Tibeto-Burman languages
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{{Infobox Language family
|name=Tibeto-Burman
|region=[[East Asia]]
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|family = [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] (debated)<ref>Cf. Beckwith, Christopher I. 1996. "The Morphological Argument for the Existence of Sino-Tibetan." ''Pan-Asiatic Linguistics: Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Languages and Linguistics, January 8-10, 1996''. Vol. III, pp. 812-826. Bangkok: Mahidol University at Salaya.</ref>
|child1=[[Kuki-Chin-Naga]]
|child2=[[Abor]]-[[Mishing language|Miri]]-[[Dafla]]
|child3=[[Bodo language|Bodo]]-[[Garo language|Garo]]
|child4=[[Kiranti languages|Maha-Kiranti]]
|child5=[[Tibetan language|Tibeto-Kinauri]]
|child6=[[Qiangic]]
|child7=[[Jingpho language|Jingpho-Nungish-Luish]]
|child11=[[Yi language|Lolo]]-[[Burmese language|Burmese]]-[[Naxi language|Naxi]]
|child12=[[Karen languages|Karen]]
|child13=[[Bai language|Bai]]
|child14=[[Tujia language|Tujia]]
|iso2=tamang-gurung-thakali-magar-thami-
}}
The '''Tibeto-Burman''' family of languages (often considered a sub-group of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] [[language family]]) is spoken in various central and south Asian countries, including [[Myanmar]] (Burma), [[Tibet]], northern [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], parts of central [[China]] ([[Guizhou]], [[Hunan]]), northern parts of [[Nepal]],North-eastern parts of [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], western [[Pakistan]] ([[Baltistan]]), and various regions of [[India]] ([[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[Sikkim]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Assam]], [[Nagaland]], [[Manipur]], [[Mizoram]], [[Tripura]], and both the [[Ladakh]] and [[Kargil]] regions of [[Jammu and Kashmir]]).
The subfamily includes approximately 350 languages; [[Burmese language|Burmese]] has the most speakers (approximately 32 million). Approximately 8 million [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] and related peoples speak one of several related [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] dialects or languages.
Recently [[George van Driem]] has advocated elevating "Tibeto-Burman" to displace "Sino-Tibetan" as the top-tier language family, with the [[Chinese languages]] (Sinitic) classified as a sub-branch within the Tibeto-Burman/Sino-Tibetan family.<ref>Van Driem, George "Tibeto-Burman Phylogeny and Prehistory: Languages, Material Culture and Genes". Bellwood, Peter & Renfrew, Colin (eds) ''Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis'' (2003), Ch 19.</ref> This proposal has not been widely accepted.
==Classification==
There have been two major classifications: Shafer (1966) and Benedict (1972). Since then, many languages previously inadequately documented have received more attention with the publication of new grammars, dictionaries, and wordlists. This new research has greatly benefited comparative work. Bradley (1997) is a newer classification that incorporates the newer data.
===Bradley (1997)===
I. ''Bodic'' (a.k.a. Western)
: A. Bodish
:: i. Central Bodish (a.k.a. Tibetan)
::: a. Western Tibetan
::: b. Central Tibetan
:::: i) Western
:::: ii) mNgaẖris
:::: iii) gTsang
:::: iv) dBus (a.k.a. 'Central' Central Tibetan)
:::: v) Southern Tibetan
::: c. Amdo Tibetan (a.k.a. Northeastern Tibetan)
::: d. Khams Tibetan (a.k.a. Southeastern Tibetan)
:: ii. West Bodish (a.k.a. Gurung, Tamang)
:: iii. East Bodish (a.k.a. Bumthang)
:: iv. Tshangla (a.k.a. East Bodic)
:: v. West Himalayish (a.k.a. Kanauri)
: B. Himalayan
:: i. Central
:: ii. Kiranti
II. ''North-East India'' (a.k.a. Sal)
: A. Bodo-Garo
:: i. Northern Naga
: B. Jinghpaw
: C. Luish (a.k.a. Sak)
: D. Pyu
III. ''Kuki-Chin''
: A. Southern Naga
: B. Kuki
: C. Chin
: D. Arleng
IV. ''Central''
: A. Lepcha
: B. Western Arunachal
: C. Adi-Galo-Mishing-Nishi (a.k.a. Abor-Miri-Dafla, Tani group of people believed to be descendants of ABOTANI, first Human being)
: D. Digarish 'Mishmi'
: E. Keman 'Mishmi'
: F. Rawang (a.k.a. Nungish)
V. ''North-Eastern''
VI. ''South-Eastern''
: A. Burmese-Lolo (a.k.a. Burmic)
:: i. Mru
:: ii. Gong
:: iii. Burmish
:: iv. Loloish
::: a. Northern
::: b. Central
::: c. Southern
: B. [[Karen languages|Karen]]
===Benedict (1972)===
A very influential classification (although tentative) is that of Benedict (1972). This was a collaborated effort of Paul Benedict and Robert Shafer (completed around 1942-1943) with editing by [[James Matisoff]]. This classification puts Tibeto-Burman under a larger Sino-Tibetan phylum:
:Sino-Tibetan
:# Chinese
:# Tibeto-Karen
:#* Karen
:#* '''Tibeto-Burman'''
The Tibeto-Burman sub-family is then composed of 7 main branches:
I. ''Tibetan-Kanauri'' (a.k.a. Bodish-Himalayish)
: A. Bodish (in eastern & southern [[Tibet]])
: B. Himalayish
:: i. "major" Himalayish (in western Tibet, western [[India]])
:: ii. "minor" Himalayish (in [[Uttarakhand]])
:: iii. [[Dzorgai]] (in [[Sichuan]]) '''''?'''''
