Taboo food and drink
2401051
226185569
2008-07-17T06:03:04Z
12.167.19.130
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{{Refimprove|date=May 2007}}
{{otheruses4|practices and beliefs in relation to various animals as food|more discussion on religious views|Unclean animals}}
[[Image:Sow and five piglets.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Swine]] are
considered non-[[kosher]] ("unfit" or "unclean") in [[Judaism]] and [[haraam]] ("forbidden") in [[Islam]] ]]
'''Taboo food and drinks''' are food and drink which people abstain from consuming for religious or cultural reasons.
== Origins and rationale ==
Food taboos are often codified in a culture as rules about foods which may not be eaten, rules regarding how food is to be slaughtered, and prohibited combinations of food (some foods, even though permissible in themselves, are not allowed in combination). Some foods may also be prohibited during certain festivals, even though normally allowed; and some foods may be prohibited only to particular classes of people (e.g. priests), but allowed for others.
Various religions forbid the consumption of certain types of food. For example, [[Judaism]] prescribes a strict set of rules, called ''[[Kashrut]]'', regarding what can and cannot be eaten. In [[Islam]]ic practice, the laws of [[haraam|Haram]] and [[Halal]] dictate which foods may not be eaten. The meat of swine, blood and intoxicants are forbidden by the Quran. [[Hindu]]s, and [[Jainism|Jains]] often follow religious directives to observe [[vegetarianism]] and avoid [[carnivore|eating meat]]. Hinduism has no specific proscriptions against eating meat, so some Hindus do eat meat. However, many other Hindus apply the concept of "[[ahimsa]]" (non-violence) to their diet, so they advocate and practice forms of vegetarianism. Due to philosophical differences and dietary needs among many modern Indian Hindus, ''all'' meat is considered a taboo except [[mutton]] (usually in India the goat's flesh, or sometimes sheep's flesh), [[Chicken#Chickens as food|chicken]] and [[fish (food)|fish]].
[[Australian Aborigines]] traditionally had personal [[totem]]s. While religious practices varied from group to group, it was common that the eating of the totemic animal was considered taboo, either by the entire clan, or the individual with the personal totem.
[[Manchu]]s have a prohibition against the eating of [[dog]] meat, which is sometimes consumed by the Manchus' neighboring Northeastern Asian peoples. The Manchus also avoid the wearing of hats made of dog's fur. Although dog meat is eaten in many countries around the world, it is often associated with Korea. It is a misperception that dog meat is a common cuisine in Korea. Although it is true that dog meat is occasionally eaten, it is a dish which is rarely consumed by the general public. The average Korean does not eat dog and the younger generations, in particular, frown upon the practice. In Korea, dog meat (prepared in a soup) is almost exclusively eaten by men for what is believed to be the health benefits (e.g., stamina).
Aside from overt taboos there are unconscious cultural [[taboo]]s against the consumption of some animals. For example, even though there is no law against eating [[dog meat]] in the United States and Europe, it is widely considered unacceptable. In Southeast Asia, most countries excluding Vietnam rarely consume dog meat either because of Islamic or Buddhist values or animal rights as in the [[Philippines]]. Similarly, [[horse meat]] is rarely eaten in the US and UK. However, horse meat is commonly consumed in numerous other countries where it is considered a delicacy, including Kazakhstan, Japan, and France.
Within a given [[society]], some meats will be considered taboo simply because they are outside the range of the generally accepted definition of a foodstuff, not necessarily because the meat is considered repulsive in [[flavor]], [[aroma]], [[Texture (food)|texture]] or appearance.
Some authorities impose cultural food taboos in the form of law. For example, even after resumption to Chinese rule, Hong Kong has not lifted its ban on supplying meat from dogs and cats, imposed in colonial times. A fairly recent addition to cultural food taboos is that of eating the meat or eggs of [[endangered species]] or animals that are otherwise protected by law or international treaty. Examples of such protected species include [[whale]]s, [[sea turtle]]s, and [[bird migration|migratory bird]]s.
The origin of food taboos is varied. In some cases, they are a result of health considerations or other practical considerations.<ref>Harris, Marvin, Good to Eat, ISBN 0-04-306002-1</ref> In others, it's a result of human symbolic systems.<ref>Douglas, Mary, Purity and Danger, ISBN 0-415-28995-5</ref>
== Taboo food ==
===Amphibians and reptiles===
Both [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]]{{Fact|date=April 2008}} strictly forbid the consumption of [[amphibian]]s
such as frogs and [[reptile]]s such as [[crocodile]]s and [[snake]]s. Nevertheless,
frogs are raised commercially in certain countries and [[frog legs]] are considered a delicacy in [[France]], [[Portugal]],<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4qdPGh3Mr1wC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=%22frog+legs%22+portugal&source=web&ots=M7uC52OdD4&sig=PBHYKoLVv_0cOcqV6DinI3bD9_g
|title=Frommer's Portugal
|first=Darwin
|last=Porter
|first2=Danforth
|last2=Prince
|chapter=3 - Settling into Lisbon
|page=94
|year=2004
|isbn=0764542826
|accessdate=2007-09-22}}{{Dead link|date=December 2007|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4qdPGh3Mr1wC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=%22frog+legs%22+portugal&source=web&ots=M7uC52OdD4&sig=PBHYKoLVv_0cOcqV6DinI3bD9_g}}<br>
"Delectably flavored dishes include [...], frog legs in buttery garlic, [...]."</ref> [[China]], [[Caribbean]] and in parts of the [[USA]]. [[Alligator]] is farmed commercially in the southern US states and is a popular meat in Cajun and Creole cooking.
===Bears===
Bears are not considered [[kosher]] in [[Judaism]] while
all predatory terrestrial animals are forbidden in Islam. Observant Jews and Muslims would therefore abstain from eating bear meat.
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bluethread.com/kashrut/bearnot.html|
accessdate=2006-10-04|title=Bear meat is not kosher!}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/fhalal1.htm|
accessdate=2006-10-04|title=The Fiqh of Halal and Haram Animals}}</ref>
Bear meat must be cooked thoroughly as it can often be infected
with [[trichinellosis]].
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5327a2.htm|
accessdate=2006-10-04|title=Trichinellosis Associated with Bear Meat}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/41529.stm|
accessdate=2006-10-04|title=BBC News - Bear meat poisoning in Siberia}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evira.fi/portal/en/food/current_issues/?id=346|
accessdate=2006-10-04|title=Finnish Food Safety Authority: Bear meat must be inspected before serving in restaurants}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/marine/polarbea.php|
accessdate=2006-10-04|title=Polar Bear: Wildlife Notebook Series}}</ref>
===Birds===
The [[Old Testament]] of [[the Bible]] ([[Leviticus]] 11:13) explicitly states that the eagle, vulture, and osprey are not to be eaten. A bird now commonly raised for meat in some areas, the ostrich, is explicitly banned as food in [[Leviticus]] 11:16. Interestingly, bats are also included in the list of inedible "birds".<ref name="GutenbergBible">{{cite book| title = Project Gutenberg Holy Bible, O.T. Part 1| edition = Douay-Rheims Version| last = Project Gutenberg | first = | coauthors = | year = | publisher = Project Gutenberg| id = | pages = }}</ref> Large domesticated [[fowl]] such as [[chicken]]s, [[turkey (bird)|turkeys]], and [[duck]]s are commonly eaten in many cultures, along with their wild [[game (food)|game]] counterparts.
