }}</ref> The Taíno population estimates range all over, from a few hundred thousand up to 8,000,000. <ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.healing-arts.org/spider/tainoindians.htm|title= The Taino Indians: Native Americans of the Caribbean|accessdate=2007-10-02 |format= |work=The Healing Center On-Line }}</ref> They were not immune to [[Old World]] diseases, notably [[smallpox]].<ref>[http://www.kporterfield.com/aicttw/articles/disease.html American Indian Epidemics]</ref> Many of them were worked to death in the mines and fields, put to death in harsh put-downs of revolts or committed suicide (throwing themselves out of the cliffs or consuming [[manioc]]) to escape their cruel new masters.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} Some academics have suggested that the numbers the population had shrunk to 60,000 and by 1531 to 3,000 in Hispanola. In thirty years, between 80% and 90% of the population died.<ref> "La tragédie des Taïnos", in ''[[L'Histoire]]'' n°322, July-August 2007, p.16 </ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/media_701508643/Smallpox_Through_History.html Smallpox Through History]</ref> Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, [[pandemic|epidemic]] disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives.<ref>[http://www.strategypage.com/articles/smallpox/3.asp The War Against Smallpox]</ref><ref>[http://www.uic.edu/classes/osci/osci590/3_3%20European%20Disease%20in%20the%20New%20World.htm European Disease in the New World]</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html The Story Of... Smallpox]</ref> On Columbus' second voyage, he began to require tribute from the Taínos in Hispanola. Each adult over 14 years of age was expected to deliver a certain quantity of gold. In the earlier days of the conquest, if this tribute was not observed, the Taínos were either mutilated or executed. Later on, fearing a loss of labor forces, they were ordered to bring 25 [[pound (mass)|lb]] (11 kg) of cotton. This also gave way to a service requirement called ''[[encomienda]]''. Under this system, Taínos were required to work for a Spanish land owner for most of the year, which left little time to tend to their own community affairs. In 1511, several caciques in Puerto Rico, such as [[Agüeybaná]], [[Urayoán]], [[Guarionex]], and [[Orocobix]], allied with the Caribs and tried to oust the Spaniards. The revolt was pacified by the forces of Governor [[Juan Ponce de León]]. [[Hatuey]], a Taíno chieftain who had fled Hispañola to Cuba with 400 natives in order to unite the Cuban natives, was burned at the stake on [[February 2]], [[1512]]. In Hispañola, a Taíno chieftain named [[Enriquillo]] mobilized over 3,000 remaining Taíno in a successful rebellion in the 1530s. These Taíno were accorded land and a charter from the royal administration. ==Taíno heritage in modern times== Many people still identify themselves as descendants of the Taínos, and most notably among some Puerto Ricans, both on the island and on the United States mainland. People claiming to be Taíno descendants have been active in trying to assert a call for recognition of their tribe. A recent study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that over 61% of the population possess Taíno [[mtDNA]].<ref name=Ancestry>Martínez Cruzado, Juan C. (2002). The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean:Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic. KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology [On-line Journal], Special Issue, Lynne Guitar, Ed. Available at: http://www.kacike.org/MartinezEnglish.pdf [Date of access: 25 September, 2006]</ref> Recently, a few Taíno organizations, such as the Jatibonicù Taíno Tribal Nation of Boriken (1970), the Taíno Nation of the Antilles (1993) and the United Confederation of Taíno People(1998), have been established to put forth these claims. What some refer to as the Taíno revival movement can be seen as an integral part of the wider resurgence in Caribbean indigenous self-identification and cultural restoration.The Jatibonicu Tribal Nation of Borikén was reaffirmed in Puerto Rico on November 18th 1970, Lambda Sigma Upsilon, a Latino Fraternity, adapted the Taíno Indian as their mascot symbol in 1979. ==See also== * [[List of Taínos]] * [[Pomier Caves]] * [[Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Center]] * [[Garifuna]] * [[Arawak]] * [[Caribs]] ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== *{{cite book |author=Irving Rouse |title=The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the people who greeted Columbus |year=1992 |publisher=Yale University Press |location= |id=ISBN 0300056966}} *{{cite journal |quotes= |author=Ricardo Alegría |year=1951 |month=April |title=The Ball Game Played by the Aborigines of the Antilles |journal=American Antiquity |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=348–352 |id= |url= |accessdate= |doi=10.2307/276984 }} * Guitar, Lynne. 2000. "Criollos: The Birth of a Dynamic New Indo - Afro - European People and Culture on Hispaniola." ''KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology'', 1(1): 1-17 http://www.kacike.org/LynneGuitar.html * ''Indigenous Resurgence in the Contemporary Caribbean: Amerindian Survival and Revival''. Edited by Maximilian C. Forte. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2006. http://www.centrelink.org/resurgence/index.html * DeRLAS. [http://www.udel.edu/LASP/Vol1-2MartinezC.html Some important research contributions of Genetics to the study of Population History and Anthropology in Puerto Rico]. Newark, Delaware: ''Delaware Review of Latin American Studies''. August 15, 2000. *''The Role of Cohoba in Taíno Shamanism'' [[Constantino Manuel Torres|Constantino M. Torres]] in Eleusis No. 1 (1998) *''Shamanic Inebriants in South American Archaeology: Recent lnvestigations'' [[Constantino Manuel Torres|Constantino M. Torres]] in Eleusis No. 5 (2001) ==External links== {{commonscat|Taíno}} *[http://pem.org/island/ ''Island Thresholds''], Peabody Essex Museum’s interactive feature, showcases the work of Caribbean artists and their exploration of culture and identity. *[http://www.taino-tribe.org/index.html The Jatibonicù Taino Tribal Nation of Boriken] (Puerto Rico Tribal Government website) *United Confederation of Taíno People (International organization) http://www.uctp.org/ *[http://www.taino-tribe.org/terms1.htm ''Taino Diccionary''], A dictionary of words of the indigenous peoples of caribbean from the encyclopedia "Clásicos de Puerto Rico, second edition, publisher, Ediciones Latinoamericanas. S.A., 1972" compiled by Puerto Rican historian Dr. Cayetano Coll y Toste of the "Real Academia de la Historia". 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