Timeline of Muslim scientists and engineers 2309315 225022603 2008-07-11T14:37:57Z Jagged 85 468111 moved Zaha Hadid to 21st century This incomplete '''timeline of Muslim scientists and engineers''' covers the general development of [[Islamic science|science]] and [[Inventions in the Islamic world|technology]] by [[Muslims]], both in the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] and outside it. Most of the advances mentioned here occurred within the Islamic world during what is known as the [[Islamic Golden Age]], variously dated from the 7th to 16th centuries. From the 19th century onwards, the advances made by Muslim scientists and engineers occurred both within and outside of the Islamic world. All year dates are given according to the [[Gregorian calendar]] except where noted. == Timeline of science and technology in the classical Islamic world == === 7th century === {{see also|Islam and science}} * [[610]] - [[632]] [empiricism, theology] The [[Qur'an]], which was revealed during this time, emphasized the use of [[empirical]] [[observation]] and [[reason]].<ref name=Ahmad>Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), [http://images.agustianwar.multiply.com/attachment/0/RxbYbQoKCr4AAD@kzFY1/IslamicCalendar-A-Case-Study.pdf The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study], ''Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity'', [[Al Akhawayn University]]. Retrieved on 2008-01-31.</ref><ref>{{quote|"Observe nature and reflect over it."|[[Qur'an]]}} ([[cf.]] C. A. Qadir (1990), ''Philosophy and Science in the lslumic World'', [[Routledge]], London) <br> ([[cf.]] Bettany, Laurence (1995), "Ibn al-Haytham: an answer to multicultural science teaching?", ''Physics Education'' '''30''': 247-252 [247])</ref><ref>{{cite quran|17|36|quote=You shall not accept any information, unless you verify it for yourself. I have given you the hearing, the eyesight, and the brain, and you are responsible for using them.}}</ref><ref>{{cite quran|2|164|quote=Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth; in the alternation of the night and the day; in the sailing of the ships through the ocean for the benefit of mankind; in the rain which Allah Sends down from the skies, and the life which He gives therewith to an earth that is dead; in the beasts of all kinds that He scatters through the earth; in the change of the winds, and the clouds which they trail like their slaves between the sky and the earth - (Here) indeed are Signs for a people that are wise.}}</ref> It has been claimed that the Qur'an also contains [[Scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts|scientific foreknowledge]] (see [[Qur'an and science]] and [[Islam and science]] for the debate on this topic). * [[610]] - [[632]] [astrology] Several [[hadith]]s attributed to [[Muhammad]] show that he was generally opposed to [[Islamic astrology|astrology]] as well as [[superstition]] in general. An example of this is when an [[eclipse]] occurred during his son [[Ibrahim ibn Muhammad]]'s death, and rumours began spreading about this being God's personal condolence. Muhammad is said to have replied: "''An eclipse is a phenomenon of nature. It is foolish to attribute such things to the death or birth of a human being.''"<ref>{{citation|first=James A.|last=Michene|title=Islam: The Misunderstood Religion|journal=[[Reader's Digest]]|date=May 1955|pages=68–70}}</ref> * [[610]] - [[632]] [medicine] [[Muhammad]] is reported to have made the following statements on early [[Islamic medicine]]: "''There is no disease that Allah has created, except that He also has created its treatment''";<ref>[[Sahih al-Bukhari]], {{Bukhari-usc|7|71|582}}</ref> "''Make use of medical treatment, for Allah has not made a disease without appointing a remedy for it, with the exception of one disease, namely old age''";<ref>[[Sunan Abi Dawood]], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/028.sat.html 28:3846]</ref> "''Allah has sent down both the disease and the cure, and He has appointed a cure for every disease, so treat yourselves medically''";<ref>[[Sunan Abi Dawood]], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/028.sat.html 28:3865]</ref> "''The one who sent down the disease sent down the remedy.''"<ref>[[Al-Muwatta]], {{Muwatta-usc|50|5|12|}}</ref> The belief that there is a cure for every disease encouraged Muslims at the time to seek out a [[remedy]] for every disease known to them. * [[610]] - [[632]] [medicine, pathology] Early ideas on [[Infectious disease|contagion]] can be traced back to several [[hadith]]s attributed to [[Muhammad]], who is said to have understood the contagious nature of [[leprosy]], [[mange]], and [[sexually transmitted disease]].<ref>Lawrence I. Conrad and Dominik Wujastyk (2000), ''Contagion: Perspectives from Pre-Modern Societies'', "A Ninth-Century Muslim Scholar's Discussion". [[Ashgate]], ISBN 0754602583.</ref> These early ideas on contagion arose from the generally sympathetic attitude of Muslim physicians towards lepers (who were often seen in a negative light in other ancient and medieval societies) which can be traced back through hadiths attributed to Muhammad and to the following advice given in the [[Qur'an]]: "''There is no fault in the blind, and there is no fault in the lame, and there is no fault in the sick.''"<ref>Michael W. Dols (1983), "The Leper in Medieval Islamic Society", ''Speculum'' '''58''' (4), p. 891-916.</ref> * [[622]] [calendar] [[Islamic calendar]] developed by [[Muhammad]]. * [[634]] - [[644]] [technology] [[Windmill]] invented in [[Afghanistan]] during the time of the [[Rashidun]] [[caliph]], [[Umar]].<ref name=Hassan-54>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1986). ''Islamic Technology: An illustrated history'', p. 54. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.</ref> * [[650]] - [[704]] [alchemy] [[Calid]] (Khalid ibn Yazid), an [[Umayyad]] prince, was the first [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Muslim alchemist]], and he translated the literature on Egyptian [[alchemy]] into the [[Arabic language]]. === 8th century === * [[8th century|700s]] - [astronomy, technology] [[Brass]] [[astrolabe]] developed by [[Muhammad al-Fazari]].<ref>[[Richard Nelson Frye]]. ''Golden Age of Persia'', p. 163</ref> * 700s - [ceramics, pottery] From the eighth to eighteenth centuries, the use of [[Ceramic glaze|glazed ceramics]] was prevalent in [[Islamic art]], usually assuming the form of elaborate [[pottery]].<ref>Mason (1995), p. 1</ref> [[Tin-glazing|Tin-opacified glazing]] was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in [[Basra]], dating to around the 8th century.<ref name=Mason>Mason (1995), p. 5</ref> * 700s - [ceramics, glass, industry, pottery] The first industrial [[factory]] complex for [[Islamic pottery]] and [[glass]] production is built in [[Ar-Raqqah]], [[Syria]]. Extensive [[experiment]]ation is carried out at the complex, which is two [[kilometre]]s in length, and a variety of innovative high-purity glass are developed there. Two other similar complexes are also built, and nearly three hundred new [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|chemical recipes]] for glass are produced at all three sites.<ref>{{citation|first1=J.|last1=Henderson|first2=S. D.|last2=McLoughlin|first3=D. S.