In [[North America]], while pigeons (as doves) are a hunted game bird <ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.ohiodnr.com/wildlife/dow/regulations/hunting_smallgame.aspx#dove
|title=Hunting and Fishing Regulations—Dove Hunting
|publisher=Ohio Department of Natural Resources
|accessdate=[[2007-12-18]]}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.ohiodnr.com/wildlife/dow/regulations/seasons.aspx
|title=Hunting and Fishing Regulations
|publisher=Ohio Department of Natural Resources
|accessdate=[[2007-12-18]]}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.ohiodnr.com/wildlife/dow/regulations/PDF/pub298.pdf
|title=Publication 298
|publisher=Ohio Department of Natural Resources
|accessdate=[[2007-12-18]]}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.state.tn.us/twra/dovefields/doverules.html
|title=Dove hunting in Tennessee
|publisher=Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency
|accessdate=[[2007-12-18]]}}</ref> urban pigeons are considered unfit for consumption.
Eating [[swan]]s is generally considered unacceptable in Europe and the Americas,{{Fact|date=July 2007}} and the swan is a protected bird in England. All mute swans in Britain belong to the sovereign, Queen Elizabeth II, a historical quirk dating from the twelfth century.<ref name=MET>{{cite news
|url=http://www.jihadwatch.org/archives/014215.php
|title="I hate the Queen, I hate this country"
|publisher=Jihad Watch
|date=[[November 28]], [[2006]]
|accessdate=2008-04-22}}</ref> Nevertheless, reports about the eating of swans are seen from time to time.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://w.slashfood.com/2005/07/31/hacking-food-eating-swan/
|title=Hacking Food: Eating Swan
|author=Karina Longworth
|date=[[July 31]], [[2005]]
|accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article431570.ece
|title=Composer may do bird for eating swan
|date=[[March 19]], [[2005]]
|publisher=The Times
|author=Gillian Harris
|accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref><ref name=MET/>
In Western cultures today, most people regard [[songbirds]] as backyard wildlife rather than as food. In addition, some [[migratory bird]]s are protected by [[AEWA|international treaty]].
===Camels===
[[Image:Bactrian Camel 1.jpg|175px|thumb|right|[[Camel|Bactrian camel]]]]
The eating of a camel is strictly prohibited by the [[Torah]]. Although the camel is a cud-chewer, the [[Levites]] still considered it "unclean". While the foot of a camel is split into two toe-like structures, it does not meet the biblical [[cloven hoof]] criterion. The meat of a camel may also have been spurned due to the camel's physiology. Most of a camel's fat is stored in its hump. This makes the rest of the body very lean, which some cultures don't value for taste.
Although there are similarities in both Islam{{Fact|date=April 2008}} and Judaism regarding the [[Kashrut]] and [[Halal]] foods, there are significant differences, including the consumption of camel flesh. According to the [[Cultural materialism|materialistic]] anthropologist [[Marvin Harris]], since Arabs were nomads, camels were essential for their travels, but, in case of emergency, Muslims could not afford to starve because of the taboo.
Camel meat has been eaten for centuries. It has been recorded by [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] writers as an available dish in ancient [[Persia]] at banquets, usually roasted whole. The ancient [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] emperor [[Heliogabalus]], born and raised in [[Syria]], enjoyed camel's heel. Camel meat is often eaten in countries such as [[Somalia]] (where it is called ''Hilib geyl''), [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Sudan]], [[Mauritania]] and other arid regions where alternative forms of protein may be limited or where camel meat has had a long cultural history. Not just the meat but also blood is a consumable item as is the case in northern [[Kenya]] where camel blood is a source of [[iron]], [[vitamin D]], salts and minerals (although Muslims do not drink or consume blood products). A recent report leads to some caution since cases have emerged of where eating raw camel liver has led to human plague.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol11no09/05-0081.htm
|last=Bin Saeed
|first=AA
|coauthors=Al-Hamdan NA, Fontaine RE
|title=Plague from eating raw camel liver
|publisher=U.S. Center for Disease Control
|accessdate=[[2007-12-18]]}}</ref> The camel is also considered a novelty in [[Australia]] - for example, a camel [[lasagne]] is available in [[Alice Springs]]).
===Caribou/Reindeer===
Although [[reindeer]] is popular as a dish in [[Alaska]], [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]] (especially [[sautéed reindeer]]), [[Russia]] and [[Canada]], many people in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]] are squeamish about the idea of eating reindeer meat. This relates to the popular culture myth of the reindeer as assistant to [[Father Christmas]] ''("eating [[Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer|Rudolph]]")'', as opposed to the “cows of the north” vision of the Northern countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060208091151/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/tv_and_radio/50eats40.shtml#37._reindeer|
accessdate=2006-02-08|title=BBC - Food}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thisistravel.co.uk/travel/festivefun/Sweden-s-greetings-_article.html?in_article_id=45849&in_page_id=147|
accessdate=2006-09-06|title=This is Travel - Sweden's greetings.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://coldearth.blogspot.com/2005/12/rudolph-dried-up-reindeer.html|
accessdate=2006-09-06|title=Rudolph, the dried up reindeer}}</ref>
Swedish astronaut [[Christer Fuglesang]] was not allowed to bring dried reindeer with him onboard a shuttle mission as it was unthinkable for the Americans so soon before Christmas. He had to go with moose instead.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dn.se/DNet/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=2597&a=589321&previousRenderType=6|accessdate=2006-11-19|title=Christer Fuglesang redo för rymden efter 14 års träning}} {{sv_icon}}
</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://sydsvenskan.se/varlden/article195352.ece|title=Torkat renkött störde julfriden|publisher=Sydsvenska dagbladet}} {{sv_icon}}
</ref>
===Cats===
{{main|Cat meat}}
{{Refimprovesect|date=May 2007}}
In desperate times, people have been known to resort to cooking and eating [[cat]]s, in places where it is otherwise not usual to do so; it occurred during the [[Siege of Leningrad]] as well as in a poverty-stricken [[villa miseria|shanty town]] in [[Rosario]], [[Argentina]], in [[1996]] (though the much-advertised cat meal was later revealed to have been set up by media from [[Buenos Aires]]).
The term ''roof-hare'' (roof-rabbit, German ''Dachhase'') applies to cat meat presented as that of a hare, another pest (or pet) used as a source of meat. Subtracting the skin, feet, head and tail, hares and cats are practically identical. The only way to distinguish them is by looking at the [[processus hamatus]] of the feline [[scapula]], which should have a [[processus suprahamatus]]. ''Dar gato por liebre'' ("to pass off a cat as a hare") is an expression common to many Spanish-speaking countries, equivalent to "to pull the wool over someone's eyes" derived from this basic scam. There is an equivalent Portuguese expression ''Comprar gato por lebre'', meaning "to buy a cat as a hare". More specifically, in Brazil, cat meat is seen as repulsive and people often shun [[barbecue]] establishments suspected of selling cat meat. The expression ''[[churrasco]] de gato'' ("cat barbecue") is largely used in Brazil with a humorous note, especially for roadside stands that offer grilled meat on a stick (often coated with [[farofa]]), due to their poor hygiene conditions and the fact that the source of the meat is mostly unknown. Cases of passing off cat meat as lamb [[Kebab|shish kabab]] in less reputable shops, are also regularly reported in [[Egypt]]. {{Fact|date=April 2007}} "Kitten cakes" and "buy three shawarma - assemble a kitten" are common Russian urban jokes about the suspect origin of food from street vendors' stalls.
