The Languages of Africa 1770227 223675635 2008-07-05T05:47:15Z Mrg3105 2654809 /* References */ change categories '''''The Languages of Africa''''' is a [[1963]] book of essays by [[Joseph Greenberg]], in which he sets forth a genetic classification of [[African languages]] that, with some changes, continues to be the most commonly used one today. It is an expanded and extensively revised version of his 1955 work ''Studies in African Linguistic Classification'', which was itself a compilation of eight articles which Greenberg had published in the ''Southwestern Journal of Anthropology'' between 1949 and 1954. It was first published in 1963 as Part II of the ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', Vol. 29, No. 1; however, its second edition of 1966, in which it was published (by [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]], Bloomington: Mouton & Co., The Hague) as an independent work, is more commonly cited. Its author describes it as based on three fundamentals of method: * "The sole relevance in comparison of resemblances involving both sound and meaning in specific forms." * "[[mass lexical comparison|Mass comparison]] as against isolated comparisons between pairs of languages." *"Only linguistic evidence is relevant in drawing conclusions about classification." The second point, mass comparison, is controversial in [[historical linguistics]]. The third is completely uncontroversial in modern times, and is directed against previous African linguists (notably [[Carl Meinhof|Meinhof]]) who had classified languages on [[linguistic typology|typological]] and even [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] grounds. ==Novelties== His Niger-Congo family was substantially foreshadowed by [[Diedrich Hermann Westermann|Westermann]]'s "[[Western Sudanic languages|Western Sudanic]]", but he changed the subclassification, including [[Fula language|Fulani]] (as West Atlantic) and the newly postulated Adamawa-Eastern, excluding Songhai, and classifying [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] as merely a subfamily of Benue-Congo (previously termed "Semi-Bantu"). Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, and Cushitic had been generally accepted as members of a "Hamito-Semitic" family, while [[Chadic languages|Chadic]], "[[Nilo-Hamitic languages|Nilo-Hamitic]]", Fulani, and [[Hottentot language|Hottentot]] had all been controversially proposed as members. He accepted Chadic (while changing its membership), and rejected the other three, establishing to most linguists' satisfaction that they had been classified as "Hamitic" for purely typological reasons. This demonstration also led to the rejection (by him and by linguistics as a whole) of the term [[Hamitic]] as having no coherent meaning in historical linguistics; as a result, he renamed the newly reclassified family "[[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afroasiatic]]". This has since been emended by changing the status of "Western Cushitic", making it an independent subfamily of Afroasiatic called Omotic. Following Schapera and rejecting Meinhof, he classified