|last3=McPhail|year=2004|title=Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa, Syria|journal=Archaeometry|volume=46|issue=3|pages=439–68}}</ref> * [[702]] - [[765]] - [chemistry] [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]], refuted [[Aristotle]]'s theory of the four [[classical element]]s and theorized that each one is made up of different [[chemical element]]s: "''I wonder how a man like Aristotle could say that in the world there are only four elements - [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], [[Water (classical element)|Water]], [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], and [[Air (classical element)|Air]]. The [[Earth]] is not an element. It contains many elements. Each [[metal]], which is in the earth, is an element.''" Al-Sadiq also developed a [[Particle physics|particle theory]], which he described as follows: "''The universe was born out of a [[Subatomic particle|tiny particle]], which had two opposite poles. That particle produced an [[atom]]. In this way [[matter]] came into being. Then the matter diversified. This diversification was caused by the [[density]] or rarity of the atoms.''" Al-Sadiq also wrote a theory on the [[opacity (optics)|opacity]] and [[Transparency (optics)|transparency]] of [[material]]s. He stated that materials which are [[solid]] and [[absorbent]] are opaque, and materials which are solid and [[repellent]] are more or less transparent. He also stated that opaque materials absorb [[heat]].<ref name=Strasburg>Research Committee of [[University of Strasbourg|Strasburg University]], ''Imam Jafar Ibn Muhammad As-Sadiq A.S. The Great Muslim Scientist and Philosopher'', translated by Kaukab Ali Mirza, 2000. Willowdale Ont. ISBN 0969949014.</ref> * [[715]] - [[800]] - [ceramics, pottery] [[Lustreware]] is invented in [[Iraq]] by the [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Arabian chemist]], [[Geber|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (Geber), during the [[Abbasid]] [[caliphate]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2091.htm |title=Lustre Glass |accessdate=2008-03-29|last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%209.htm |title=Lazaward And Zaffer Cobalt Oxide In Islamic And Western Lustre Glass And Ceramics |accessdate=2008-03-29|last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> * [[715]] - [[815]] - [chemistry] [[Geber]] (Jabir ibn Hayyan), a [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Muslim chemist]], is "considered by many to be the father of chemistry",<ref name=Derewenda>{{citation|first=Zygmunt S.|last=Derewenda|year=2007|title=On wine, chirality and crystallography|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography|volume=64|pages=246–258 [247]|doi=10.1107/S0108767307054293}}</ref><ref>John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", ''Third World Quarterly'', Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.</ref><ref>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/haiyan.html JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber)]. [[University of Indonesia]].</ref> for introducing the [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]] for chemistry, as well as laboratory apparatus such as the [[alembic]], [[still]] and [[retort]], and chemical processes such as pure [[distillation]], [[liquefaction]], [[crystallisation]], [[purification]], [[oxidisation]], [[evaporation]] and [[filtration]].<ref name=Vallely/><ref name=Briffault/> He also invented more than twenty types of laboratory apparatus.<ref name=Ansari/> His collection of works (known as the ''Jabirian corpus'') include ''The elaboration of the Grand Elixir'', ''The chest of wisdom'' in which he introduces [[nitric acid]], ''Kitab al-Istitmam'' (later translated to Latin as ''Summa Perfectionis''), and many others. * [[715]] - [[815]] - [alchemy] [[Geber]], also a [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Muslim alchemist]], introduces theories on the transmutation of metals, the [[philosopher's stone]], and ''[[Takwin]]'', the artificial creation of life in the laboratory. He also further developed the five [[classical element]]s into seven elements by adding two [[metal]]s: [[sulfur]] (‘the stone which burns’ that characterized the principle of combustibility) and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] (which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties) as 'elements'.<ref name="r8"/> * [[715]] - [[815]] - [chemical substances] In contrast to the ancients ("the only [[acid]] known to the ancients was [[vinegar]]"), Jabir was the first to produce a number of other acids: [[mineral acid]]s such as [[nitric acid]], [[sulfuric acid]] and [[hydrochloric acid]],<ref name=Briffault>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 195.</ref><ref name=Transfer>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref> [[uric acid]],<ref name=Vallely/> [[acetic acid]],<ref name=Derewenda/><ref>Olga Pikovskaya, [http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/mar2005/tc20050329_3316.htm Repaying the West's Debt to Islam], ''[[BusinessWeek]]'', [[March 29]], [[2005]].</ref> [[citric acid]], [[tartaric acid]]<ref name=Derewenda/> and[[aqua regia]].<ref name=Chemical>{{cite web|last=Hassan|first=Ahmad Y|authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2072.htm|title=Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries|accessdate=2008-05-26|publisher=[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]}}</ref> Several [[chemical element]]s were also first discovered by [[Geber]]: [[arsenic]], [[antimony]] and [[bismuth]].<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science'' ([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html ''Quotations From Famous Historians of Science''], [http://www.cyberistan.org Cyberistan])</ref><ref name=Ansari>{{citation|title=Electrocyclic reactions: from fundamentals to research|first1=Farzana Latif|last1=Ansari|first2=Rumana|last2=Qureshi|first3=Masood Latif|last3=Qureshi|year=1998|publisher=Wiley-VCH|isbn=3527297553|page=2}}</ref><ref name=Briffault/> Geber was also the first to classify [[sulfur]] and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] as 'elements'.<ref name="r8">Strathern, Paul. (2000). Mendeleyev’s Dream – the Quest for the Elements. New York: Berkley Books.</ref> He also discovered a number of other [[chemical substances]]. * [[715]] - [[815]] - [crystallography] [[Crystallization]] is invented by [[Geber]].<ref name=Derewenda/> * [[715]] - [[815]] - [glass] [[Geber]] wrote on adding colour to [[glass]] by adding small quantities of metallic [[oxide]]s to the glass, such as [[manganese dioxide]] ([[magnesia]]). These [[Stained glass|coloured glass]] were a new advancement in the glass industry unknown in antiquity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%209.htm |title=The Manufacture of Coloured Glass |accessdate=2007-09-03|last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> * [[715]] - [[815]] - [chemical technology, glass] In the ''Book of the Hidden Pearl'', [[Geber]] scientifically described 46 original recipes for producing coloured glass, in addition to 12 recipes inserted by al-Marrakishi in a later edition of the book; the first recipes for the [[manufacture]] of artificial [[pearl]]s and for the [[purification]] of pearls that were discoloured from the sea or from [[grease]]; the first recipes for the [[dying]] and artificial colouring of [[gemstone]]s and [[pearl]]s; the first recipes for the [[manufacture]] of [[glue]] from [[cheese]]; and invented [[plated mail]] for use in [[armour]]s (''jawasin''), [[helmet]]s (''bid'') and [[shield]]s (''daraq'').