The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism
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/* Early history */
'''''The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism''''' is a [[book]] written by [[Max Weber]], a [[Germany|German]] [[economist]] and [[sociologist]]. It was first published in [[German language|German]] under the title '''Konfuzianismus und Taoismus''' in [[1915]] and an adapted version appeared in [[1920]]. An [[English language|English]] translation was made in [[1951]] and several editions were released till today.
It was his second major work on the sociology of [[religion]], after ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]''.
Weber focused on those aspects of [[China|Chinese]] [[society]] that were different from those of [[Western Europe]] and [[Puritanism]], and posed a question why [[capitalism]] did not develop in China. He concentrated on early period of Chinese history ([[Hundred Schools of Thought]], [[Warring States Period]]), during which major Chinese schools of thoughts ([[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]]) were invented.
'''The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism''' presents the following views:
==Early history==
By 200 B.C. the Chinese [[state]] has developed from a loose [[federation]] of [[feudal]] states to the unified [[empire]] with [[Patrimony|patrimonal]] rule. See the [[Warring States Period]] for more details.
Confucianism emerged as a more coherent philosophy when faced with intellectual competition from other schools that were growing in the fertile social upheavals of preimperial China
Daoism (Taoism), Mohism, and Legalism all attacked Confucianism. (c.400–c.200 B.C.).
Mencius (c.372–c.289 B.C.) developed a more idealistic version of Confucianism.
Xun Zi (Hsün Tzu, c.313–c.238 B.C.), argued that all inclinations are shaped by acquired language and other social forms.
Confucianism rose to the position of an official orthodoxy during the Han dynasty (206 B.C.–A.D. 220).
When the Han fell from power, Confucianism fell with them, and laid dormant for approximately 600 years. (206 B.C.–A.D. 220)
When the Chinese dynastic power reestablished and the introduction of the Chan Confucianism began to revive. (618–906)
The Song (Sung) dynasty (960–1279) produced Neoconfucianism—an interpretation of classical Confucian doctrine that addressed Buddhist and Daoist issues.
In the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Wang Yangming claimed that the heart projects ''li'' on things rather than just noticing external ''li''.
20th century, Chinese intellectuals blamed Confucianism for the scientific and political backwardness of China after the disastrous conflicts with Western military technology at the dawn of the. Chinese Marxism,
Anti-Confucianism has been a theme in various political campaigns in modern China—most notably during and just after the Cultural Revolution.
In Taiwan, Confucian orthodoxy has survived and serves to underpin an anti-Marxist, traditional authoritarianism.
Serious, ongoing Confucian philosophy, however, is found mainly in Hong Kong and among Chinese scholars working in the West.
==Cities==
Similar to Europe, Chinese [[city|cities]] were founded as [[fort]]s or leader's [[House|residences]] and were the centers of [[trade]] and [[crafts]].
However, they never received political [[Wiktionary:autonomy|autonomy]] and its citizens had no special political rights or privileges. This is due to strengths of [[kinship]] ties, which stems from religious beliefs (in ancestral spirits). The [[guild]]s likewise competed against each other for the favour of the [[Emperor]], never uniting in order to fight for more rights.
Therefore, the [[Residency (domicile)|resident]] of Chinese cities never constitutes a separate [[status class]] like the residents of European cities.
==Officialdom==
Early unification of the [[state]] and establishment of central [[officialdom]] meant that the focus for [[political power|power]] struggle turned from the distribution of land to the distribution of [[office]]s, which with their [[fee]]s and [[tax]]es were the most prominent source of income for the holder (who often pocketed up to 50% of income).
The imperial government depended on the services of those officials, not on the service of military ([[knight]]s), like in Europe.
==Literati and confucian orthodoxy==
Weber emphasized that Confucianism tolerated the great number of popular cults without effort to systematize them as a [[religious doctrine]]. Instead of metaphysical speculation it taught adjustment to the world. The 'superior' man ([[literati]]) should stay away from the pursuit of wealth (though not from the wealth itself). Therefore, becoming a [[civil servant]] was preferred to becoming a [[businessman]] and granted a much higher status class.
==Religious organization==
Chinese civilization had no religious [[prophecy]] nor powerful [[priesthood]] social class.
The emperor was the [[wiktionary:High priest|high priest]] of [[state religion]] and the supreme ruler, but the number of popular cults were also tolerated (however the political ambitions of their priests were curtailed). This forms a sharp contrast with medieval Europe, where the [[Church]] curbed the power of [secular] rulers and the same faith was professed by rulers and common folk alike.
==State cult and popular religiosity==
According to Confucianism, the worship of great deities was the affair of the state, ancestral worship is required of all, and the multitude of popular cult is tolerated.
Confucianism tolerated [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and [[mysticism]] as long as they were useful tools for controlling the masses; it denounced them as [[heresy]] and suppressed them when they threatened the established order (hence the opposition to [[Buddhism]]).
Note that in this context, [[Confucianism]] can be referred to as the [[state religion|state cult]], and [[Taoism]] as the [[popular religion]].
==Social structure and the capitalist economy==
Weber argued that while several factors were good for development of capitalism economy (long periods of peace, improved control of rivers, population growth, freedom to acquire land and move outside of native community, freedom of choosing the occupation) they were outweighed by others (mostly stemming from religion):
* technical inventions were opposed on the basis of religion (disturbance of ancestral spirit leading to bad luck), instead of changing the world, adjusting oneself to it was preferred
* sale of land was often prohibited or made very difficult
* extended kinship groups (based on religion stressing the importance of family ties and ancestry) protected its members against economic adversities, therefore discouraging payment of debts and work discipline and increases of work effectiveness
* those kinship prevented the development of urban status class, hindered legal developments like creation of legal institutions, codification of laws and jurist status class
==Confucianism and Puritanism==
According to Weber, Confucianism and Puritanism represent two comprehensive but mutually exclusive types of rationalisation, each attempting to order human life upon certain ultimate religious beliefs. Both encouraged sobriety and self control and were compatible with the accumulation of wealth.
However, the Confucianism aimed at the attaining and preserving "a cultured status position" and used as means the adjustment to the world, education, self-perfection, politeness and familial piety. Puritanism used those means in order to create a "tool of God", creating a person that would serve the God and master the world. The intensity of belief and enthusiasm for action were alien to the esthetic values of Confucianism. Therefore, Weber states that it was the difference in prevailing mentality that contributed to the development of capitalism in the West and the absence of it in China.
== See also ==
* [[sociology of religion]]
[[Category:Religion in China|Religion of China]]
[[Category:Max Weber|Religion of China]]
[[Category:Sociology books|Religion of China]]
[[Category:Religious studies books|Religion of China]]
[[fr:Confucianisme et taoïsme]]
[[zh:儒教和道教]]