During the so called ''Bad Times'' of hunger in Europe during and after WW I and WW II ''roof-rabbit'' was a common food, it's still proverbial. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}
=== Cows ===
{{main|Sacred cow}}
{{Refimprovesect|date=May 2007}}
Many [[Hindus]], particularly [[Brahmins]], are vegetarians, abstaining from eating any meat at all, including fish (save for Brahmins in Bengal and Kashmiri Pandits who consume meat and fish). Most Hindus, except some semi-tribals and [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalits]] in a few pockets of India, abstain from the consumption of [[beef]], as the [[cow]] holds a sacred place in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] society. However, the taboo does not extend to dairy products, since the preparation of dairy products does not involve slaughtering the animal.
According to the scriptures of early Hinduism, it is a grave sin to kill a cow, to take part in its slaughter, or to eat its flesh.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} The injunctions against eating beef arises within the [[Vedas]]
such as:
[[Atharvaveda]] I.16.4
"If thou slayest our cow, our horse or our domestic, we pierce thee with the lead, so that thou shalt not slay our heroes."<ref name="bloomfield1897">{{cite web
|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av.htm
|title=Hymns of the Atharva-Veda
|accessdate=2008-02-27
|coauthors=Maurice Bloomfield (translator)
|year=1897
|work=Sacred Books of the East, volume 42}}</ref>
Atharva Veda III.30.1
You should impart love to each other as the non-killable cow does for its calf.{{Fact|date=February 2008}}
RgVeda VIII.101.15
Cow is pure, do not kill it.
Yajur Veda XIII.49
Do not kill the cow.
RgVeda VI.28.3 states
Enemy may not use any “astra” i.e. weapon on cows
RgVeda VI.28.4 states
Nobody should take them to butcher house to kill them
Mahabharata- Shantiparva 262.47
Cow is called ‘aghanya’ and thus non-killable.
It is assumed that the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations of Hindus throughout the centuries relied so heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, the tilling of fields, and [[cow dung|fuel]] or [[fertiliser]] that its status as a willing "caretaker" of humanity grew to identifying it as an almost maternal figure. The economic origins of the cow-eating taboo can be observed from [[etymology]]: The [[Sanskrit]] word for cattle is ''pashu'', which is cognate with the [[Latin]] word ''pecu'', from which derives words pertaining to money in Latin (and into English) : pecunia, impecunious.
Traditionally people from lower castes, like [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalit]]s, ate beef and [[carabeef]] (buffalo). In modern times, beef-eating has gained some acceptance in various parts of India, but only by those Hindus who are sometimes considered (and sometimes even scorned) by the others as being "extra-modern" or "over-Westernized". By Indian law, the slaughter of cattle is banned in almost all Indian states except the states of [[Kerala]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]]{{Fact|date=September 2007}}. Slaughter of cows is an extremely emotional and provocative issue for both mainstream Hindus and the followers of [[Hindutva]]. However, in modern times, beef is eaten in Indian cities by a small section of hindus.
Some ethnic Chinese may also refrain from eating cow meat, because many of them feel that it is wrong to eat an animal that was so useful in agriculture. Some Chinese [[Buddhist]]s discourage the consumption of beef although it is not considered taboo.
====Veal====
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}
Some people, especially in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Ireland]], [[Canada]] and [[United States of America]], choose not to eat [[veal]] (the meat of young cattle) due to
concerns about inhumane treatment of the calves. In the UK, this taboo is waning due to a [[2007 EU directive banning veal crates]] and anemia-inducing diets.
===Crustaceans and other seafood===
{{Refimprovesect|date=May 2007}}
[[Image:Blue crab on market in Piraeus - Callinectes sapidus Rathbun 20020819-317.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Blue crab]]s for sale at a market in [[Piraeus]].]]
Almost all types of non-[[piscine]] [[seafood]], such as [[shellfish]], [[lobster]], [[shrimp]] or [[crawfish]], are forbidden by [[Kashrut|Judaism]] because such animals live in water but do not have both fins and [[Scale (zoology)|scale]]s (Leviticus 11:10-12).
As a general rule, all seafood are permissible in Islam. This is based on “Lawful to you is (the pursuit of) water-game and its use for food – for the benefit of yourselves and those who travel…” (al-Maa’idah 5:96) although there are exceptions to this rule.
As with swine, crustaceans and many other forms of non-piscine seafood are scavengers that work at filtering the water. Improperly collected or uncooked seafood can be dangerous.
=== Dogs ===
{{main|Dog meat}}
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}
In a number of countries around the world, apart from being kept as pets, certain breeds of [[dog]]s are [[slaughter]]ed as a source of meat and specifically raised on farms for that purpose.
According to the ancient Hindu scriptures (cf. [[Manusmriti]] and medicinal texts like Sushrut-Samhita), ''dog's meat'' was regarded as the most unclean (and rather poisonous) food possible—it was worthy only for the lowest of the untouchable [[caste]]s — who were therefore called ''śvapaca'' (those cooking dog's meat).
In Mexico during the pre-columbine era a hairless dog named [[Mexican Hairless Dog|xoloitzcuintle]] was commonly eaten. After colonization, this custom stopped.
===Donkeys===
In Islam, Prophet Muhammad, in a [[Hadith]] [[Bukhari (nesbat)|Al-Bukhari]] forbids the eating of a [[donkey]].<ref>{{ cite web
|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/067.sbt.html
|title=Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 67: Hunting, Slaughtering
|publisher=University of Souther California: USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts
|accessdate=2007-05-31}}</ref> The consumption of all equines is prohibited in Judaism, as equines do not have a cloven hoof.
===Elephants===
In Western societies, [[elephant]]s have often been associated with [[circus]]es and used for entertaining purposes. However, in
Central and West Africa, elephants are hunted for their meat.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} Some people in Thailand also believe that eating elephant meat
improves their sex lives and elephants are sometimes hunted specifically for this.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/773217.stm|accessdate=2006-09-06|title=BBC News - Elephants 'killed as aphrodisiac' }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/africa/what_we_do/elephant_programme/index.cfm|
accessdate=2006-09-06|title=WWF - African elephant programme }}</ref>
Judaism prohibits the consumption of elephant meat as an unfit [for consumption] land animal, (similarly to the prohibition on camel meat) as does Islam{{Fact|date=April 2008}}.
===Fish===
Some [[Kikuyu]] and [[Kalenjin]] people of [[Kenya]] observe a taboo against the consumption of [[fish]]. In [[Somalia]] entire tribes have a taboo on fish and would not even intermarry with tribes that do eat fish.