<ref name=Pearl>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2092.htm |title= The Colouring of Gemstones, The Purifying and Making of Pearls And Other Useful Recipes |accessdate=2008-03-29|last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> and first described the production of high quality coloured glass cut into artificial [[gemstone]]s.<ref name=Glass>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2093.htm |title=Assessment of ''Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna'' |accessdate=2008-03-29|last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> * [[715]] - [[815]] - [chemistry] [[Destructive distillation]] is developed by [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Arabic chemists]].<ref name=Ajram/> * [[740]] - [[828]] - [animal husbandry, botany, zoology] [[Al-Asma'i]] was the earliest [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution|Arab biologist, botanist and zoologist]]; his works include the ''Book of Distinction'', ''Book of the Wild Animals'', ''Book of the Horse'', and ''Book of the Sheep''. * [[751]] - [technology] [[Papermaking]] is introduced to the Islamic world from Chinese prisoners after the [[Battle of Talas]]. * [[754]] - [medicine, pharmacy] The first [[pharmacy]] and [[drugstore]]s are opened in [[Baghdad]].<ref name=Hadzovic>S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Medicinski Arhiv'' '''51''' (1-2), p. 47-50.</ref> The first [[apothecary]] shops are also opened in the Islamic world.<ref>Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, ''Jounal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2004 (3), pp. 3-9 [8].</ref> * [[763]] - [[809]] - [library] The [[House of Wisdom]] is founded by the [[Abbasid]] [[caliph]] [[Harun al-Rashid]]. * [[763]] - [[809]] - [medicine] "The first free [[public hospital]] was opened in [[Baghdad]] during the [[Caliphate]] of [[Harun al-Rashid|Haroon-ar-Rashid]]."<ref name=Glubb>{{citation|last=Sir Glubb|first=John Bagot|author-link=John Bagot Glubb|year=1969|title=A Short History of the Arab Peoples|url=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/quote2.html#glubb|accessdate=2008-01-25}}</ref> These "[[Bimaristan]]s" were hospitals in the modern sense, an establishment where the ill were welcomed and cared for by qualified staff. In this way, [[Islamic medicine|Muslim physicians]] were the first to make a distinction between a hospital and other different forms of [[healing temple]]s, [[sleep temple]]s, [[hospice]]s, [[assylum]]s, [[lazaret]]s and [[leper]]-houses, all of which in [[Ancient history|ancient times]] were more concerned with isolating the [[sick]] and the [[mad]] from society "rather than to offer them any way to a true cure." The medieval Bimaristan hospitals are thus considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word.<ref>{{citation|last=Micheau|first=Francoise|contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|pages=991-2}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=985-1007}}</ref> * [[763]] - [[800]] - [medicine, psychiatry, psychology] The first [[psychiatric hospital]]s and insane asylums are built by the Muslim Arabs in [[Baghdad]] and then [[Fes]].<ref name=Syed-7-8>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''[[The Islamic Medical Association of North America|Journal of the Islamic Medical Association]]'', 2002 (2), p. 2-9 [7-8].</ref> * [[764]] - [[800]] - [petroleum, civil engineering] The streets of the newly constructed [[Baghdad]] are [[Pavement (material)|paved]] with [[tar]], derived from [[petroleum]], coming from natural [[oil fields]] in the region, through the process of [[destructive distillation]].<ref name=Ajram/> * [[770]] - [astronomy, mathematics] An [[Indian astronomy|Indian astronomer]] visits the court of [[Caliph]] [[Al-Mansur]], and brings with him the ''[[Surya Siddhanta]]'' and the works of [[Aryabhata]] and [[Brahmagupta]]. * [[777]] - [astronomy, mathematics] [[Muhammad al-Fazari]] and [[Yaqūb ibn Tāriq]] translate the ''[[Surya Siddhanta]]'' and ''[[Brahmasphutasiddhanta]]'', and compile them as the ''Zij al-Sindhind'', the first [[Zij]] treatise.<ref>{{Citation |last=Kennedy |first=Edward S. |year=1956 |title=A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=46 |issue=2 |doi=10.2307/1005726 |pages=123 }}</ref> * [[794]] - [industry, technology] The first [[paper mill]]s are created in [[Baghdad]], marking the beginning of the [[paper]] industry.<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=329 The Beginning of the Paper Industry], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation</ref> * c. [[796]] - [astronomical instruments] The first person credited for building the [[brass]] [[astrolabe]] in the Islamic world is reportedly [[Muhammad al-Fazari]].<ref>[[Richard Nelson Frye]], ''Golden Age of Persia'', p. 163.</ref> * late [[8th century|700s]] - early [[9th century|800s]] - [musical science] [[Mansour Zalzal]] of Kufa. Musician ([[luth]]) and composer of the [[Abbasid]] era. Contributed [[musical scale]]s that were later named after him (the [[Mansouri scale]]) and introduced positions (intervals) within scales such as the ''wasati-zalzal'' that was [[equidistant]] from the ''alwasati alqadima'' and ''wasati al-fors''. Made improvements on the design of the luth instrument and designed the Luth. Teacher of Is-haq al-Mawsili. * [[700]] - [[900]] - [legal science] [[Charitable trust]] first developed in [[Islamic law]] as the ''[[Waqf]].<ref>{{Harvard reference |last=Gaudiosi |first=Monica M. |title=The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College |year=1988 |journal=[[University of Pennsylvania Law Review]] |volume=136 |issue=4 |date=April 1988 |pages=1231-1261 }}</ref><ref>{{Harvard reference |last=Hudson |first=A. |title=Equity and Trusts |year=2003 |edition=3rd |publisher=Cavendish Publishing |location=[[London]] |isbn=1-85941-729-9 |p=32}}</ref> === 9th century === * [[721]] - [[900]] - [chemistry] [[Chemical process]]es first described by [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Muslim chemists]] include: assation (or [[roasting]]), cocotion (or [[Precipitation (chemistry)|digestion]]), [[ceration]], [[lavage]], [[solution]], [[mixture]], and [[Fixation (alchemy)|fixation]].<ref>Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology: Towards Motivating the Muslim Child", ''OISE Papers in STSE Education'', Vol. 3.</ref> Arab chemists were the first to produce [[purified water]], through [[water purification]] and [[distillation]], used for [[water supply]] systems and for long journeys across deserts where the supplies were uncertain.<ref name=Rafael>George Rafael, [http://archive.salon.com/books/feature/2002/01/08/alphabet/index.html A is for Arabs], ''[[Salon.com]]'', [[January 8]], [[2002]].</ref> [[Petrol]] is also first produced by Muslim chemists.<ref>Deborah Rowe, [http://www.channel4.com/science/microsites/S/science/society/islamicscience2.html How Islam has kept us out of the 'Dark Ages'], ''Science and Society'', ''[[Channel 4]]'', May 2004.