Hottentot as a member of the Central Khoisan languages. To Khoisan he also added the much more northerly Hatsa and Sandawe; this change remains controversial, and is widely considered inadequately founded. His most revolutionary step was the postulation of the Nilo-Saharan phylum; this is still highly controversial, despite the publication of claimed reconstructions of the family, but is widely used. Within this, he identified a major subgroup termed [[Chari-Nile languages|Chari-Nile]], containing Eastern Sudanic, Central Sudanic, Kunama, and Berta; this has been generally rejected. On a lower level, he placed "Nilo-Hamitic" firmly within Nilotic, following a suggestion of Köhler, and placed Eastern Sudanic on a firmer foundation. Finally, he assigned the non-Nilo-Saharan languages of the Nuba Hills of [[Kordofan]] to a single subfamily ([[Kordofanian languages|Kordofanian]]), which together with Niger-Congo formed a new phylum, Congo-Kordofanian. This is generally accepted, with the exception of the "Tumtum" group, although it is unclear whether Kordofanian or Mande was the first branching. ==Classification== The book classifies Africa's languages into four stocks not presumed to be related, as follows: :'''I. [[Congo-Kordofanian languages|Congo-Kordofanian]]''' :I.A [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] :I.A.1 [[Atlantic languages|West Atlantic]] : I.A.1.a Northern: [[Wolof language|Wolof]], [[Serer language|Serer-Sin]], [[Fula language|Fulani]], [[Noon language|Serer-Non]], Konyagi, [[Basari language|Basari]], [[Biafada language|Biafada]], [[Badjara language|Badyara]] (Pajade), [[Jola languages|Dyola]], [[Mandjak language|Mandyak]], Balante, [[Banyun languages|Banyun]], [[Nalu language|Nalu]], [[Kobiana language|Cobiana]], [[Kasanga language|Cassanga]], [[Bijago language|Bidyogo]]. : I.A.1.b Southern: [[Temne language|Temne]], [[Baga languages|Baga]], [[Landoma language|Landoma]], [[Kissi language|Kissi]], [[Bullom So language|Bulom]], [[Limba language|Limba]], [[Gola language|Gola]] :I.A.2 [[Mande languages|Mande]] : I.A.2.a Western : I.A.2.a.1 [[Soninke language|Soninke]], [[Malinke language|Malinke]], [[Bambara language|Bambara]], [[Dyula language|Dyula]], Numu, [[Ligbi language|Ligbi]], Huela, [[Vai language|Vai]], Kono, Koranko, Khasonke, Susu, Dyalonke : I.A.2.a.2 Sya : I.A.2.a.3 Mande, Loko, Gbandi, Gbunde, Loma, [[Kpelle language|Kpelle]] (Guerze) : I.A.2.b Eastern : I.A.2.b.1 Mano, [[Dan language|Dan]] (Gio), Kweni (Guro), [[Mwa language|Mwa]], [[Nwa language|Nwa]]. : I.A.2.b.2 Samo, Bisa, Busa, Kayla Daire :I.A.3 [[Gur languages|Voltaic]] : I.A.3.a [[Senufo languages|Senoufo]]: [[Mamara language|Minianka]], [[Sucite language|Tagba]], Foro, [[Tagwana language|Tagwana]] (Takponin), [[Djimini language|Dyimini]], [[Nafaanra language|Nafana]] : I.A.3.b. Lobi-Dogon: [[Lobi language|Lobi]], Dyan, Puguli, Gan, Gouin, Turuka, Doghosie, Doghosie-Fing, Kyan, Tara, Bwamu, Wara, Natioro, <s>[[Dogon language|Dogon]]</s> (1966: "should probably be considered a new separate subgroup. If anything, it is nearest to group c"), Kulango : I.A.3.c Grusi: Awuna, Kasena, Nunuma, Lyele, Tamprusi, <s>Kanjaga (Bulea)</s> (moved to group d), Degha, Siti, Kurumba (Fulse), [[Sisala]] : I.A.3.d [[Mossi language|Mossi]], Dagomba, Kusasi, Nankanse, Talensi, Mamprusi, Wala, Dagari, Birifo, Namnam, Kanjaga (Bulea) (moved from group c) : I.A.3.e Tem, Kabre, Delo, Chala : I.A.3.f Bargu ([[Bariba language|Bariba]]) : I.A.3.g Gurma, Tobote (Basari), Kasele (Chamba), Moba :I.A.4 [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] : I.A.4.a [[Kru languages|Kru]]: Bete, Bakwe, Grebo, Bassa, De, Kru (Krawi) : I.A.4.b Avatime, Nyangbo, Tafi, [[Logba language|Logba]], Likpe, [[Anlo language|Ahlo]], Akposo, Lefana, Bowili, Akpafu, Santrokofi, [[Adele language|Adele]], Kebu, Anyimere, [[Ewe language|Ewe]], Aladian, Avikam, Gwa, Kyama, Akye, Ari, [[Abé language|Abe]], Adyukru, [[Akan language|Akan]] ([[Twi]], Anyi, [[Baoulé|Baule]], Guang, Metyibo, Abure), [[Ga language|Ga]], [[Dangme language|Adangme]] : I.A.4.c [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], Igala : I.A.4.d [[Nupe language|Nupe]], Gbari, Igbira, Gade : I.A.4.e Bini, Ishan, Kukuruku, Sobo : I.A.4.f [[Idoma language|Idoma]], Agatu, Iyala : I.A.4.g [[Igbo language|Ibo]] : I.A.4.h [[Ijo languages|Ijo]] :I.A.5 [[Benue-Congo languages|Benue-Congo]] : I.A.5.A [[Plateau languages|Plateau]] : I.A.5.A.1 : I.A.5.A.1.a Kambari, Dukawa, Dakakari, Basa, Kamuku, Reshe : I.A.5.A.1.b Piti, Janji, [[Kurama language|Kurama]], Chawai, Anaguta, Buji, Amap, Gure, Kahugu, Ribina, Butawa, Kudawa : I.A.5.A.2 Afusare, Irigwe, Katab, Kagoro, Kaje, Kachicheri, Morwa, Jaba, Kamantan, Kadara, Koro, Afo : I.A.5.A.3 Birom, Ganawuri (Aten) : I.A.5.A.4 Rukuba, Ninzam, Ayu, Mada, Kaninkwom : I.A.5.A.5 [[Eggon language|Eggon]], Nungu, Yeskwa : I.A.5.A.6 Kaleri, Pyem, Pai : I.A.5.A.7 Yergam, Basherawa : I.A.5.B [[Jukunoid languages|Jukunoid]]: [[Jukun language|Jukun]], Kentu, Nyidu, Tigong, Eregba, Mbembe, Zumper (Kutev, Mbarike), Boritsu : I.A.5.C [[Cross-River languages|Cross-River]] : I.A.5.C.1 Boki, Gayi (Uge), Yakoro : I.A.5.C.2 [[Ibibio language|Ibibio]], [[Efik language|Efik]], Ogoni (Kana), Andoni, Akoiyang, Ododop, Korop : I.A.5.C.3 Akunakuna, Abine, Yako, Asiga, Ekuri, Ukelle, Okpoto-Mteze, Olulomo : I.A.5.D [[Bantoid languages|Bantoid]]: [[Tiv language|Tiv]], Bitare, Batu, Ndoro, [[Mambila language|Mambila]], Bute, Bantu :I.A.6 [[Adamawa-Ubangi languages|Adamawa-Eastern]] : I.A.6.A [[Adamawa languages|Adamawa]] : [[Tula-Wiyaa languages|I.A.6.A.1]] [[Tula]], Dadiya, [[Waja language|Waja]], [[Cham language|Cham]], Kamu : I.A.6.A.2 [[Chamba]], [[Donga]], [[Lekon]], [[Wom language (Nigeria)|Wom]], Mumbake : I.A.6.A.3 Daka, [[Taram]] : I.A.6.A.4 Vere, Namshi, Kolbila, Pape, [[Sari]], [[Sewe]], [[Woko]], [[Kotopo]], [[Kutin]], [[Durru]] : [[Mumuye-Yendang languages|I.A.6.A.5]] [[Mumuye language|Mumuye]], Kumba, Gengle, Teme, Waka, Yendang, Zinna : [[Mbum languages|I.A.6.A.6]] Dama, [[Mono language (Congo)|Mono]], Mbere, Mundang, Yasing, Mangbei, [[Mbum language|Mbum]], [[Kpere]], [[Lakka]], [[Dek]] : I.A.6.A.7 Yungur, Mboi, Libo, Roba : I.A.6.A.8 [[Nyimwom language|Kam]] : I.A.6.A.9 [[Jen]], [[Munga]] : I.A.6.A.10 [[Longuda