Taste
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2008-07-16T21:16:30Z
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{{2otheruses|the sense|the social and aesthetic aspects of "taste"|Taste (sociology)}}
[[Image:Taste bud.svg|thumb|right|Taste Bud]]
'''Taste''' (or, more formally, '''gustation''') is a form of direct [[chemoreception]] and is one of the traditional five [[sense]]s. It refers to the ability to detect the [[flavor]] of substances such as [[food]] and [[poison]]s. In humans and many other vertebrate animals the sense of taste partners with the less direct [[olfaction|sense of smell]], in the brain's perception of flavor. In the West, experts traditionally identified four taste sensations: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. Eastern experts traditionally identified a fifth, called [[umami]]. More recently, [[psychophysics|psychophysicists]] and [[neuroscience|neuroscientists]] have suggested other taste categories ([[umami]] and [[fatty acid]] taste most prominently, as well as the sensation of metallic and water tastes, although the latter is commonly disregarded due to the phenomenon of taste adaptation.{{fact|date=May 2008}})
Taste is a sensory function of the [[central nervous system]]. The receptor cells for taste in humans are found on the surface of the [[tongue]], along the [[soft palate]], and in the epithelium of the [[pharynx]] and [[epiglottis]].
==Basic taste==
Psychophysicists have long suggested the existence of four taste 'primaries', referred to as the basic tastes: [[sweetness]], [[bitterness]], [[sourness]], and [[saltiness]]. [[Umami]] is now accepted as the fifth basic taste, exemplified by the non-salty sensations evoked by some free amino acids such as [[monosodium glutamate]].<ref> {{cite journal | last=Ikeda | first=Kikunae | title=New Seasonings[japan.] | journal=Journal of the Chemical Society of Tokyo |date=1909 | volume=30 | pages= 820–836}}</ref><ref> {{cite journal | last=Ikeda | first=Kikunae | title=New Seasonings | journal=Chemical Senses |date=2002 | volume=27 | issue=9 | pages= 847–849 |url=http://chemse.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/27/9/847|format=[[PDF]]|accessdate=2007-12-30 | doi=10.1093/chemse/27.9.847 | pmid=12438213}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Nelson G, Chandrashekar J, Hoon MA, ''et al'' |title=An amino-acid taste receptor |journal=Nature |volume=416 |issue=6877 |pages=199–202 |year=2002 |pmid=11894099 |doi=10.1038/nature726}}</ref>
Other possible categories have been suggested, such as a taste exemplified by certain [[fatty acids]] such as linoleic acid.<ref>[http://ajpcell.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/272/4/C1203 Fatty acid modulation of K+ channels in taste receptor cells: gustatory cues for dietary fat - Gilbertson et al. 272 (4): C1203 - AJP - Cell Physiology<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.12.004</ref><ref>http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.08.058</ref> Some researchers still argue against the notion of primaries at all and instead favor a continuum of percepts <ref> {{cite journal | last=Schiffman | first=Susan | title=Taste quality and neural coding: implications from psychophysics and neurophysiology | journal=Physiology and Behavior |date=2000 | volume=69 | pages= 147–159 | doi=10.1016/S0031-9384(00)00198-0}}</ref><ref> {{cite journal | last=Erickson | first=Robert | title=Classification of taste responses in brain stem: membership in fuzzy sets | journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |date=1994 | volume=71 | issue=6 | pages= 2139–50 }}</ref><ref> {{cite journal | last=Erickson | first=Robert | title=Studies on the perception of taste: do primaries exist? | journal=Physiology and Behavior |date=1982 | volume=28 | issue=1 | pages= 57–62 | doi=10.1016/0031-9384(82)90102-0 }}</ref>, similar to [[color vision]].