</ref> * [[721]] - [[925]] - [chemical technology] In his ''Secretum secretorum'' (Latinized title), [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes) described the following tools that were invented by him and his Muslim predecessors ([[Calid]], [[Geber]] and [[Al-Kindi]]) for [[melting]] substances (''li-tadhwib''): [[hearth]] (''kur''), [[bellow]]s (''minfakh aw ziqq''), [[crucible]] (''bawtaqa''), the ''but bar but'' (in Arabic) or ''botus barbatus'' (in Latin), [[tongs]] (''masik aq kalbatan''), [[scissors]] (''miqta''), [[hammer]] (''mukassir''), [[File (tool)|file]] (''mibrad'').<ref name=Anawati>Georges C. Anawati, "Arabic alchemy", p. 868, in {{Harv|Rashed|Morelon|1996|pp=853-902}}</ref> * [[721]] - [[925]] - [chemical technology] [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] described the following tools that were invented by him and his Muslim predecessors for the preparation of [[drug]]s (''li-tadbir al-aqaqir''): [[cucurbit]] and [[still]] with [[Vacuum tube|evacuation tube]] (''qar aq anbiq dhu-khatm''), receiving matras (''qabila''), blind still (without evacuation tube) (''al-anbiq al-ama''), [[aludel]] (''al-uthal''), [[goblet]]s (''qadah''), [[flask]]s (''qarura'' or ''quwarir''), [[rosewater]] flasks (''ma wariyya''), [[cauldron]] (''marjal aw tanjir''), [[earthenware]] pots varnished on the inside with their lids (''qudur aq tanjir''), [[water bath]] or [[sand bath]] (''qadr''), [[oven]] (''al-tannur'' in Arabic, ''athanor'' in Latin), small cylindirical oven for heating [[aludel]] (''mustawqid''), [[funnel]]s, [[sieve]]s, [[filter]]s, etc.<ref name=Anawati/> * [[721]] - [[925]] - [chemical substances] [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] wrote that he and his Muslim predecessors ([[Calid]], [[Geber]] and [[al-Kindi]]) invented the following [[Derivative (chemistry)|derivative]] and artificial [[chemical substance]]s: [[lead(II) oxide]] (PbO), [[red lead]] (Pb3O4), [[tin(II) oxide]] (''Isfidaj''), [[copper acetate]] (''Zaniar''), [[copper(II) oxide]] (CuO), [[lead sulfide]], [[zinc oxide]], [[bismuth oxide]], [[antimony]] oxide, iron [[rust]], [[iron acetate]], ''Daws'' (a contituent of [[steel]]), [[cinnabar]] (HgS), [[arsenic trioxide]] (As2O3), [[alkali]] (''al-Qili''), [[sodium hydroxide]] (caustic soda), and ''Qalimiya'' (anything that separates from metals during their [[List of purification methods in chemistry|purification]]).<ref name=Hassan-Alchemy/> * [[721]] - [[925]] - [chemical substances] [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] classified the natural [[chemical substance]]s that were discovered by him and his Muslim predecessors (mainly [[Calid]], Geber, [[al-Kindi]] and [[Banu Tamim|al-Tamimi]]) as follows: Four spirits ([[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[sal ammoniac]], [[arsenic]], [[sulfur]]), eight fusible metals ([[gold]], [[silver]], [[copper]], [[iron]], [[tin]], [[lead]], mercury), rhirteen [[Rock (geology)|stones]] (''marqashisha, maghnisiya, daws'' (a constituent of iron and [[steel]]), ''tutiya'', [[lapis lazuli]], [[malachite green]], [[turquoise]], [[hematite]], arsenic [[oxide]], [[lead sulfide]], ''talq'' ([[mica]] and [[asbestos]]), [[gypsum]], [[glass]]), six [[vitriol]]s (black vitriol, [[alum]], ''qalqand, qalqadis, qalqatar, [[Suri (flower)|suri]]''), seven [[borate]]s ([[borax]], [[bread]] borax, [[natron]], [[nitrate]], [[sodium nitrate]], [[potassium nitrate]], [[sodium]] borate), and thirteen [[Salt (chemistry)|salts]] ([[lead(II) acetate]] (sweet), [[magnesium sulfate]] (bitter), ''andarani'' [[salt]], ''tabarzad'', [[potassium nitrate]], [[naphthenate]], [[black salt]] (Indian), salt of [[Egg (biology)|egg]], [[alkali]] (''al-qali''), salt of [[urine]], [[calcium hydroxide]] (slaked lime), salt of [[oak]] ashes, natron).<ref name=Hassan-Alchemy>{{cite web |url= http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2010.htm |title= Arabic Alchemy: Science of the Art |accessdate=2008-03-29 |last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> * [[780]] - [[850]] - [astronomical instruments] [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]] (Algorismi) invents the [[Quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]], [[mural instrument]], sine quadran, horary quadrant,<ref name=King>[[David A. King]], "Islamic Astronomy", in Christopher Walker (1999), ed., ''Astronomy before the telescope'', p. 167-168. [[British Museum]] Press. ISBN 0-7141-2733-7.</ref> and [[alhidade]].<ref>David A. King (2002). "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus", ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'' '''33''', p. 237-255 [238-239].</ref> * [[789]] - [[857]] - [cosmetics, cuisine, fashion, hygiene] [[Ziryab]] ("Blackbird") opens a [[Beauty salon|beauty parlour]] or “[[cosmetology]] school” for women near [[Alcázar]], [[Al-Andalus]], where he introduces a "shorter, shaped cut, with [[Fringe (hair)|bangs]] on the forehead and the ears uncovered." He also taught "the shaping of [[eyebrow]]s and the use of [[Chemical depilatory|chemical depilatories]] for [[Hair removal|removing body hair]]", and he introduced new [[perfume]]s and [[cosmetics]].<ref name=Lebling>{{citation|last=Lebling Jr.|first=Robert W.|title=Flight of the Blackbird|journal=[[Saudi Aramco World]]|date=July-August 2003|pages=24-33|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200407/flight.of.the.blackbird-.compilation..htm |accessdate=2008-06-29}}</ref> Ziryab is also known to have invented an early [[toothpaste]], which he popularized throughout [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]].<ref name=Sertima/> The exact ingredients of this toothpaste are not currently known,<ref name=Lebling/> but it was reported to have been both "functional and pleasant to taste."<ref name=Sertima>{{citation|last=Sertima|first=Ivan Van|year=1992|title=The Golden Age of the Moor|page=267|publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]]|isbn=1560005815}}</ref> He also invented under-arm [[deodorant]]s and "new short [[hairstyle]]s leaving the neck, ears and eyebrows free,"<ref name=Marin>Salma Khadra Jayyusi and Manuela Marin (1994), ''The Legacy of Muslim Spain'', p. 117, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004095993</ref> as well as shaving for men. He also introduced the three-course meal, insisting that meals should be served in three separate courses consisting of [[soup]], the [[main course]], and [[dessert]].<ref name=Marin>Salma Khadra Jayyusi and Manuela Marin (1994), ''The Legacy of Muslim Spain'', p. 117, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004095993</ref> * [[800]] - [medicine, psychiatry, psychology] The first [[psychiatric hospital]] and insane asylum in Egypt is built by Muslim physicians in [[Cairo]].<ref name=Syed-7-8/> * [[800]] - [[868]] - [biology, language, linguistics, zoology] 'Amr ibn Bahr [[al-Jahiz]] wrote a number of works on [[zoology]], [[Arabic grammar]], [[rhetoric]], and [[lexicography]]. His most famous work is the ''Book of Animals'', in which he was the first to discuss [[food chain]]s,<ref>Frank N. Egerton, "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science - Origins and Zoological", ''Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America'', April 2002: 142-146 [143]</ref> and was an early adherent of [[environmental determinism]], arguing that the environment can determine the physical characteristics of the inhabitants of a certain community and that the origins of different [[human skin color]]s is the result of the environment.