:: iv. [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] (in [[Sikkim]]) '''''?'''''
:: v. [[Magari]] (in [[Nepal]]) '''''?'''''
II. ''Bahing-Vayu'' (a.k.a. Kiranti) (in Nepal)
: A. Bahing
: B. Khambu
: C. Vayu-Chepang
: D. [[Nepal Bhasa]] '''''?'''''
III. ''Abor-Miri-Dafla'' (a.k.a. Mirish, North Assam) (in Sikkim, northern [[Assam]])
IV. ''[[Jingpho language|Kachin]]'' (in northern [[Myanmar]])
V. ''Burmese-Lolo'' (a.k.a. Burmish) (in Sichuan, [[Yunnan]], Myanmar, [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]])
: A. Burmese-Maru
: B. Southern Lolo
: C. Northern Lolo
: D. [[Kanburi Lawa]] ([[Kanchanaburi Province|Kanchanaburi]], [[Thailand]])
: E. [[Naxi language|Moso]] (a.k.a. Nakhi) (in western Yunnan)
: F. Hsi-fan (in western Sichuan)
: G. [[Tangut language|Tangut]] (in northwestern [[China]])
: H. [[Nung]] '''''?'''''
VI. ''Bodo-Garo'' (a.k.a. Barish) {in northern Assam, northern Myanmar)
: A. Bodo
: B. Garo
:: i. Garo A
:: ii. Garo B
: C. "Naked Naga" (a.k.a. Konyak) '''''?'''''
: D. [[Chairel]] '''''?'''''
VII. ''Kuki-Naga'' (a.k.a. Kukish) (in southern Assam-Myanmar area)
: A. Central Kuki
: B. Northern Kuki
: C. Old Kuki
: D. Southern Kuki
: E. Northern Naga
: F. Southern Naga
In this classification,
* ''Bodish'' includes [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]], [[Gyarung]], [[Takpa]], [[Tsangla]], [[Murmi]], and [[Gurung]];
* ''major Himalayish'' includes [[Kanauri]], [[Chitkhuli]], [[Thebor]], [[Kanashi]], [[Rangloi]], [[Bunan]], [[Manchati]], [[Chamba Lahuli]], and [[Zhang-Zhung language|Zhang-zhung]];
* ''minor Himalayish'' includes [[Rangkas]], [[Darmiya]], [[Chaudangsi]], and [[Byangsi]].
[[Dzorgai]], [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]], and [[Magari]] seem to be most similar to the Tibetan-Kanauri branch. Lepcha may be a separate transitional branch like Kachin. Margari is also similar to Bahing-Vayu.
* ''Bahing'' includes [[Sunwari]], [[Dumi]], [[Khaling]], and [[Rai]].
* ''Khambu'' includes [[Sangpang]], [[Nachereng]], [[Rodong]], [[Waling]], [[Rungchengbung]], [[Lambichong]], [[Chingtang]], [[Limbu language|Limbu]], and [[Yakha]].
[[Nepal Bhasa]] (Newari) shares similarities to both Bahing and Khambu. [[Aka (tribe)|Aka]] (a.k.a. Hrusso) may belong to Abor-Miri-Dafla. [[Digaro]], [[Miju]], and [[Dhimal]] may also be Abor-Miri-Dafla, but this even more uncertain. ''Kachin'' seems to be a transitional branch containing features similar to all other branches. [[Kadu-Andro-Sengmai]] (a.k.a. Luish) and [[Taman]] may belong to Kachin.
* ''Burmese-Maru'' includes [[Phön]], [[Lashi]], [[Atsi]], and [[Achang language|Achang]].
* ''Southern Lolo'' includes [[Phunoi]], [[Akha]], [[Lahu language|Lahu]], [[Black Lolo]], [[White Lolo]], and [[Müng]].
* ''Northern Lolo'' includes [[Lisu language|Lisu]], [[Ahi (language)|Ahi]], [[Nyi]], [[Lolopho]], [[Chöko]], [[Phupha]], [[Ulu]], and [[Independent Lolo]].
* ''Hsi-fan'' includes [[Manyak]], [[Horpa]], [[Menia]], and [[Muli]].
Nung may belong to Burmese-Lolo, but it also has similarities to Kachin. [[Pyu]] is similar to Nung.