Certain species of fish are also forbidden in [[Judaism]] such as the freshwater [[eel]] ([[Anguillidae]]) and all species of [[catfish]]. Although they live in water, they appear to have no fins or scales (except under a microscope). (See [[Leviticus]]).
Islamic laws are more flexible in this
and catfishes and sharks are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish;
eel is considered permitted in the majority of the Islamic schools while
some forbid it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.albalagh.net/qa/sea_food_madhahib.shtml|
accessdate=2007-02-16|title=Sea Food in the Four Madhahib}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/catfish-halal.shtml|
accessdate=2007-02-16|title=Is Catfish Halal?}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/shark-meat-halal.shtml|
accessdate=2007-02-16|title=Is Shark Meat Halal?}}</ref>
A common interpretation regarding some of the Islamic prohibitions is that animals that "live in both worlds" may not be consumed{{Fact|date=April 2008}}. This applies to primarily aquatic animals that nest or breed on land.
The [[History of Greenland#Norse settlement|Greenland Norse]], a civilization that lasted about 300 years following a colonization from [[Iceland]], might have had a taboo against fish. [[Jared Diamond]]<ref name="Diamond">[[Jared Diamond]], ''[[Collapse (book)|Collapse]]'', 229-230, [[Penguin Books]], 2005, ISBN 978-0-140-27951-1. Diamond suggests that some early powerful figure such as [[Erik the Red]] could have suffered [[food poisoning]] from fish with his reluctance transmitted as a cultural taboo.</ref> proposes this hypothesis based on the fact that few fish bones or other remains have been found from Greenland Norse archaeological sites, and almost no fishing equipment. It seems they sustained themselves on agriculture, cattle, pork, goats and, as centuries passed, [[pinniped|seal]] meat, in a climate that rendered such sustenance next-to impossible.
In contrast, their Icelandic and Norse ancestors, their [[Kalaallit]] neighbours and modern Greenlanders all consume fish in abundance.
=== Fungi ===
Members of the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] abstain from fungi and all vegetables of the onion family ([[Alliaceae]]). They believe that these excite damaging passions.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} Fungi are eschewed as they grow at night. The spice [[asafoetida]] (hing) is used instead of onion or garlic and provides a somewhat similar taste in their vegetarian cookery.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
=== Genetically modified food ===
Attitudes concerning [[genetically modified food|genetically modified food]] like genetically modified [[soya]], [[maize]] or [[rapeseed]] (canola) vary from accepted to taboo in the U.S. and Canada, while many [[European Union|Europeans]] have a taboo on it as they are more concerned with eating natural food sources. This is believed to be due to the various food scares in Europe during the 1980s and 1990's, such as [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|BSE]]/[[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease|vCJD]], [[salmonella]] and [[dioxin]] poisoning. In the UK, only 2% of Britons are said to be "happy to eat GM foods", and more than half of Britons are against genetically modified foods being available to the public, according to a 2003 study. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3134278.stm |title=Most Britons 'oppose GM crops' |publisher=BBC News |date=24 September 2003}} </ref>
In Europe, regulations state that all food and animal feed containing more than 0.5 percent GM ingredients are required to have strict labelling and traceability, and many supermarkets proudly boast the fact that they don't sell GM foods.
===Guinea pig===
[[Image:Peru Guinea Pig.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Roast guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) in Peru]]
[[Guinea pig]]s (''cavies'') were originally bred for their meat, and only became an exotic popular pet when introduced to [[Europe]] from [[South America]].<ref name=morales>{{cite book | last = Morales | first = Edmundo | title = The Guinea Pig : Healing, Food, and Ritual in the Andes | publisher = University of Arizona Press |date=1995 | id = ISBN 0-8165-1558-1 }}</ref>
Guinea pigs, or ''cuy'' (plural ''cuyes''), continue to be a significant part of the diet in [[Peru]], mostly in the [[Andes Mountains]] highlands, where they are an important source of protein and a mainstay of Andean folk medicine.<ref name=morales> However, cuyes can be found on the menu of most restaurants in Lima and other cities in Peru. Indians consume an estimated 65 million guinea pigs each year, and the animal is so entrenched in the culture that one famous painting of the [[Last Supper]] in the main cathedral in [[Delhi, India]] shows Christ and the 12 disciples dining on guinea pig. Today guinea pig meat is exported to the United States and European nations. <ref name=cbs>{{cite news | last = Vecchio | first = Rick | title = India Pushes Guinea Pigs as Food | publisher = [[CBS News]] | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/10/19/world/main650148.shtml | date = [[2004-10-19]] | accessdate = 2007-03-12|}}</ref>;<ref name=csmonitor>{{cite news | last = Mitchell | first = Chip | title = Guinea Pig: It's What's for Dinner | publisher = [[Christian Science Monitor]] | url= http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/1101/p04s01-woam.html | date = [[2006-11-01]] | accessdate = 2007-03-12|}}</ref>
In 2004, the [[New York City Department of Parks and Recreation]] took legal action to stop vendors serving ''cuy'' at an [[Ecuador]]ian festival in [[Flushing Meadows Park]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Lester Haines|title="Big Apple stamps on guinea pigs|publisher=The Register|date=[[20 October]] [[2004]]|url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/10/20/nyc_guinea_pig_clampdown/|accessdate=2007-05-28}}</ref>
New York State allows for the consumption of guinea pigs, but New York City prohibits it. Accusations of cultural persecution have since been leveled.<ref>{{cite news | last = Montefinise | first = Angela | last2 = Mongelli | first2 = Lorena | title = Guinea Pig Cooks Get Skewered | publisher = ''[[New York Post]]'' | date = [[2004-10-20]] |pages = 10}}</ref>
[[La Molina National Agrarian University]], Peru's most prestigious agrarian [[university]], has bred a larger, faster-growing variety of the animal that it hopes will prove a nutritional boon to the country, as well as a source of export income. This breed grows to about 2 [[kilogram|kg]], or at least twice the size of the native breed.<ref name=cbs>{{cite news | last = Vecchio | first = Rick | title = India Pushes Guinea Pigs as Food | publisher = [[CBS News]] | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/10/19/world/main650148.shtml | date = [[2004-10-19]] | accessdate = 2007-03-12|}}</ref>
===Capybara and Paca===
The guinea pig's close rodent cousins, [[capybara]] and [[paca]], are consumed as food in South America. The Catholic Church's taboo on eating meat during [[Lent]] does not apply to the capybara, as early missionaries gave a faulty description to the Pope, leading him to declare it a fish.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.rebsig.com/capybara/capymeat.html
|title=Capybara meat
|publisher=rebsig.com citing {{Citation
|title=World's largest rodent considered a delicacy by Venezuelans
|author=Bart Jones
|publisher=Associated Press
|month=August
|year=1999}}
|accessdate=2008-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.nysun.com/article/11063
|title=In Days Before Easter, Venezuelans Tuck Into Rodent-Related Delicacy
|author=Brian Ellsworth
|publisher=The New York Sun
|date=[[March 24]], [[2005]]
|accessdate=2008-05-20}}</ref>
=== Horses ===
{{main|Horse meat}}
{{Refimprove|date=September 2007}}
[[Image:Horsemeatsandwich.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Smoked and salted horse meat on a sandwich.]]