<ref>Lawrence I. Conrad (1982), "Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''25''' (3), pp. 268-307 [278].</ref> He was also the first to describe the [[The Origin of Species#Struggle for existence, and natural selection|struggle for existence]]<ref>Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' '''84''' (1), p. 71-123.</ref> and an early theory on [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]].<ref>Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", ''The Islamic Quarterly''. [[London]]. [http://www.salaam.co.uk/knowledge/al-jahiz.php]</ref> * [[800]] - [[873]] - [technology] The [[Banū Mūsā]] brothers write the ''[[Book of Ingenious Devices]]'', in which they describe their following inventions: [[valve]], [[float valve]], [[Control theory|feedback controller]],<ref name=Mayr>Otto Mayr (1970). ''The Origins of Feedback Control'', [[MIT Press]].</ref> [[float chamber]], [[automatic control]],<ref name=Transfer/> [[Automaton|Automatic]] [[flute]] player, [[Computer programming|Programmable]] [[machine]],<ref name=Koetsier>Teun Koetsier (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators", ''Mechanism and Machine theory'' '''36''', p. 590-591.</ref> [[Mechanical puzzle|Trick]] [[drinking vessel]]s, [[gas mask]], [[Grab (tool)|grab]], [[Dredging#Grab|clamshell grab]], [[fail-safe]] system, [[hurricane lamp]], self-feeding [[oil lamp]], self-trimming [[oil lamp]],<ref name=Hill2>{{Harvard reference |last=Hill |first=Donald R. |authorlink=Donald Routledge Hill |title=Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East |journal=Scientific American |year=1991 |date=May 1991 |pages=64-69}} ([[cf.]] {{Citation |last=Hill |first=Donald R. |author-link=Donald Routledge Hill |url=http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm |title=Mechanical Engineering |accessdate=2008-01-22}})</ref> mechanical [[musical instrument]], and [[Hydropower]]ed [[Organ (music)|organ]].<ref name=Fowler>{{citation|title=The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments|first=Charles B.|last=Fowler|journal=Music Educators Journal|volume=54|issue=2|date=October 1967|pages=45-49}}</ref> * [[9th century|800s]] - [education] The first [[universities]] in the modern sense, namely institutions of [[higher education]] and [[research]] which issue [[academic degree]]s at all levels ([[Bachelor's degree|bachelor]], [[Master's degree|master]] and [[doctorate]]), were medieval [[madrasah]]s known as ''Jami'ah'' founded in the 9th century.<ref name=Makdisi>{{citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April-June 1989|pages=175-182 [175-77]}}</ref><ref name=Alatas/> The first universities in Europe were influenced in many ways by the madrasahs in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]] and the [[Emirate of Sicily]] at the time, and in the [[Middle East]] during the [[Crusades]].<ref name=Makdisi/> The Islamic scholarly system of ''[[fatwa]]'' and ''[[ijma]]'', meaning [[opinion]] and [[consensus]] respectively, formed the basis of the "scholarly system the [[Western world|West]] has practised in university [[scholarship]] from the [[Middle Ages]] down to the present day."<ref name=Makdisi/> * [[800s]] - [chemistry, petroleum] [[Oil field]]s first appear in [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]], and generate commercial activities and industry. These oil fields, where [[oil well]]s are dug to get the ''Naft'' ([[naphta]], or crude [[petroleum]]), are described by geographer [[Masudi]] in the 10th century and by [[Marco Polo]] in the [[13th century]], who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads. * 800s - [education, legal science] [[Madrasah]]s were the first [[law school]]s, and it is likely that the "law schools known as [[Inns of Court]] in England" may have been derived from the madrasahs which taught [[Sharia|Islamic law]] and [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]].<ref name=Makdisi>{{citation|last=Makdisi|first=John A.|title=The Islamic Origins of the Common Law|journal=[[North Carolina Law Review]]|year=1999|date=June 1999|volume=77|issue=5|pages=1635-1739}}</ref> * 800s - [legal science, education] The origins of the [[doctorate]] dates back to the ''[[Ijazah|ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifta']]'' ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic [[legal education]] system, which was equivalent to the [[Doctor of Laws]] qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the ''[[Madh'hab]]'' legal schools. To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a [[guild]] [[Law school|school of law]], usually four years for the basic [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] course" and ten or more years for a [[Postgraduate education|post-graduate]] course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral [[Test (student assessment)|examination]] to determine the originality of the candidate's [[Dissertation|theses]]," and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in [[disputation]]s set up for the purpose" which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a [[Graduate school|graduate student]] of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of ''[[faqih]]'' (meaning "[[master of law]]"), ''[[mufti]]'' (meaning "professor of [[Fatwā|legal opinions]]") and ''mudarris'' (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into [[Latin]] as ''[[Magister (degree)|magister]]'', ''[[professor]]'' and ''[[doctor]]'' respectively.<ref name=Makdisi>{{citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April-June 1989|pages=175-182 [175-77]}}</ref> * 800s - [ceramics, pottery] Another significant contribution of [[Islamic pottery]] was the development of [[Stoneware|stonepaste ceramics]], originating from 9th century Iraq.<ref name=Mason/> * 800s - [chemistry] The first [[oil field]]s and [[oil well]]s are created in [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]], in order to produce [[naphtha]].<ref name=Ajram/> [[Coffee]] was also invented by [[Khalid]] in [[Ethiopia]]. * 800s - [milling technology] The [[water turbine]] is invented by [[Inventions in the Islamic world|Muslim engineers]] in the Islamic world.<ref name=Hill2/> * 800s - [astronomical instruments] [[Islamic astronomy|Muslim astronomers]] invent the universal [[sundial]]<ref>David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", pp. 168-169</ref> and universal horary [[dial]]<ref>{{Harvard reference |last=King |first=David A. |year=2005 |title=In Synchrony with the Heavens, Studies in Astronomical Timekeeping and Instrumentation in Medieval Islamic Civilization: Instruments of Mass Calculation |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=900414188X }}</ref><ref>{{Harvard reference |last=King |first=David A. |year=2003 |date=December 2003 |title=14th-Century England or 9th-Century Baghdad? New Insights on the Elusive Astronomical Instrument Called Navicula de Venetiis |journal=[[Centaurus (journal)|Centaurus]] |volume=45 |issue=1-4 |pages=204-226 }}</ref> in [[Baghdad]]. The first [[Mariner's astrolabe|navigational astrolabe]] was also invented in the medieval Islamic world, and employed the use of a [[Polar coordinate system|polar]] [[Map projection|projection]] system.