* ''Bodo'' includes [[Dimasa language|Dimasa]].
* ''Naked Naga'' includes [[Banpara]], [[Tableng]], [[Namsang]], [[Tamlu]], [[Moshang]], and [[Chang]]. Eastern languages of Naked Naga, although similar to Bodo-Garo, have similarities with Kachin.
[[Deori Chutiya]] (northern Assam) belongs to Bodo-Garo, although to which sub-group is uncertain.
===Shafer (1966-1974)===
Unlike Benedict (1972), Shafer's tentative classification does not separate Sino-Tibetan into two branches: ''Chinese'' and ''Tibeto-Burman''. Rather, Chinese (Sinitic) is placed on the same level as Benedict's subgroupings of Tibeto-Burman.
Sino-Tibetan:
: I. ''Sinitic''
: II. ''Daic''
: III. ''Bodic''
: IV. ''Burmic''
: V. ''Baric''
: VI. ''Karenic''
===Ethnologue===
I. ''[[Bai language|Bai]]''
II. ''Himalayish''
: A. Mahakiranti
:: i. Kham-Magar-Chepang-Sunwari
::: a. Chepang
::: b. Kham
::: c. Magar
::: d. Sunwari
:: ii. Kiranti
::: a. Tomyang
::: b. Eastern
::: c. Western
:: iii. [[Nepal Bhasa|Newar]]
: B. Tibeto-Kanauri
:: i. Dzalakha
:: ii. Lepcha
:: iii. Western Himalayish
:: iv. Tibetic
::: a. [[Tshangla language|Tshangla]]
::: b. Dhimal
::: c. Tamangic
::: d. [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]]
: C. [[Baima]] ''(unclassified)''
III. ''Jingpho-Konyak-Bodo''
: A. Jingpho-Luish
: B. Konyak-Bodo-Garo
IV. ''Karen''
: A. Pa’o
: B. Zayein
: C. Pwo
: D. Sgaw-Bghai
:: i. Bghai
:: ii. Brek
:: iii. Kayah
:: iv. Sgaw
: E. Zayein Karen ''(unclassified)''
V. ''Kuki-Chin-Naga''
: A. Kuki-Chin
:: i. Central
:: ii. Northern
:: iii. Southern
: B. Naga
:: i. Angami-Pochuri
:: ii. [[Ao language|Ao]]
:: iii. Tangkhul
:: iv. unclassified Naga
:: v. Zeme
VI. ''Lolo-Burmese''
: A. Burmish
:: i. Northern
:: ii. Southern
:: iii. unclassified Burmish
: B. Loloish
:: i. Northern
::: a. Lisu
::: b. Samei
::: c. [[Yi language|Yi]]
:: i. Southern
:: ii. unclassified Loloish
: C. Naxi
: D. Phula ''(unclassified)''
VII. ''[[Meitei language|Meitei]]''
VIII. ''Mikir''
IX. ''North Assam''
: A. Deng
: B. Tani
X. ''Nungish''
XI. ''Tangut-Qiang''
: A. [[Qiangic]]
: B. rGyarong
XII. ''[[Tujia language|Tujia]]''
XII. ''unclassified Tibeto-Burman''
XIV. ''West Bodish''
XV. ''Mru''
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* Benedict, Paul K. (1972). ''Sino-Tibetan: A conspectus''. J. A. Matisoff (Ed.). Cambridge: The University Press. ISBN 0-521-08175-0.
* Bradley, David. (1997). Tibeto-Burman languages and classification. In D. Bradley (Ed.), ''Papers in South East Asian linguistics: Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas'' (No. 14, pp. 1-71). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
* Shafer, Robert. (1966). ''Introduction to Sino-Tibetan'' (Part 1). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
* Shafer, Robert. (1967). ''Introduction to Sino-Tibetan'' (Part 2). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
* Shafer, Robert. (1968). ''Introduction to Sino-Tibetan'' (Part 3). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
* Shafer, Robert. (1970). ''Introduction to Sino-Tibetan'' (Part 4). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
* Shafer, Robert. (1974). ''Introduction to Sino-Tibetan'' (Part 5). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
==See also==
*[[language family|Language Families]]
*[[List of Tibeto-Burman languages]]
[[Category:Tibeto-Burman languages|*]]
[[Category:Languages of Tibet]]
[[de:Tibetobirmanische Sprachen]]
[[eo:Tibeto-Birma Grupo]]
[[fr:Langues tibéto-birmanes]]
[[la:Linguae Tibeto-Birmanae]]
[[lt:Tibetiečių-mianmariečių kalbos]]
[[nl:Tibeto-Birmaanse talen]]
[[ja:チベット・ミャンマー語派]]
[[nn:Tibetoburmesiske språk]]
[[ru:Тибето-бирманские языки]]
[[sk:Tibetsko-barmské jazyky]]
[[sv:Tibetoburmanska språk]]
[[th:ภาษากลุ่มทิเบต-พม่า]]
[[zh:藏緬語族]]