language|Longuda]] : I.A.6.A.11 [[Fali language|Fali]] : I.A.6.A.12 [[Nimbari language|Nimbari]] : [[Bua languages|I.A.6.A.13]] [[Bua language|Bua]], [[Niellim language|Nielim]], [[Koke language|Koke]] : I.A.6.A.14 [[Masa language|Masa]] : I.A.6.B [[Ubangi languages|Eastern]] : I.A.6.B.1 [[Gbaya language|Gbaya]], [[Manja]], [[Mbaka]] : I.A.6.B.2 [[Banda language|Banda]] : I.A.6.B.3 [[Ngbandi language|Ngbandi]], [[Sango language|Sango]], [[Yakoma language|Yakoma]] : I.A.6.B.4 [[Zande language|Zande]], [[Nzakara language|Nzakara]], Barambo, Pambia : I.A.6.B.5 Bwaka, Monjombo, Gbanziri, [[Mundu language|Mundu]], Mayogo, Bangba : I.A.6.B.6 [[Ndogo language|Ndogo]], Bai, Bviri, Golo, [[Sere language|Sere]], Tagbo, Feroge, Indri, Mangaya, Togoyo : I.A.6.B.7 [[Madi language|Amadi]] (Madyo, Ma) : I.A.6.B.8 Mondunga, Mba (Bamanga) :I.B [[Kordofanian languages|Kordofanian]] :I.B.1 [[Koalib languages|Koalib]]: Koalib, Kanderma, Heiban, Laro, Otoro, Kawama, Shwai, Tira, Moro, Fungor :I.B.2 [[Tegali languages|Tegali]]: Tegali, Rashad, [[Tagoi language|Tagoi]], Tumale :I.B.3 [[Talodi languages|Talodi]]: Talodi, Lafofa, Eliri, Masakin, Tacho, Lumun, El Amira :I.B.4 [[Tumtum languages|Tumtum]]: Tumtum, Tuleshi, Keiga, Karondi, [[Krongo language|Krongo]], Miri, [[Kadugli language|Kadugli]], [[Katcha language|Katcha]] :I.B.5 [[Katla languages|Katla]]: Katla, Tima :'''II. [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]]''' :II.A [[Songhay languages|Songhai]] :II.B [[Saharan languages|Saharan]] :II.B.a [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]], Kanembu :II.B.b [[Teda language|Teda]], [[Daza language|Daza]] :II.B.c [[Zaghawa language|Zaghawa]], [[Berti language|Berti]] :II.C [[Maban languages|Maban]]: [[Maba language|Maba]], [[Runga language|Runga]], [[Mimi language|Mimi]] (of Nachtigal), Mimi (of Gaudefroy-Demombynes) :II.D. [[Fur languages|Fur]] :II.E. [[Chari-Nile languages|Chari-Nile]] :II.E.1 [[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]] :II.E.1.1 [[Nubian languages|Nubian]] :II.E.1.1.a Nile Nubian ([[Nobiin language|Mahas-Fadidja]] and [[Dongolawi language|Kenuzi-Dongola]]) :II.E.1.1.b Kordofanian Nubian: [[Dair language|Dair]], [[Dilling language|Dilling]], Gulfan, Garko, Kadero, Kundugr :II.E.1.1.c [[Midob language|Midob]] :II.E.1.1.d [[Birgid language|Birked]] :[[Surmic languages|II.E.1.2]] [[Murle language|Murle]] (Beir), Longarim, [[Didinga language|Didinga]], [[Suri language|Suri]], Mekan, [[Mursi language|Murzu]], Surma (including Tirma and Zulmanu), Masongo :II.E.1.3 [[Nara language|Barea]] :[[Eastern Jebel languages|II.E.1.4]] [[Gaam language|Ingassana (Tabi)]] :II.E.1.5 [[Nyimang language|Nyima]], [[Afitti language|Afitti]] :II.E.1.6 [[Temein language|Temein]], Teis-um-Danab :[[Taman languages|II.E.1.7]] [[Mararit language|Merarit]], [[Tama language|Tama]], [[Sungor language|Sungor]] :[[Daju languages|II.E.1.8]] Dagu of Darfur, [[Beigo|Baygo]], Sila, Dagu of Dar Dagu (Wadai), Dagu of Western Kordofan, Njalgulgule, Shatt, Liguri :II.E.1.9 [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] :II.E.1.9.a [[Western Nilotic languages|Western]] :II.E.1.9.a.1 Burun :II.E.1.9.a.2 [[Shilluk language|Shilluk]], [[Anuak language|Anuak]], [[Acholi language|Acholi]], [[Lango]], [[Alur]], [[Luo]], [[Jur language|Jur]], Bor :II.E.1.9.a.3 [[Dinka language|Dinka]], [[Nuer language|Nuer]] :II.E.1.9.b [[Eastern Nilotic languages|Eastern]] :II.E.1.9.b.1 [[Bari language|Bari]], [[Pojulu language|Fajulu]], [[Kakwa language|Kakwa]], [[Mondari language|Mondari]] :II.E.1.9.b.2a [[Jie language|Jie]], [[Dodos language|Dodoth]], [[Karimojong language|Karamojong]], [[Teso language|Teso]], [[Topossa language|Topotha]], [[Turkana language|Turkana]] :II.E.1.9.b.2b [[Maasai language|Masai]] :II.E.1.9.b.3 [[Southern Nilotic languages|Southern]]: [[Nandi language|Nandi]], [[Suk language|Suk]], [[Datooga language|Tatoga]] (but text says this is not a subgroup of Eastern, suggesting that this should rather be II.E.1.9.c) :[[Kuliak languages|II.E.1.10]] [[Nyang'i language|Nyangiya]], [[Ik language|Teuso]] :II.E.2 [[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]] :II.E.2.1 [[Bongo language|Bongo]], [[Baka language|Baka]], Morokodo, Beli, Gberi, [[Sara language|Sara]] dialects (Madjinngay, Gulai, Mbai, Gamba, Kaba, Dendje, Laka), Vale, Nduka, Tana, Horo, [[Baguirmi language|Bagirmi]], [[Kuka language|Kuka]], [[Kenga language|Kenga]], Disa, Bubalia :II.E.2.2 [[Kreish language|Kreish]] :II.E.2.3 Binga, [[Yulu language|Yulu]], [[Kara language|Kara]] :II.E.2.4 [[Moru language|Moru]], [[Avokaya language|Avukaya]], Logo, Keliko, [[Lugbara language|Lugbara]], [[Madi language|Madi]] :II.E.2.5 [[Mangbetu language|Mangbetu]], Lombi, Popoi, Makere, Meje, Asua :II.E.2.6 [[Mangbutu language|Mangbutu]], [[Mamvu language|Mamvu]], [[Lese language|Lese]], Mvuba, [[Efe language|Efe]] :II.E.2.7 [[Lendu language|Lendu]] :II.E.3 [[Berta language|Berta]] :II.E.4 [[Kunama language|Kunama]] :II.F [[Koman languages|Koman]]/Coman: [[Koma language|Koma]], [[Ganza language|Ganza]], [[Uduk language|Uduk]], [[Gule language|Gule]], [[Gumuz language|Gumuz]], Mao :'''III. [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]]''' :III.A [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] :III.B [[Egyptian languages|Egyptian]] :III.C [[Berber languages|Berber]] :III.D [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] :III.D.1 [[Beja language|Northern Cushitic]]: [[Beja language|Beja]] (Bedauye) :III.D.2 [[Central Cushitic languages|Central Cushitic]]: [[Blin language|Bogo (Bilin)]], Kamir, [[Xamtanga language|Khamta]], [[Awngi language|Awiya]], Damot, [[Qimant language|Kemant]], [[Kayla language|Kayla]], [[Qwara language|Quara]] :III.D.3 [[East Cushitic languages|Eastern Cushitic]]: [[Saho language|Saho]]-[[Afar language|Afar]], [[Somali language|Somali]], [[Oromo language|Galla]], [[Konso language|Konso]], Geleba, Marille, (Reshiat, [[Arbore language|Arbore]]), Gardula, Gidole, Gowaze, [[Burji language|Burji]], [[Sidamo language|Sidamo]], [[Dirasha language|Darasa]], [[Kambaata|Kambata]], [[Alaba language|Alaba]], [[Hadiyya language|Hadya]], Tambaro, [[Yaaku language|Mogogodo]] (added 1966) :III.D.4 [[Omotic languages|Western Cushitic]]: [[Yemsa language|Janjero]], [[Wolaytta