<ref>Robert Hannah (1997). "''The Mapping of the Heavens'' by Peter Whitfield", ''Imago Mundi'' '''49''', pp. 161-162.</ref> * [[800]] - [[873]] - [chemistry, environment, medicine, philosophy, physics] Ibn Ishaq [[Al-Kindi]] (Latinized, ''Alkindus'') contributed to [[early Islamic philosophy]], [[Islamic physics]], optics, [[Islamic medicine]], [[Islamic mathematics]], cryptography, and [[metallurgy]]. He Worked at the [[House of Wisdom]] which was set up in [[810]]. He introduces [[quantification]] into medicine in his ''[[De Gradibus]]'', and he is the first to isolate [[ethanol]] ([[alcohol]]) as a pure compound.<ref name=Alcohol>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%207.htm |title=Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources |accessdate=2008-03-29 |last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> * [[810]] - [[888]] - [aviation, glass, medicine, technology] [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]] "was a [[polymath]]: a [[Islamic medicine|physician]], a rather bad [[Arabic poetry|poet]], the first to make [[glass]] from [[Rock (geology)|stones]] ([[quartz]]), a student of [[Arabic music|music]], and inventor of some sort of [[metronome]]." He contributed to the mechanics of [[flight]], [[planetarium]], and artificial [[crystal]]s, and he made the earliest recorded attempt at controlled [[flight]]. He also designed a [[water clock]], devised means of manufacturing colorless [[glass]], developed a chain of rings that could be used to display the motions of the planets and stars, and developed a process for cutting rock [[crystal]]. Another one of his inventions was an [[Weather control|artificial weather]] [[simulation]] room, in which spectators saw [[star]]s and [[cloud]]s, and were astonished by artificial [[thunder]] and [[lightning]] due to [[mechanism]]s hidden in the [[basement]].<ref name=White>[[Lynn Townsend White, Jr.]] (Spring, 1961), "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", ''Technology and Culture'' '''2''' (2), p. 97-111 [100-1]</ref> He also describes [[corrective lens]]<ref name=Ajram/> and clear colourless high-purity [[glass]],<ref name=Glass>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2093.htm |title=Assessment of ''Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna'' |accessdate=2008-03-29|last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> and invents [[silica]] glass and [[fused quartz]] glass.<ref name=White/> * [[813]] - [[833]] - [library] A large number of [[ancient Greek]], [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pahlavi]] texts on mathematics and astronomy are translated into [[Arabic language|Arabic]] at [[Baghdad]]'s [[House of Wisdom]] (''Bayt al-Hikma'') during [[Al-Ma'mun]]'s time. * 813 - 833 - [education, medicine] The first [[medical school]]s are founded in Baghdad during Al-Ma'mun's time. These also became the first medical [[universities]], where [[academic degree]]s and [[diploma]]s (''[[ijazah]]'') were issued to those students who were qualified to be practising [[doctors of medicine]].<ref name=Glubb/><ref name=Alatas/> * [[820]] - [mathematics] [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]] (Persian name: خوارزمي, Arabicized name الخوارزمي ''al-Khwarizmi'', Latinized name ''Algorithm'') wrote the ''[[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing|Hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala]]'' (''[[Calculus]] of resolution and juxtaposition''), more briefly referred to as ''al-jabr'', or [[algebra]]. "Algebra was a unifying theory which allowed [[rational number]]s, [[irrational number]]s, [[geometrical]] magnitudes, etc., to all be treated as "algebraic objects". It gave [[mathematics]] a whole new development path so much broader in concept to that which had existed before, and provided a vehicle for future development of the subject. Another important aspect of the introduction of algebraic ideas was that it allowed mathematics to be applied to itself in a way which had not happened before."<ref name="one">[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Arabic_mathematics.html Arabic mathematics], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]'', [[University of St Andrews]], Scotland</ref> As Rashed writes: "Al-Khwarizmi's successors undertook a systematic application of [[arithmetic]] to algebra, algebra to arithmetic, both to [[trigonometry]], algebra to the Euclidean [[theory of numbers]], algebra to geometry, and geometry to algebra. This was how the creation of [[polynomial algebra]], [[combinatorial analysis]], [[numerical analysis]], the numerical solution of [[equation]]s, the new elementary theory of numbers, and the geometric construction of equations arose."<ref name="two">R. Rashed, ''Entre arithmétique et algèbre: Recherches sur l'histoire des mathématiques arabes'' (Paris, 1984)</ref><ref name="three">R. Rashed, ''The development of Arabic mathematics : between arithmetic and algebra'' (London, 1994)</ref> * [[820]] - [mathematics] [[Al-Mahani]] (full name Abu Abdollah Muhammad ibn Isa Mahani - in Arabic [[Al-Mahani]]). Conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra.<ref name="one"/> * [[828]] - [[896]] [agriculture, astronomy, biology, botany, Earth sciences, meteorology] [[Al-Dinawari]], the founder of [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution|Arabic botany]], writes the ''Book of Plants'', which describes at least 637 plants; discusses [[plant evolution]] from its birth to its death, describing the phases of [[plant growth]] and the production of flowers and fruit. He also deals with the applications of [[Islamic astronomy]] and [[meteorology]] to [[agriculture]]: he describes the astronomical and meteorological character of the sky, the [[planet]]s and [[constellation]]s, the [[sun]] and [[moon]], the [[lunar phase]]s indicating [[season]]s and [[rain]], the ''anwa'' ([[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] of rain), and atmospheric phenomena such as winds, thunder, lightning, snow, floods, valleys, rivers, lakes, wells and other sources of water. He also deals with the [[Earth sciences]] in the context of agriculture: he considers the Earth, stone and sands, and describes different types of [[ground]], indicating which types are more convenient for plants and the qualities and properties of good ground.<ref name=Fahd-815>{{citation|last=Fahd|first=Toufic|contribution=Botany and agriculture|pages=815}}, in {{Harvard reference |last1=Morelon |first1=Régis |last2=Rashed |first2=Roshdi |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |volume=3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pages=813-852}}</ref> * [[836]] - [[901]] [anatomy; astronomy; mathematics; mechanics] [[Thabit Ibn Qurra]] (Latinized, Thebit) studied at Baghdad's [[House of Wisdom]] under the [[Banu Musa]] brothers. He made many contributions to mathematics, particularly in [[geometry]] and [[number theory]]. He discovered the theorem by which pairs of [[amicable number]]s can be found; i.e., two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the other.