All of these taste sensations arise from all regions of the oral cavity, despite the common misperception of a "taste map" of sensitivity to different tastes thought to correspond to specific areas of the tongue.<ref>[http://www.med-rz.uni-sb.de/med_fak/physiol1/LDM/chemotopic_1.htm chemotopic organization 1<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> This myth is generally attributed to the mis-translation of a German text, and perpetuated in North American schools since the early twentieth century <ref> {{cite journal | author=Lindemann, Bernd| title=Receptor seeks ligand: On the way to cloning the molecular receptors for sweet and bitter taste | journal=Nature Medicine| year=1999 | volume=5 | issue=4 | pages= 381 | doi = 10.1038/7377 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref>. Very slight regional differences in sensitivity to compounds exist, though these regional differences are subtle and do not conform exactly to the mythical tongue map. Individual taste buds (which contain approximately 100 taste receptor cells), in fact, typically respond to compounds evoking each of the five basic tastes.
The ''basic tastes'' are those commonly recognized types of [[taste]] [[sense]]d by [[human]]s. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called ''[[taste bud]]s'' or ''gustatory calyculi'', concentrated on the upper surface of the [[tongue], but a few are also found on the roof of ones mouth furthuring the taste sensations we can recieve.]. Scientists describe five basic tastes: bitter, salty, sour, sweet, and [[umami]] (described as savory, meaty, or brothy). The basic tastes are only one component that contributes to the sensation of food in the mouth—other factors include the food's [[smell]], detected by the [[olfactory epithelium]] of the nose, its [[texture (food)|texture]], detected by [[mechanoreceptor]]s, and its temperature, detected by [[thermoreceptor]]s. Taste and [[smell]] are subsumed under the term ''[[flavor]]''.
===History===
In Western culture, the concept of basic tastes can be traced back at least to [[Aristotle]], who cited "[[sweetness|sweet]]" and "[[bitterness|bitter]]", with "succulent", "[[salty|salt]]", "[[pungency|pungent]]", "harsh", "[[astringent|puckery]]", and "sour" as elaborations of those two basics. The ancient Chinese [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|Five Elements]] philosophy lists slightly different five basic tastes: bitter, salty, sour, sweet, and [[pungency|spicy]]. Japanese and Indian cultures each add their own sixth taste to the basic five.
For many years, books on the [[physiology]] of human taste contained diagrams of the tongue showing levels of sensitivity to different tastes in different regions. In fact, taste qualities are found in all areas of the tongue, in contrast with the popular view that different tastes map to different areas of the tongue.<ref>Huang A. L., et al. {{cite web | title="The cells and logic for mammalian sour taste detection" (no free access)| url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v442/n7105/abs/nature05084.html}} Nature, 442. 934 - 938 (2006).</ref><ref>{{cite web | author = Scenta | title = "How sour taste buds grow" | url = http://www.scenta.co.uk/Home/1061938/how-sour-taste-buds-grow.htm}} August 25, 2006.</ref>
===Recent discoveries===
The [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]] for all known basic tastes have been identified. The receptors for sour and salty are [[ion channel]]s while the receptors for sweet, bitter, and umami belong to the class of [[G protein coupled receptor]]s.
In November 2005, a team of French researchers experimenting on rodents claimed to have evidence for a sixth taste, for fatty substances.<ref> {{cite journal | last=Laugerette | first=Fabienne | coauthors= Patricia Passilly-Degrace, Bruno Patris, Isabelle Niot, Maria Febbraio, Jean-Pierre Montmayeur, Philippe Besnard |
title=CD36 involvement in orosensory detection of dietary lipids, spontaneous fat preference, and digestive secretions | journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |date=November 2005 | volume=115 | issue=11| pages= 3177–3184|url=http://www.jci.org/cgi/reprint/115/11/3177.pdf|format=[[PDF]]|accessdate=2007-12-28 |
doi=10.1172/JCI25299}}</ref> It is speculated that humans may also have the same receptors.<ref> {{cite journal | last=Abumrad | first=Nada A. | title=CD36 may determine our desire for dietary fats | journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |date=November 2005 | volume=115 | issue=11|pages= 2965–2967|url=http://www.jci.org/cgi/reprint/115/11/2965.pdf|format=[[PDF]]|accessdate=2007-12-28 | doi=10.1172/JCI26955}}</ref> Fat has occasionally been raised as a possible basic taste in the past (Bravo 1592, Linnaeus 1751) but later classifications abandoned fat as a separate taste (Haller 1751 and 1763).