Horse may not be eaten by observant [[Jew]]s, since under [[Mosaic Law]], horse meat is forbidden because the horse is not a ruminant, nor does it have cloven hooves. In [[Islam]]ic thought, horses are generally considered
[[makruh]], i.e. the meat is not haram but the eating of it is disliked{{Fact|date=April 2008}}.
The eating of horse meat is a food taboo to most people in the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States|US]], and [[Australia]], and its supply is sometimes even illegal. In the UK, this strong taboo includes banning horsemeat from commercial pet food and DNA testing of some types of [[salami]] suspected of containing donkey meat. Like [[lobster]] and [[dog]], it is forbidden in [[Kashrut|Judaism]], [[Hinduism]], and some sects of [[Christianity]]. In AD [[732]], year of the [[battle of Tours]], which showed the emergent importance of cavalry, [[Pope Gregory III]] began an effort to stop the pagan practice of horse eating, calling it "abominable". Horses were far more necessary to stop the Muslim cavalry, threatening the Christian ascendant in Europe, with their own weapons. His edicts are based on the same scripture as the Jewish prohibitions and this ban remained unlifted until the 18th century. The people of [[Iceland]] allegedly expressed reluctance to embrace [[Christianity]] for some time largely over the issue of giving up horse meat.{{Verify source|date=July 2007}}
Horse meat was sold in the US during WW II, since beef was expensive, rationed and destined for the troops. The primary concern of the authorities at the time was to prevent it being marketed to the unwary as beef.
However, it is fairly common in [[Scandinavia]] and parts of [[continental Europe]], and is considered a delicacy in Japan, where it is also eaten raw as a type of [[sashimi]]. Horse meat was also very popular in [[Malta]] until a few years ago, and a few horse meat shops still exist and a few restaurants serve it for locals and tourists.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Malta & Gozo
|author=Carolyn Bain
|year=2004
|publisher=Lonely Planet
|ISBN=17405917
|url=[http://books.google.com/books?id=lqHLlLsgi1IC&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=%22horse+meat%22+malta&source=web&ots=qFCJQG1-L_&sig=I2M-Zwoy3-HK_NiRBcQLdrFXpXs Excerpt]
|accessdate=2007-09-14
|page=56
|quote=Did you know? Many of the village restaurants specialising in rabbit also feature horse meat on their menu.}}</ref>
=== Human meat ===
{{main|Cannibalism}}
Of all the taboo meat, human flesh ranks as the most proscribed. Historically, humans have consumed the flesh of fellow humans in rituals and out of insanity, hatred, or overriding hunger — almost never as a common part of their diet. This consumption of human flesh is forbidden in [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and [[Hinduism]], as well as most other religions.
Very few customarily eat the [[placenta]] after the newborn's birth, but those who advocate [[placentophagy]] in humans, mostly in modern America and Europe, Hawaii, China, and the Pacific Islands believe that eating the placenta prevents [[postpartum depression]] and other pregnancy complications. A variety of recipes are known to exist for preparing placenta for eating.[http://www.babycenter.com/0_from-here-to-maternity-week-8-want-a-side-of-placenta-with-t_1333089.bc] A placenta develops from the same sperm and egg cell that form the fetus, and contains cells that are genetically equivalent to those of the newborn child.
{{see also|Donner Party|Alferd Packer|Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571}}
===Insects===
{{seealso|Entomophagy}} {{seealso|Category:Insects as food}}
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}
Except for certain [[locust]]s and related species, [[insect]]s are not considered [[Kosher foods|kosher]]. Islam also allows the consumption of locusts, which are eaten in certain parts of Arabia today.{{Fact|date=July 2007}} Many find the consumption of insects to be disgusting rather than immoral. In particular, some insects and insect [[larva]]e, such as [[weevil]]s and [[maggot]]s, are associated with food spoilage.
Many different kinds of insects have traditionally been consumed as food in non-European cultures, including [[locust]]s, [[grasshopper]]s, and [[cricket (insect)|crickets]], and larvae such as [[caterpillar]]s, [[bee]] [[grub]]s and [[witchetty grub]]s. For example, grasshoppers (''inago'') and bee larvae (''hachinoko'') are eaten in some regions of [[Japan]], and [[silkworm]] larvae (''[[beondegi]]'' in Korean or ''nhộng'' in Vietnamese) are a popular snack food in these countries. [[Mopane worm]]s, a species of caterpillar, are an important protein source in [[South Africa]]. Bugs, as well as [[spider]]s, are popular all over [[Southeast Asia]]. In [[Mexican cuisine]], insects such as ''[[chapulines]]'' and ''[[jumiles]]'' are considered "pre-hispanic cuisine", representative of the diets of indigenous peoples prior to the Spanish conquest.
[[Casu marzu]] is a type of [[cheese]] made in [[Sardinia]], [[Italy]] that has been deliberately cultivated with the larvae of the [[cheese fly]] to change the characteristics of the cheese.
Western taboos against insects as a food source generally do not apply to [[honey]] (concentrated [[nectar]] which has been [[regurgitate]]d by [[bee]]s). For example, honey is considered [[Kosher foods|kosher]] even though [[honeybee]]s are not, an apparent exception to the normal rule that products of an unclean animal are also unclean. This topic is covered in the [[Talmud]] and is explained to be permissible on the grounds that the bee does not make the honey, the flower does, and it is only stored in bees. On the other hand, many [[veganism|vegans]] avoid honey as they would any other animal product.
===Kangaroo===
{{main|Kangaroo meat}}
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}
[[Kangaroo]] meat consumption has a long history in Australia by [[Indigenous Australians]] (a staple meat in many cases) and early European settlers (Kangaroo-tail stew was a popular settler dish). However it has had a varied history as meat in Australia due to the emotive association, predominantly by foreigners, of kangaroos as pets and a national symbol. Kangaroo meat is the base of dishes in many restaurants and is available at many butchers and major supermarkets as mince, sausages and steak. The meat can also be smoke cured and makes an interesting [[prosciutto]].
===Living animals===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}
Islamic and Judaic law forbids any portion that is cut from a live animal. Even in cultures that do not prescribe ritual methods of [[slaughter (livestock)|livestock slaughter]], the consumption of animals that are still alive is often seen as barbaric. Notable exceptions are [[ikizukuri]] and [[oyster]]. These forms of [[sashimi]] have been banned in some countries.
Another notable exception is shrimp. In Shanghai, China, and surrounding areas, live shrimp is a common dish served both in homes and restaurants. The shrimp are usually served in a bowl of alcohol, which makes the shrimp sluggish and complacent. Local belief is that live shrimp are "healthier" than those served "already dead" or cooked.
===Offal===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}
[[Image:MarketScene.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Heads, brains, trotters and tripe on sale in an Istanbul market.]]
[[Offal]] is the internal organs of butchered animals, and may refer to parts of the carcass such as the head and feet ("trotters") in addition to organ meats such as [[sweetbread]]s and [[kidney]]. Offal is a traditional part of many European and Asian cuisines, including such dishes as the well-known [[steak and kidney pie]] in the [[United Kingdom]].