<ref name="one"/> Later, [[al-Baghdadi]] (b. 980) and [[al-Haytham]] (born 965) developed variants of the theorem. * [[838]] - [[870]] - Tabari (full name: [[Ali ibn Sahl Rabban Al-Tabari]]). Medicine, Mathematics, [[Calligraphy]], Literature.<ref name="four">[http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/ Islamic civilization], Cyberistan</ref> * mid-[[800s]] - [chemistry] [[Al-Kindi]] writes on the [[distillation]] of [[wine]] as that of [[rose water]] and gives 107 recipes for [[perfume]]s, in his book ''Kitab Kimia al-`otoor wa al-tas`eedat'' (''Book of the chemistry of perfumes and distillations''). * [[850]]/[[858]] - [[929]] - [astronomy - mathematics] [[Al-Battani]] (Albatenius) writes works on astronomy and trigonometry. He is mentioned twenty-three times in Copernicus' work ''De revolutionibus orbium celestium (On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres)''.<ref>M. Gill (2005), [http://www.chowk.com/show_article.cgi?aid=00005502&channel=university%20ave Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?]</ref> * [[850]] - [[930]] [mathematics] born [[Abu Kamil]] of Egypt (full name, Abu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam ibn Muhammad ibn Shuja) Forms an important link in the development of algebra between [[al-Khwarizmi]] and [[al-Karaji]]. Despite not using symbols, but writing powers of x in words, he had begun to understand what we would write in symbols as <math>x^n \cdot x^m = x^{m+n}</math> .<ref name="one"/> * [[852]] - [aviation, flight] [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]] (Armen Firman) made the first successful [[parachute]] fall using a huge wing-like cloak to break his fall, near [[Córdoba, Spain]]. * [[859]] - [education] The [[University of Al Karaouine]] in [[Fes, Morocco]], is recognized by the [[Guinness World Records|Guinness Book of World Records]] as the oldest [[academic degree]]-granting [[university]] in the world with its founding in 859 by the princess Fatima al-Fihri.<ref>''The Guinness Book Of Records'', 1998, p. 242, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2</ref> * ca. [[860]] - [astronomy, engineering] [[Al-Farghani]] (''Algraganus'') contributes to [[Islamic astronomy]] and [[civil engineering]]. * [[864]] - [[930]] - [chemistry, medicine] [[Al-Razi]] (Rhazes) wrote on ''Naft'' ([[naphta]] or [[petroleum]]) and its distillates in his book ''[[Kitab sirr al-asrar]]'' (''Book of the secret of secrets''). When choosing a site to build Baghdad's hospital, he hung pieces of fresh meat in different parts of the city. The location where the meat took the longest to [[rot]] was the one he chose for building the hospital. He advocated that patients not be told their real condition so that [[fear]] or [[wiktionary:despair|despair]] do not affect the [[healing]] process. He wrote the earliest descriptions on [[alkali]], [[caustic soda]], [[glycerine]], and he first described the modern formula for [[soap]] and invented the [[soap bar]].<ref name=Cosmetics>[http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewBlogEntry&intMTEntryID=2724 The invention of cosmetics]. ''1001 Inventions''.</ref> He also Gave descriptions of equipment, processes and methods in his book ''Kitab al-Asrar'' (''Book of Secrets'') in [[925]], and he was the first to clearly describe and differentiate between [[measles]] and [[smallpox]]. He was also a pioneer of [[chemotherapy]]<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/The_Valuable_Contributions_of_al-Razi_in_the_History_of_Pharmacy.pdf The Valuable Contribution of al-Razi (Rhazes) to the History of Pharmacy], FSTC</ref> and [[antiseptic]]s.<ref name=Ajram/> * [[870]] - [[950]] - [[Al-Farabi]] (Al-Pharabius) contributes to [[early Islamic philosophy]], [[early Muslim sociology]], [[logic in Islamic philosophy]], [[political science]], and [[musical science]]. * [[875]] - [aviation, flight] [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]] made the first recorded attempt at controlled flight employing a glider .<ref name=White/> * [[889]] - [navigation] [[Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad]] made the earliest known attempt to cross the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. According to [[Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī]]'s ''The fields of gold and the mines of jewels'', Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad, from [[Delba]] ([[Palos de la Frontera]]) crossed the Atlantic Ocean in 889 and returned with a shipload of valuable treasures (see [[Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories]]). === 10th century === * [[800]] - [[1000]] [technology] The first [[wind power]]ed [[gristmill]]s and [[Sugar refinery|sugar refineries]] appear in [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Iran]].<ref name=Lucas-65>Adam Lucas (2006), ''Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology'', p. 65. BRILL, ISBN 9004146490.</ref> The first [[gear]]ed gristmills<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1996), "Engineering", p. 781, in {{Harvard reference |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pages=751-95}}</ref> and the on/off [[switch]] are also invented by [[Inventions in the Islamic world|Muslim engineers]].<ref> F. L. Lewis (1992), ''Applied Optimal Control and Estimation'', Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.</ref> Other inventions from the Islamic world include the [[paned window]], [[Street light|street lamp]],<ref name=Garrison>[[Fielding H. Garrison]], ''History of Medicine'': {{quote|"The [[Saracen]]s themselves were the originators not only of [[algebra]], [[chemistry]], and [[geology]], but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization, such as [[Street light|street lamp]]s, [[window]]-[[Paned window|panes]], [[firework]], [[string instrument|stringed instruments]], [[cultivation|cultivated]] [[fruit]]s, [[perfume]]s, [[spice]]s, etc..."}}</ref> [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] [[escapement]] mechanism, [[bridge]] [[dam]] and [[Mill (grinding)|Milling]] [[dam]] in [[Iran]],<ref name=Hill-Engineering/><ref name=Lucas>Adam Lucas (2006), ''Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology'', p. 62. BRILL, ISBN 9004146490.</ref> [[diversion dam]] in [[Iraq]],<ref name=Hill-Engineering>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1996), "Engineering", p. 759, in {{Harvard reference |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pages=751-795}}</ref> and [[litter]] collection, [[waste container]]s and [[Waste disposal]] in [[Al-Andalus]].<ref name="1001inventions">S. P. Scott (1904), ''History of the Moorish Empire in Europe'', 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. <br> F. B. Artz (1980), ''The Mind of the Middle Ages'', Third edition revised, [[University of Chicago Press]], pp 148-50. <br> ([[cf.]] [http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=441 References], 1001 Inventions)</ref> * [[800]] - [[1000]] [drinking industry] [[Soft drink]]s,<ref>Juliette Rossant (2005), [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200505/the.world.s.first.soft.drink.htm The World's First Soft Drink], ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', September/October 2005, pp. 36-9</ref><ref name=Soft-Drink>[http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewBlogEntry&intMTEntryID=2889 The World's First Soft Drink.] 