<ref>{{ cite book | last=Boring |first=Edwin G. | title=Sensation and Perception in the History of Experimental Psychology | publisher=[[Appleton Century Crofts]] |date=1942 | pages= p. 453}}</ref>
Meanwhile, scientists from the [[Monell Chemical Senses Center]] continue to research the five basic tastes, especially Umami.
==Five basic tastes==
For a long period, it has been commonly accepted that there are a finite number of "basic tastes" by which all foods and tastes can be grouped. Just like with [[primary color]]s, these "basic tastes" only apply to the human perception, ie. the different sorts of tastes our [[tongue]] can identify. Up until the 2000s, this was considered to be a group of four basic tastes. More recently, a fifth taste, Umami, was added by a wide number of authorities in this field.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Ikeda | first=Kikunae | title=New Seasonings | journal=Chemical Senses | date= 2002 | volume=27 | issue=9 | pages= 847–849 |url=http://chemse.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/27/9/847|format=[[PDF]]|accessdate=2007-12-30 | doi=10.1093/chemse/27.9.847 | pmid=12438213}}. Acceptence of this basic taste came later, varying from region to region. see further: [[Umami]]</ref>
====Bitterness====
The bitter taste is perceived by many to be unpleasant, sharp, or disagreeable. Common bitter foods and beverages include [[coffee]], unsweetened [[chocolate]], [[bitter melon]], [[beer]], uncured [[Olive (fruit)|olives]], [[Peel (fruit)|citrus peel]], many plants in the [[Brassicaceae]] family, [[dandelion]] greens and [[escarole]]. [[Quinine]] is also known for its bitter taste and is found in [[tonic water]].
The most bitter substance known is the synthetic chemical [[denatonium]]. It is used as an [[aversive agent]] that is added to toxic substances to prevent accidental ingestion. This was discovered in 1958 during research on [[lignocaine]], a local anesthetic, by [[Macfarlan Smith]] of [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]</sup>.
Research has shown that TAS2Rs (taste receptors, type 2, also known as T2Rs) such as [[TAS2R38]] coupled to the [[G protein]] gustducin are responsible for the human ability to taste bitter substances. They are identified not only by their ability to taste for certain "bitter" ligands, but also by the morphology of the receptor itself (surface bound, monomeric).<ref> {{cite journal | last=Lindemann | first=Bernd | title=Receptors and transduction in taste| journal=Nature |date=13 September 2001 | volume=413 |pages= 219–225|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v413/n6852/pdf/413219a0.pdf|format=[[PDF]]|accessdate=2007-12-30 | doi=10.1038/35093032}}</ref> Researchers use two synthetic substances, [[phenylthiocarbamide]] (PTC) and [[propylthiouracil|6-n-propylthiouracil]] (PROP) to study the [[genetics]] of bitter perception. These two substances taste bitter to some people, but are virtually tasteless to others. Among the tasters, some are so-called "[[supertaster]]s" to whom PTC and PROP are extremely bitter. This genetic variation in the ability to taste a substance has been a source of great interest to those who study genetics. In addition, it is of interest to those who study [[evolution]] since PTC-tasting is associated with the ability to taste numerous natural bitter compounds, a large number of which are known to be toxic.
====Saltiness====
Saltiness is a taste produced primarily by the presence of [[sodium ion]]s. Other ions of the [[alkali metals]] group also taste salty. However the further from sodium the less salty is the sensation. The size of [[lithium]] and [[potassium]] ions most closely resemble those of sodium and thus the saltiness is most similar. In contrast [[rubidium]] and [[cesium]] ions are far larger so their salty taste differs accordingly. Potassium, as [[potassium chloride]] - KCl, is the principle ingredient in [[salt substitute]]s.