In countries such as [[Australia]], [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], on the other hand, many people are squeamish about eating offal. In these countries, organ meats that are considered edible in other cultures are more often regarded as fit only for processing into [[pet food]] under the [[euphemism]] "[[meat by-product]]s". Except for [[liver]] (chicken, beef, or pork), and intestines used as natural [[sausage]] casings, organ meats consumed in the U.S. tend to be regional or ethnic specialties; for example, [[tripe]] as ''menudo'' or ''mondongo'' among [[Latino]]s, [[chitterling]]s in the southern states, [[scrapple]] in the Mid-Atlantic region, and beef [[testicle]]s called [[Rocky Mountain oyster]]s or "prairie oysters" in the west.
In some regions, such as the EU, [[brain]]s and other organs which can transmit [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] ("mad cow disease") and similar diseases have now been banned from the foodchain as [[specified risk materials]].
=== Pigs/Pork ===
{{Main|Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork}}
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}
USDA data reports [[pork]] as the most widely eaten meat in the world. Consumption of pigs is forbidden among Muslims, Jews, [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]], and others. There are various theories concerning the origins of this taboo (e.g. Qur'an 16:115, Biblical injunctions in Leviticus 11,7-8 and Deuteronomy 14,8), but none have been universally accepted.
In the 19th century some people attributed the pig taboo in the Middle East to the danger of the parasite [[trichinosis|trichina]]. This theory still circulates outside scientific circles, but is now rejected by most anthropologists.
[[Cultural materialism|Materialistic beliefs]] attempt to prove that the pig taboo is just a product of practical considerations. [[Marvin Harris]] posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on an ecological and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are not suited to living in arid climates and thus require far more water than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice.
A common explanation to the fact that pigs are widely considered unclean in the Middle East is that they are [[omnivorous]], not discerning between meat or vegetation in their natural dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cows, horses, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants.
There is also a controversial theory that there might have been a [[Scottish pork taboo]] many centuries ago.
===Primates (other than humans)===
The consumption of [[monkey]]s and [[ape]]s such as [[chimpanzee]]s, [[gorilla]]s, [[mandrill]]s and
[[guenon]]s is quite common in rural areas of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref name=busmeat1>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/photogalleries/bushmeat_1/|
accessdate=2006-09-06|title=National Geographic News: Consuming Nature Pt1}}</ref><ref name=busmeat2>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/photogalleries/bushmeat_2/|
accessdate=2006-09-06|title=National Geographic News: Consuming Nature Pt2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/NATURE/9908/12/cameroon.ape.meat/|
accessdate=2006-09-06|title=CNN - Growing demand for 'bushmeat' threatens great apes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.4apes.com/bushmeat/|
accessdate=2006-09-06|title=Ape Alliance - Bushmeat working group}}</ref>
[[Bonobo]]s (also known as pygmy chimpanzees), have been extensively hunted
in [[Democratic Republic of Congo|Congo]] to the level that they are now
considered an [[endangered species]].
In certain parts of Congo the hands and feet of gorillas are regarded as a delicacy and are served to special guests.<ref name=busmeat2 />
Monkeys are also eaten in southeast Asia (especially [[Indonesia]]).<ref>{{cite web | title = Monkey brains on the menu (Indonesia) | url = http://web.archive.org/web/20050313024343/http://www.undp.org.vn/mlist/wildtrade/032003/post4.htm | date = [[2003-03-03]] | accessdate = 2007-07-03 | publisher = United Nations Development Programme Viet Nam Country Office}}</ref>
Some consider {{weasel-inline}}the consumption of primates to be too close to human cannibalism due to the similarity of our own species. The similarity increases the danger of [[virus]]es{{Or|date=May 2008}}. Most of it is "[[bushmeat]]" or caught from the wild, in areas of high primate populations such as Central Africa and southeast Asia. One of the major theories for the origin of the [[human immunodeficiency virus]] (HIV) in humans is the butchering of primates infected with a [[simian immunodeficiency virus|similar virus]]<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.thebody.com/content/world/art10268.html
|title=Many Rural Africans Who Hunt, Butcher Primates for Bushmeat May Be Infected With HIV-Like Virus
|date=[[March 22]], [[2004]]
|publisher=thebody.com
|accessdate=[[2008-05-05]]}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.avert.org/origins.htm
|title=The origins of HIV and the firstcases of AIDS
||publisheer=avert.org
|accessdate=[[2008-05-05]]}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/06/0612_030612_hivvirusjump.html
|title=HIV Originated With Monkeys, Not Chimps, Study Finds
|publisher=National Geographic News
|date=[[June 12]], [[2003]]
|accessdate=[[2008-05-05]]}}</ref>
=== Rabbit ===
[[Image:Rabbit.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Cottontail rabbit]]]]
The book of [[Leviticus]] in the [[Bible]] classifies the [[rabbit]] as [[unclean animals|unclean]] because it does not have a split hoof, even though it does chew and reingest partially digested material (often loosely translated "chew the cud" in English).<ref>{{sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=Leviticus|chapter=11|verse=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Do Rabbits Chew the Cud? | accessdate=2007-08-27 | publisher = Geoscience Research Institute | url = http://www.grisda.org/origins/04102.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Are Rabbits Erroneously Called Ruminants in the Bible? | accessdate=2007-08-27 | publisher = Bible Study Manuals | url = http://www.biblestudymanuals.net/lev11v6.htm}}</ref> Further possibilities against the consumption of rabbit may also include the phenomenon known as [[Rabbit Starvation]], a form of acute [[malnutrition]] caused by excess consumption of any lean meat (specifically rabbit) coupled with a lack of other sources of nutrients.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.medbio.info/Horn/Time%201-2/vilhjalmur_stefansson1.htm
|title=Rabbit Starvation—High protein and high fat diets
|publisher=medbio.info
|accessdate=2008-05-20}}</ref>
=== Rats and mice ===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}
In most Western cultures, [[rat]]s and [[mouse|mice]] are considered either unclean [[vermin]] or pets and thus unfit for human consumption, traditionally being seen as carriers of [[Bubonic plague|plague]]. However, rats are commonly eaten in rural [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]] and other parts of [[Indochina]]. [[Cane rat]]s (''[[Thryonomys swinderianus]]'' and ''[[Thryonomys gregorianus]]'') and some species of [[Field mouse|field mice]] are a rich source of protein in Africa. [[Bamboo rat]]s are also commonly eaten in the poorer parts of [[Southeast Asia]]
In [[Ghana]], [[Thryonomys swinderianus]] locally referred to as "Akrantie", "Grasscutter" and (incorrectly) as "Bush rat" is a common food item. The proper common name for this rodent is "[[Greater Cane Rat]]", though actually it is not a rat at all and is is a close relative of [[porcupines]] and [[guinea pig]]s that inhabit Africa, south of the Saharan Desert.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/21847/all
|title=Thryonomys swinderianus
|publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
|accessdate=2007-07-18}}</ref> In [[2003]], the U.S. barred the import of this and other rodents from Africa because an outbreak at least nine human cases of [[monkeypox]] , an illness never before been seen in the Western Hemisphere.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=37659
|title=US Bars Imports of "Akrantie"
|date=[[12 June]], [[2003]]
|publisher=ghanaweb.com
|accessdate=2007-07-18}}</ref>
Historically, rats and mice have also been eaten in the West during times of shortage or emergency, such as during the [[Battle of Vicksburg]] and the [[Siege of Paris]]. [[Dormouse|Dormice]] were also domesticated and raised for food in [[Ancient Rome]]. In some Asian countries, mice are eaten, and go by the name of [[vole]]. In [[France]], rats bred in the wine stores of [[Gironde]] were cooked with the fire of broken wine barrels and eaten, dubbed as ''cooper's entrecôte''. In some communities the [[muskrat]] (which is not a rat at all) is hunted for its meat (and fur) (e.g. some parts of [[Flanders]]); see also under "[[Fish]]" for consumption of [[beaver]] tails.