language|Wolamo]], Zala, Gofa, Basketo, Baditu, Haruro, Zaysse, Chara, [[Bench language|Gimira]], Benesho, Nao, Kaba, Shako, She, [[Maji language|Maji]], Kafa, Garo, [[Mocha language|Mocha]], Anfillo (Mao), Shinasha, Bako, Amar, Bana, [[Dime language|Dime]], Gayi, Kerre, Tsamai, Doko, Dollo :III.D.5 [[South Cushitic languages|Southern Cushitic]]: [[Burunge language|Burungi]] (Mbulungu), Goroa (Fiome), Alawa (Uwassi), [[Iraqw language|Iraqw]], [[Mbugu language|Mbugu]], [[Dahalo language|Sanye]], Ngomvia (added 1966) :III.E [[Chadic languages|Chad]] : III.E.1 : III.E.1.a [[Hausa language|Hausa]], Gwandara : III.E.1.b [[Ngizim language|Ngizim]], Mober, Auyokawa, Shirawa, [[Bade language|Bede]] : III.E.1.c : III.E.1.c.i Warjawa, Afawa, Diryawa, Miyawa, Sirawa : III.E.1.c.ii Gezawa, Seiyawa, Barawa of Dass : III.E.1.d : III.E.1.d.i [[Bolewa language|Bolewa]], Karekare, Ngamo, Gerawa, Gerumawa, Kirifawa, Dera (Kanakuru), [[Tangale language|Tangale]], Pia, [[Pero language|Pero]], Chongee, Maha (added 1966) : III.E.1.d.ii [[Angas language|Angas]], Ankwe, Bwol, Chip, Dimuk, Goram, Jorto, Kwolla, Miriam, Montol, Sura, Tal, Gerka : III.E.1.d.iii [[Ron language|Ron]] : III.E.2 [[Kotoko languages|Kotoko group]]: [[Logone language|Logone]], Ngala, [[Buduma language|Buduma]], Kuri, Gulfei, Affade, Shoe, Kuseri : III.E.3 Bata-Margi group : III.E.3.a Bachama, Demsa, Gudo, Malabu, Njei (Kobochi, Nzangi, Zany), Zumu (Jimo), Holma, Kapsiki, Baza, Hiji, Gude (Cheke), Fali of Mubi, Fali of Kiria, Fali of Jilbu, [[Margi language|Margi]], Chibak, Kilba, Sukur, Vizik, Vemgo, Woga, Tur, Bura, Pabir, Podokwo : III.E.3.b Gabin, Hona, [[Tera language|Tera]], Jera, Hinna (Hina) : III.E.4 : III.E.4.a Hina, Daba, Musgoi, Gauar : III.E.4.b Gisiga, Balda, Muturua, [[Mofu language|Mofu]], Matakam : III.E.5 Gidder : III.E.6 [[Mandara language|Mandara]], Gamergu : III.E.7 [[Muzgu language|Musgu]] : III.E.8 Bana, Banana ([[Masa language|Masa]]), Lame, Kulung : III.E.9 : III.E.9.a [[Somrai language|Somrai]], [[Tumak language|Tumak]], [[Ndam language|Ndam]], [[Miltu language|Miltu]], Sarwa, Gulei : III.E.9.b Gabere, Chiri, Dormo, Nangire : III.E.9.c Sokoro (Bedanga), Barein : III.E.9.d Modgel : III.E.9.e Tuburi : III.E.9.f [[Mubi language|Mubi]], Karbo, (added 1966: Jegu, Jonkor, Wadai-Birgid) :'''IV [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]]''' :IV.A South African Khoisan :IV.A.1 [[Northern Khoisan languages|Northern South African Khoisan]] :IV.A.2 [[Central Khoisan languages|Central South African Khoisan]] :IV.A.3 [[Southern Khoisan languages|Southern South African Khoisan]] :IV.B [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]] :IV.C [[Hadza language|Hatsa]] ==References== *Greenberg, Joseph H. (1963) ''The Languages of Africa''. International journal of American linguistics, 29, 1, part 2. *Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966) ''The Languages of Africa'' (2nd ed. with additions and corrections). Bloomington: Indiana University. {{DEFAULTSORT:Languages of Africa}} [[Category:Language histories]] [[Category:Languages of Africa]] [[Category:Linguistics books]] [[Category:1963 books]] [[ru:Дагари]]