Other [[monovalent]] [[cations]], e.g. [[ammonium]], NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>, and [[divalent]] cations of the [[alkali earth metal]] group of the [[periodic table]], e.g. calcium, Ca<sup>2+</sup>, ions generally elicit a bitter rather than a salty taste even though they too can pass directly through ion channels in the tongue, generating an [[action potential]].
====Sourness====
{{Wiktionarypar|sour}}
{{redirect|Sour}}
Sourness is the taste that detects [[acid]]ity. The mechanism for detecting sour taste is similar to that which detects salt taste. Hydrogen [[ion channels]] detect the concentration of [[hydronium ion]]s (H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> ions) that are formed from acids and water.
Hydrogen ions are capable of permeating the amiloride-sensitive channels, but this is not the only mechanism involved in detecting the quality of sourness. Other channels have also been proposed in the literature. Hydrogen ions also inhibit the potassium channel, which normally functions to hyperpolarize the cell. By a combination of direct intake of hydrogen ions (which itself depolarizes the cell) and the inhibition of the hyperpolarizing channel, sourness causes the taste cell to fire in this specific manner. In addition, it has also been suggested that weak acids, such as CO<sub>2</sub> which is converted into the [[bicarbonate]] ion HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>–</sup> by the [[enzyme]] [[carbonic anhydrase]], to mediate weak acid transport.{{unclear|May 2008}}
====Sweetness====
{{Main|Sweetness}}
Sweetness is produced by the presence of [[sugar]]s, some proteins and a few other substances. Sweetness is often connected to [[aldehyde]]s and [[ketone]]s, which contain a [[carbonyl group]]. Sweetness is detected by a variety of [[G protein coupled receptor]]s coupled to the [[G protein]] [[gustducin]] found on the [[taste bud]]s. At least two different variants of the "sweetness receptors" need to be activated for the brain to register sweetness. The compounds which the brain senses as sweet are thus compounds that can bind with varying bond strength to two different sweetness receptors. These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer), which are shown to be accountable for all sweet sensing in humans and animals.<ref> {{cite journal | last=Zhao | first=Grace Q. | coauthors = Yifeng Zhang, Mark A. Hoon,
Jayaram Chandrashekar, Isolde Erlenbach, Nicholas J.P. Ryba, Charles S. Zuker | title=The Receptors for Mammalian Sweet and Umami taste | journal=Cell |date=October 2003 | volume=115 | issue=3|pages= 255–266|url=http://download.cell.com/pdfs/0092-8674/PIIS0092867403008444.pdf|format=[[PDF]]|accessdate=2007-12-30 | doi=10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00844-4}}</ref> The average human detection threshold for [[sucrose]] is 10 millimoles per litre. For [[lactose]] it is 30 millimoles per litre, and [[5-Nitro-2-propoxyaniline]] 0.002 millimoles per litre.
{{seealso|Miraculin|Curculin}}
====Umami====
{{Main|Umami}}
{{nihongo|Umami|旨味, うまみ}} is the name for the taste sensation produced by compounds such as [[glutamate]], and are commonly found in [[fermentation(food)|fermented]] and aged foods. In English, it is also described as "meatiness", "relish", or "savoriness". The [[Japanese language|Japanese]] word comes from {{nihongo|''umai''|旨い}} for yummy, keen, or nice. Umami is now the commonly used term by taste scientists. The same taste is referred to as ''xiānwèi'' ({{nihongo2|鮮味}} or {{nihongo2|鲜味}}) in [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]] cooking. Umami is considered a fundamental taste in Chinese and Japanese cooking, but is not discussed as much in [[Western cuisine]].
Humans have taste receptors specifically for the detection of the [[amino acid]]s, e.g. [[glutamic acid]]. Amino acids are commonly found in meats, cheese, fish, and other protein-heavy foods. Examples of food containing glutamate (and thus strong in umami) are beef, lamb, [[parmesan]] and [[roquefort]] [[cheese]] as well as [[soy sauce]] and [[fish sauce]]. The glutamate taste sensation is most intense in combination with sodium ions, as found in table salt. Sauces with umami and salty tastes are very popular for cooking, such as [[worcestershire sauce]] for Western cuisines and [[soy sauce]] and fish sauce for [[Asia]]n cuisines.