=== Snails ===
Snails have been eaten for thousands of years, beginning in the Pleistocene. They are especially abundant in [[Capsian]] sites in North Africa but are also found throughout the Mediterranean region in archaeological sites dating between 12 000 and 6000 years ago. <ref>[http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~dlubell/Antibes.pdf Prehistoric edible land snails in the circum-Mediterranean: the archaeological evidence.],
D. Lubell. In J-J. Brugal & J. Desse (eds.), ''Petits Animaux et Sociétés Humaines. Du Complément Alimentaire Aux Ressources Utilitaires''. XXIVe rencontres internationales d'archéologie et d'histoire d'Antibes, pp. 77-98. Antibes: Éditions APDCA.] </ref>
<ref>[http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~dlubell/Ljubljana.pdf Are land snails a signature for the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition?] In, M. Budja (ed.), ''Neolithic Studies 11. Documenta Praehistorica XXXI'': 1-24. D. Lubell.</ref>They are also seen a notable [[delicacy]] in [[France]] and other Mediterranean countries. However, in Britain, Ireland, and America, eating them may be seen as disgusting. Some English-speaking commentators have used the [[French language|French]] word for snails, ''[[escargot]]'', as an alternative word for snails, particularly snails for consumption.
As they are [[mollusk]]s, snails are neither [[kosher]] nor [[halal]]{{Fact|date=April 2008}}.
=== Vegetables ===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}
In certain versions of [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]], vegetables of the [[Allium|onion]] [[genus]] are taboo. Specifically, [[Buddhist cuisine]] traditionally prohibits [[garlic]], ''[[Allium chinense]]'', [[asafoetida]], [[shallot]], and ''[[Allium victorialis]]'' (victory onion or mountain leek), while [[Kashmiri]] [[Brahmin]]s forbid "strong flavored" foods. This encompasses garlic, onion, and spices such as [[black pepper]] and [[chili pepper]], believing that pungent flavors on the tongue inflame the baser emotions. In [[Jainism]], any kind of roots are considered taboo, since the process of unrooting causes the organisms associated with the root in the soil to die.
Although virtually all vegetables are allowed in Islam, some eccentric rules forbade some vegetables, most notably Al-Hakim<ref>[http://baheyeldin.com/history/al-hakim-bi-amr-allah-fatimid-caliph-of-egypt.html al-Hakim bi Amr Allah, Fatimid Caliph of Egypt]</ref> of [[Egypt]] forbidding [[molokheya]]<ref>[http://baheyeldin.com/egypt/molokheya-an-egyptian-national-dish.html Molokheya, an Egyptian national dish]</ref> the national dish, due to its being a favorite of historical sectarian rivals.
In [[Yazidi]]sm, the eating of [[lettuce]] and [[butter beans]] is taboo. The Muslim religious teacher and scholar, Falah Hassan Juma, links the sect's belief of evil found in lettuce to its long history of persecution by Muslims and Christians. The [[Caliphs]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] carried out massacres against the Yazidis in the 18th and 19th centuries, with the faithful slain in the lettuce fields then dotting northeastern [[Iraq]]. Another historical theory claims one ruthless potentate who controlled the city of [[Mosul]] in the 13th century ordered an early Yazidi saint executed. The enthusiastic crowd then pelted the corpse with heads of lettuce.
The [[Pythagoreanism|followers of Pythagoras]] were vegetarians (in fact "Pythagorean" at one time came to mean "vegetarian"), however [[Pythagoreanism#Pythagorean vegetarianism|their creed]] prohibited the eating of beans. The reason is unclear: perhaps the [[flatulence]] they cause, perhaps as protection from potential [[favism]], but most likely for magico-religious reasons.<ref>Gabrielle Hatfield, ''review'' of Frederick J. Simoons, ''Plants of Life, Plants of Death'', University of Wisconsin Press, 1999. ISBN 0-299-15904-3. In ''Folklore'' '''111''':317-318 (2000). [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0015-587X%28200010%29111%3A2%3C317%3APOLPOD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A at JSTOR]</ref><ref>Riedweg, Christoph. ''Pythagoras: his life, teaching, and influence''; translated by Steven Rendall in collaboration with Christoph Riedweg and Andreas Schatzmann, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, (2005), ISBN 0-8014-4240-0</ref>
Although it might not be a taboo in a strictest sense, older [[Germany|Germans]] might not eat [[rutabaga|swede]] (Swedish turnip, rutabaga), as they see it as a "[[famine food]]", not for general consumption. This taboo existed from the 1916-17 famine ''(Steckrübenwinter)'' when Germany had one of the worst winters in memory, where often the only food available was swedes. This led a distaste to the vegetable which still continues today with the older generations having had experiences from World War II or having had a childhood with parents talking about the aforementioned famine. However, in recent years this taboo has vanishing as Germans has re-discovered many traditional or local cooking recipes, including those including swede. One reason for this, is a trend to [[German cuisine|traditional and organic cuisine]]. Also for most Germans in 2008, the ''"Steckrübenwinter"'' famine from 1916-17 is history and has no more relevance on today's choice of food and dish.
=== Whales ===
{{seealso|Whaling}}
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}
Over the last couple of decades, the eating of whale has become increasingly taboo.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}<!-- is it the eating of whale meat which has become taboo, or the hunting of whales? -->
The [[International Whaling Commission]] passed a moratorium on commercial whaling on [[July 23]], [[1982]] that came into force for the 1985-86 season.
[[Norway]] resumed commercial whaling of [[minke whale]]s in 1993 and it is still a popular meat, especially on Norway's western coast. Once considered an inexpensive substitute for beef, whale meat is now a highly priced delicacy. [[Iceland]] resumed commercial whaling in 2006. [[Japan]]'s whaling is officially done for research purposes. This is specifically sanctioned under IWC regulations that also specifically require that whale meat be fully utilized upon the completion of research. Many international scientific and environmentalist groups {{Who|date=September 2007}} argue that the killing is not necessary to conduct the research. The resultant meat is widely available in supermarkets, but is not widely eaten.
The United States [[Marine Mammal Protection Act]] of 1972 prohibits, with certain exceptions, the taking of marine mammals in United States waters and by U.S. citizens on the high seas, and the importation of marine mammals and marine mammal products into the U.S. Despite the general ban on whale hunting in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], some indigenous groups are allowed to hunt for cultural reasons.