The additive [[monosodium glutamate]] (MSG), which was developed as a food additive in 1907 by [[Kikunae Ikeda]], produces a strong umami. Umami is also provided by the [[nucleotide]]s [[inosinic acid|5’-inosine monophosphate]] (IMP) and [[guanosine monophosphate|5’-guanosine monophosphate]] (GMP). These are naturally present in many protein-rich foods. IMP is present in high concentrations in many foods, including dried [[skipjack tuna]] flakes used to make ''[[dashi]]'', a [[cuisine of Japan|Japanese]] broth. GMP is present in high concentration in dried ''[[shiitake]] '' mushrooms, used in much of the [[cuisine of Asia]]. There is a synergistic effect between MSG, IMP, and GMP which together in certain ratios produce a strong umami.
Some umami taste buds respond specifically to glutamate in the same way that ''sweet'' ones respond to sugar. Glutamate binds to a variant of [[G protein coupled receptor|G protein coupled glutamate receptors]].<ref> {{cite journal | last=Lindemann | first=Bernd | title=A taste for Umami taste| journal=Nature Neuroscience |date=February 2000 | volume=3 | issue=2|pages= 99–100|url=http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n2/pdf/nn0200_99.pdf|format=[[PDF]]|accessdate=2007-12-30 | doi=10.1038/72153}}</ref><ref> {{cite journal | last=Chaudhari | first=Nirupa | coauthors = Ana Marie Landin, Stephen D. Roper | title=A metabotropic glutamate receptor variant functions as a taste receptor | journal=Nature Neuroscience |date=February 2000 | volume=3 | issue=2|pages= 113–119|url=http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v3/n2/pdf/nn0200_113.pdf|format=[[PDF]]|accessdate=2007-12-30 | doi=10.1038/72053}}</ref>
====Fattiness?====
Recent research has revealed a potential taste receptor called the [[CD36|CD36 receptor]] to be reacting to [[fat]], more specifically, [[fatty acid]]s.<ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&articleID=000AFE88-E770-1367-A6B083414B7F4945 Potential Taste Receptor for Fat Identified: Scientific American<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> This receptor was found in [[brown rat|mice]], but probably exists among other [[mammal]]s as well. In experiments, mice with a genetic defect that blocked this receptor didn't show the same urge to consume fatty acids as normal mice, and failed to prepare [[gastric juice]]s in their [[gastrointestinal tract|digestive tracts]] to digest fat. This discovery may lead to a better understanding of the biochemical reasons behind this behaviour, although more research is still necessary to confirm the relationship between CD36 and the perception of fat. '''
==Further sensations==
The tongue can also feel other sensations, not generally called tastes ''[[per se]]'' or included in the five human tastes. These are largely detected by the [[somatosensory]] system.
===Dryness===
Some foods, such as unripe fruits, contain [[tannins]] or [[calcium oxalate]] that cause an astringent or rough sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth or the teeth. Examples include [[tea]], [[rhubarb]], [[grapes]] and unripe [[persimmon]]s and [[banana]]s.
Less exact terms for the astringent sensation are "dry", "rough", "harsh" (especially for wine), "tart", (normally referring to sourness) "rubbery", "hard", or "styptic",<ref>http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/68000103/abstract</ref>. The Chinese have a term for this: 澀 (''sè''), the Koreans have 떫다 (''tteolda''), the Japanese call it 渋い (''shibui''), while Thai have ฝาด (fard), the Malay use ''kelat'', Filipinos use ''pakla'', and in Russian there is ''вяжущий (vyazhuschiy)'' or ''тёрпкий (tjorpky)''.
In the Indian tradition, one of the 6 tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, hot/pungent and dry) [http://www.ayurshop.com/diet/rasas.html] is astringency (Kasaaya in Sanskrit). This is more or less in line with the Japanese approach to umami.
===Metallicness===
Most people know this taste (e.g. Cu<sup>2+</sup>, FeSO<sub>4</sub>, or blood in mouth), but it is not only taste but olfactory receptors worked in this case (''Guth'' and ''Grosch'', 1990). Metallic taste is commonly known, however biologists are reluctant to categorize it with the other taste sensations. One of the primary reasons is that it is not one commonly associated with consumption of food. Proponents of the theory contest that the sensation is readily detectable and distinguishable to test subjects. Therefore, metallic should be added as one of the basic types of sensations in the chemical receptor senses.
===Prickliness or hotness===
{{see also|Scoville scale|Pungency}}
Substances such as ethanol and [[capsaicin]] cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The sensation of heat is caused by the food activating a nerve cell called TRP-V1, which is also activated by hot temperatures. The [[pungency|piquant]] sensation, usually referred to as being "hot" or "spicy", is a notable feature of [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican]], [[Hungarian cuisine|Hungarian]], [[Indian cuisine|Indian]], [[Szechuan cuisine|Szechuan]], [[Cuisine of Korea|Korean]], [[Indonesian cuisine|Indonesian]], central [[Cuisine of Vietnam|Vietnamese]], and [[Cuisine of Thailand|Thai]] cuisines.
The two main plants providing this sensation are [[chili pepper]]s (those fruits of the ''[[Capsicum]]'' plant that contain [[capsaicin]]) and [[black pepper]].
If tissue in the oral cavity has been damaged or sensitised, ethanol may be experienced as pain rather than simply heat. Those who have had radiotherapy for oral cancer thus find it painful to drink alcohol.{{fact|date=October 2007}}
In many cases, this particular sensation is not considered a taste, so much as a painful reaction to certain marginally damaging chemicals on the taste receptors and the skin of the tongue. While the taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the reaction commonly interpreted as "hot" is derived from the tongue's pain nerves firing.
===Coolness===
Some substances activate cold [[trigeminal]] receptors. One can sense a cool sensation (also known as "fresh" or "minty") from, e.g., [[spearmint]], [[menthol]], ethanol or [[camphor]], which is caused by the food activating the [[transient receptor potential|TRP-M8]] ion channel on [[neuron|nerve cell]]s that also signal cold. Unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.
===Numbness===
Both Chinese and Batak Toba cooking include the idea of 麻 ''má'', or ''mati rasa'' the sensation of tingling numbness caused by spices such as [[Sichuan pepper]]. The cuisine of [[Sichuan]] province in China and of North Sumatra province in Indonesia, often combines this with [[chili pepper]] to produce a 麻辣 ''málà'', "numbing-and-hot", or "mati rasa" flavor.<ref>[http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Zant_pip.html?noframes Spice Pages: Sichuan Pepper (Zanthoxylum, Szechwan peppercorn, fagara, hua jiao, sansho 山椒, timur, andaliman, tirphal)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
===Heartiness (Kokumi)===
Some Japanese researchers refer to the ''kokumi'' in foods laden with [[alcohol]]- and [[thiol]]-groups in their [[list of standard amino acids|amino acid extracts]] which has been described variously as continuity, mouthfulness, mouthfeel, and thickness.
===Temperature===
Temperature is an essential element of human taste experience. Food and drink that—within a given culture—is considered to be properly served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and ''vice versa''.