== Taboo drinks ==
===Alcohol===
Some religions—most notably [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Baptists]]{{fact|date=June 2008}} and other [[Evangelical Christians]], [[Jainism]], [[Sikhism]], the [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Latter-day Saint]]s, the [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikaya]] and most [[Mahayana]] schools of [[Buddhism]]—forbid or discourage the consumption of [[alcoholic beverage]]s. See also: [[Christianity and alcohol]] There are also laws in some countries against [[drinking and driving]].
===Blood===<!-- This section is linked from [[Blood]] -->
{{Refimprovesect|date=May 2007}}
Drinking [[blood]] is a strong taboo in many countries, and is often vaguely associated with [[vampirism]] (the consumption of human blood).
Although [[blood sausage]], or blood made into cake form, is quite popular in many parts of the world, it is considered repulsive in most of the [[United States]]. In Britain and some Commonwealth countries, "black pudding" or "blood pudding" is made from blood and some filler grains and spices, often oatmeal. Blood sausage is also popular in Finland ([[mustamakkara]]) and some Baltic nations e.g. Poland ([[kaszanka]]), Latvia and Estonia, as well as in Germany ([[Blutwurst]]), Hungary ([[véres hurka]]), [[Spain]] ([[Morcilla]]), [[Catalonia]] ([[Botifarra]]), [[México]] ([[Moronga]]) [[Slovenia]] (Krvavica), [[Peru]] ([[Relleno]]), Puerto Rico (Morcilla) and [[France]] ([[Boudin]]). In Portugal, a traditional dish known as ''[[cabidela]]'' is made by cooking chicken or rabbit in its own blood, sometimes diluted with vinegar. In China, [[Thailand]] and [[Vietnam]] coagulated chicken, duck, goose or pig blood, known in Chinese as "blood tofu" (血豆腐 xuě dòufǔ) is used in soups, such as the classic Thai dish ''Tom Lued Moo'' (Literally means Pork Blood Soup). In the Philippines, a popular dish called ''[[dinuguan]]'' is made from pig's blood and seasoned with chili and is traditionally eaten with rice cakes. In Sweden, the blood soup [[svartsoppa]] is traditionally eaten on certain holidays. A type of black pudding, blodpudding, is often eaten with [[lingonberry jam]]. Polish cuisine has a version [[czernina]], which is enjoyed by many adherents in certain regions. In [[Laos]], and sometimes [[Thailand]] (especially the [[Isan|Northeast]]), a raw version of [[laap]], a meat salad, is made with minced raw meat, seasoned in spices, and covered with blood.
In the western region of Santander [[Colombia]] a dish called ''pepitoria'' is made from rice cooked in goat blood. As noted above, some people in China and Vietnam consider certain types of snake blood to be an aphrodisiac, and drink it with rice wine. Mexicans from certain regions eat goat's stomach stuffed with pork blood and vegetables as a delicacy.
Followers of [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] are forbidden to drink blood or eat food made from blood. In Judaism all mammal and bird meat (not fish) is [[salted]] to remove the blood. Jews follow the teaching in [[Leviticus]] 17:10-12, that since "the life of the animal is in the blood", no person may eat (or drink) the blood. However, they have no rules regarding blood transfusions since the blood is not consumed and because a transfusion is a medical procedure (Jews may break kosher laws, and Muslims may break harams, if doing so will save life).
According to the [[Bible]] blood is only to be used for special/sacred purposes in connection with worship [Exodus chapters 12, 24, 29; Matthew 26:28; Hebrew 9:22]. In the first century, [[Christians]], both former [[Jews]], and new [[Gentile]] converts, were in dispute as to which particular features of Jewish law were to be retained and upheld by them. The apostles decided that, among other things, it was necessary to abstain from consuming blood. Acts 15:28,29, "For it seemed good to the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]], and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things; That ye abstain from meats offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well, Fare ye well." ([[King James Version]]) These New Testament verses repeated certain elements of the Jewish law, and included the prohibition regarding blood, thus making it also binding upon the early Christian church.
===Coffee and tea===
Hot drinks are taboo for members of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] and some other [[Mormon]] groups.<ref name="MormonDrink">{{cite web |url=http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/89/1-9#1|title=Doctrine and Covenants 89 Verse 9|accessdate=2007-02-05}}</ref> Most Mormons interpret this as referring exclusively to [[coffee]] and [[tea]] (e.g. not hot cocoa or herbal tea). It is also sometimes extended as a taboo against [[caffeine]] in general, including [[cola]] drinks <ref>{{cite web|url=http://lds.about.com/library/weekly/aa121202a.htm|title=Christianity - Latter-day Saints: Cola Drinks and Caffeine|publisher=about.com|accessdate=2007-05-27}}</ref>. Coffee is also taboo for [[Rastafarians]].
== See also==
* [[Cannibalism]]
* [[Halal]]
* [[Ḥarām]]
* [[Islamic dietary laws]]
* [[Ital]], the dietary laws of the [[Rastafari movement]]
* [[Fasting]]
* [[Kashrut]]
* [[Kosher foods]]
* [[Sacred cow]]
* [[Teetotalism]]
* [[Temperance movement]]
* [[Unclean animals]]
* [[Vegetarianism]]
* [[Veganism]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
*{{cite book | author=Stewart Lee Allen | title=In the Devil's Garden: A Sinful History of Forbidden Food | id=ISBN 0-345-44015-3}}
*{{cite book | author=Calvin W. Schwabe | title=Unmentionable Cuisine | id=ISBN 0-8139-1162-1}}
*{{cite book | author=Frederick J. Simoons | title=Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present | id=ISBN 0-299-14250-7}}
*{{cite book | author=Marvin Harris | title=Good to Eat | id=ISBN 0-04-306002-1}} Harris applies [[cultural materialism]], looking for economical or ecological explanations behind the taboos.
*{{cite book | last = Morales | first = Edmundo | title = The Guinea Pig : Healing, Food, and Ritual in the Andes | publisher = University of Arizona Press |date=1995 | id = ISBN 0-8165-1558-1 }}
*Gidi Yahalom, "The Pig’s Testimony", [[Antiguo Oriente]] 5 (2007): 195-204.
==External links==
*[http://www.sptimes.com/2002/09/04/Columns/Americans_squeamish_o.shtml Americans squeamish over horse meat]
*[http://www.koreananimals.org/index.htm Korean Animal Protection Society]
*[http://www.china.org.cn/english/Life/36202.htm China exotic food FAQ]
*[http://religion.atspace.com/index.htm Laws of Judaism and Islam concerning food]
*[http://www.theiling.de/recipes/ Traditional German gourmet recipes with horse meat]
*[http://www.food-insects.com/ Insects as food]
*[http://www.karlammann.com/ Karl Ammann, wildlife photographer and bushmeat activist]
*[http://www.messybeast.com/eat-cats.htm Cats - Friend or Food?]
*[http://www.fws.gov/migratorybirds/intrnltr/treatlaw.html Guide to Migratory Bird Laws and Treaties]
*[http://www.crowbusters.com/recipes.htm Crow recipes]
[[Category:Taboo]]
[[Category:Diets]]
[[Category:Food and drink]]
[[Category:Sharia]]
[[Category:Kosher food]]
[[Category:Meat]]
[[Category:Religious law]]
[[Category:Religion based diets]]
[[Category:Lists of foods]]
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