Some sugar substitutes have strong [[Enthalpy change of solution|heats of solution]], as is the case of [[sorbitol]], [[erythritol]], [[xylitol]], [[mannitol]], [[lactitol]], and [[maltitol]]. When they are dry and are allowed to dissolve in saliva, heat effects can be recognized. The cooling effect upon eating may be desirable, as in a mint candy made with crystalline sorbitol, or undesirable if it's not typical for that product, like in a cookie. [[Crystalline]] phases tend to have a positive heat of solution and thus a cooling effect. The heats of solution of the [[amorphous]] phases of the same substances are negative and cause a warm impression in the mouth.<ref>{{cite journal
| first = HK
| last = Cammenga
| authorlink =|
| coauthors = LO Figura, B Zielasko
| year = 1996
| month = |
| title = Thermal behaviour of some sugar alcohols
| journal = Journal of thermal analysis
| volume = 47
| issue = 2
| pages = 427–434
| id =|
| url =|
| doi = 10.1007/BF01983984
}}</ref>
==Supertasters==
{{Main|Supertaster}}
A supertaster is a person whose sense of taste is significantly more sharp than average. Women are more likely to be supertasters, as are Asians, Africans, and South Americans. Among individuals of European descent, it is estimated that about 25% of the population are supertasters. The cause of this heightened response is currently unknown, although it is thought to be, at least in part, due to an increased number of [[fungiform papillae]].<ref>Bartoshuk, L. M., V. B. Duffy, ''et al.'' (1994). "PTC/PROP tasting: anatomy, psychophysics, and sex effects." 1994. ''Physiol Behav'' 56(6): 1165-71.</ref> The evolutionary advantage to supertasting is unclear. In some environments, heightened taste response, particularly to bitterness, would represent an important advantage in avoiding potentially toxic plant alkaloids. However, in other environments, increased response to bitter may have limited the range of palatable foods. In a modern, energy-rich environment, supertasting may be cardioprotective, due to decreased liking and intake of fat, but may increase cancer risk via decreased vegetable intake. It may be a cause of picky eating, but picky eaters are not necessarily supertasters, and vice versa.
==Aftertaste==
{{Main|Aftertaste}}
Aftertaste is the persistence of a sensation of flavor after the stimulating substance has passed out of contact with the sensory end organs for taste. Some aftertastes may be pleasant, others unpleasant.
Alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer and whiskey are noted for having particularly strong aftertastes. Foods with notable aftertastes include spicy foods, such as [[Mexican food]] (e.g. chili pepper), or [[Indian food]] (such as curry).
[[Medicine]]s and tablets may also have a lingering aftertaste.
==Acquired taste==
An [[acquired taste]] is an appreciation for a food or beverage that is unlikely to be enjoyed, in part or in full, by a person who has not had substantial exposure to it, usually because of some unfamiliar aspect of the food or beverage, including a strong or strange odor, taste, or appearance. The process of “acquiring” a taste involves consuming a food or beverage in the hope of learning to enjoy it. In most cases, this introductory period is considered worthwhile, as many of the world's [[delicacy|delicacies]] are considered to be acquired tastes. A [[connoisseur]] is one who is held to have an expert judgment of taste.
==Factors affecting taste perception==
Many factors affect taste perception, including:
*Aging
*Color/vision impairments
*Hormonal influences
*Genetic variations; see [[Phenylthiocarbamide]]
*Oral temperature
*Drugs and chemicals
*CNS Tumors (esp. Temporal lobe lesions) and other neurological causes<ref name="pmid16733343">{{cite journal |author=Heckmann JG, Lang CJ |title=Neurological causes of taste disorders |journal=Adv. Otorhinolaryngol. |volume=63 |issue= |pages=255–64 |year=2006 |pmid=16733343 |doi=10.1159/000093764}}</ref>
*Plugged noses
*[[Zinc#Zinc_deficiency|Zinc]] deficiency
It is also important to consider that [[flavor]] is the overall, total sensation induced during [[mastication]] (e.g. taste, touch, pain and smell). Smell ([[olfactory]] stimulation) plays a major role in flavor perception.
==Disorders of taste==
*[[ageusia]] (complete loss)
==See also==
*[[Optimal foraging theory]]
*[[Vomeronasal organ]]
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Taste|Taste}}
*[http://hum-molgen.org/NewsGen/11-2003/msg11.html Researchers Define Molecular Basis of Human "Sweet Tooth" and Umami Taste]
*[http://scribd.com/doc/35336/Curious-about-tastes-and-smells/ Answers to several questions of curious kids about taste]
{{Sensory_system}}
[[Category:Sensory system]]
[[Category:Gustation]]
[[Category:Gustatory system]]
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[[te:రుచి]]
[[th:รสชาติ]]
[[uk:Смак]]
[[fiu-vro:Maitsminõ]]
[[wa:Sawoura]]
[[yi:טעם]]
[[zh:味觉]]