1001 Inventions, 2006.</ref> [[sherbet]]s and [[syrup]] are invented in the Islamic world.<ref name=Soft-Drink/> * [[800]] - [[1000]] The first [[public library]] and [[lending library]] are built in the Islamic world.<ref name=Barrett>[[Peter Barrett]] (2004), ''Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding'', p. 18, [[Continuum International Publishing Group]], ISBN 056708969X.</ref> The [[library catalog]] is also invented in Islamic libraries.<ref>{{citation|last=Micheau|first=Francoise|contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|pages=988-991}} in {{Harvard reference |last1=Morelon |first1=Régis |last2=Rashed |first2=Roshdi |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |volume=3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pp=985-1007}}</ref> * [[800]] - [[1300]] [environmental science] The earliest known treatises dealing with [[environmentalism]] and [[environmental science]], especially [[pollution]], were [[Islamic medicine|Arabic medical treatises]] written by [[al-Kindi]], [[Qusta ibn Luqa]], [[al-Razi]], [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]], [[al-Tamimi]], [[al-Masihi]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ali ibn Ridwan]], Ibn Jumay, [[Isaac Israeli ben Solomon]], [[Abd-el-latif]], Ibn al-Quff, and [[Ibn al-Nafis]]. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]], [[soil contamination]], [[municipal solid waste]] mishandling, and [[environmental impact assessment]]s of certain localities.<ref>L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", ''Environment and History'' '''8''' (4), pp. 475-488.</ref> [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], [[al-Andalus]] also had the first [[waste container]]s and [[waste disposal]] facilities for [[litter]] collection.<ref>S. P. Scott (1904), ''History of the Moorish Empire in Europe'', 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. <br> F. B. Artz (1980), ''The Mind of the Middle Ages'', Third edition revised, [[University of Chicago Press]], pp 148-50. <br> ([[cf.]] [http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=441 References], 1001 Inventions)</ref> * [[800]] - [[1300]] [medicine, urology] In [[sexual health]], [[Islamic medicine|Muslim physicians]] and pharmacists identified the issues of [[sexual dysfunction]] and [[erectile dysfunction]], and they were the first to prescribe [[medication]] for the treatment of these problems. They developed several methods of [[therapy]] for this issue, including the single drug method where a [[drug]] is prescribed, and a "combination method of either a drug or [[food]]." These drugs were also occasionally used for [[recreational drug use]] to improve [[male sexuality]] in general by those who did not suffer from sexual dysfunctions. Most of these drugs were oral medication, though a few patients were also treated through [[topical]] and [[Transurethral resection of the prostate|transurethral]] means. Sexual dysfunctions were being treated with tested drugs in the Islamic world since the 9th century until the 16th century by a number of Muslim physicians and pharmacists, including [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]], [[Al-Razi]], [[Thabit bin Qurra]], [[Avicenna]] (''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''), [[Averroes]], [[Ibn al-Baitar]], and [[Ibn al-Nafis]] (''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'').<ref name=Dayela>A. Al Dayela and N. al-Zuhair (2006), "Single drug therapy in the treatment of male sexual/erectile dysfunction in Islamic medicine", ''Urology'' '''68''' (1), p. 253-254.</ref> * [[865]] - [[925]] [chemistry, medicine] [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes), in his ''Doubts about Galen'', was the first to prove both [[Aristotle]]'s theory of [[classical element]]s and [[Galen]]'s theory of [[humorism]] wrong using an [[experiment]]al method. He carried out an experiment which would upset these theories by inserting a liquid with a different temperature into a body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Al-Razi noted particularly that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature, thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. Al-Razi's chemical experiments further suggested other qualities of matter, such as "[[oil]]iness" and "[[sulfur]]ousness", or [[inflammability]] and [[salinity]], which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth and air division of elements.<ref>G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.</ref> * [[858]] - [[1048]] [astronomical instruments] The first reference to an "observation tube" is found in the work of [[Al-Battani]], and the first exact description of the observation tube was given by [[al-Biruni]], in a section of his work that is "dedicated to verifying the presence of the new cresent on the horizon." Though these early observation tubes did not have [[Lens (optics)|lenses]], they "enabled an observer to focus on a part of the sky by eliminating [[light]] inteference." These observation tubes were later adopted in [[Latin]]-speaking Europe, where they influenced the development of the [[telescope]].<ref>Regis Morelon, "General Survey of Arabic Astronomy", pp. 9-10, in {{Harv|Rashed|Morelon|1996|pp=1-19}}</ref> * [[865]] - [[925]] [chemical technology] [[Kerosene]] was produced from the [[distillation]] of [[petroleum]] and was first described by [[al-Razi]] (Rhazes) in [[Baghdad]]. In his ''Kitab al-Asrar'' (''Book of Secrets''), he described two methods for the production of kerosene. One method involved using [[clay]] as an [[absorbent]], while the other method involved using [[ammonium chloride]] (''sal ammoniac''). Al-Razi also described the first [[kerosene lamp]]s (''naffatah'') used for heating and [[lighting]] in his ''Kitab al-Asrar'' (''Book of Secrets''). These were used in the [[oil lamp]] industry.<ref>Zayn Bilkadi ([[University of California, Berkeley]]), "The Oil Weapons", ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', January-February 1995, p. 20-27.</ref> * [[865]] - [[925]] [alchemy] [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] writes that the only [[vegetable]] substance used by Muslim alchemists are the ashes of the ''Ushnan'' [[plant]], from which they produced [[alkali metal]]s and [[alkali]] salts. Razi also lists ten [[animal]] substances that were used by him and his contemporary alchemists: [[hair]], [[skull]]s, [[brain]]s, [[bile]], [[blood]], [[milk]], [[urine]], [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s, [[nacre]] (mother of pearl) and [[Horn (anatomy)|horn]]. He writes that hair, brains, bile, eggs, skulls and blood were used to prepare [[sal ammoniac]].<ref name=Hassan-Alchemy/> * [[865]] - [[925]] [chemical processes] [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] first described the following chemical processes: [[calcination]] (''al-tashwiya'').<ref name=Anawati/><ref name=Chemical/> [[solution]] (''al-tahlil''), [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimation]] (''al-tas'id''), [[amalgam]]ation (''al-talghim''), [[ceration]] (''al-tashmi''), and a method of converting a substance into a thick [[paste]] or [[Fusible alloy|fusible solid]].<ref name=Anawati/> * [[900s]] - [mathematics, accounting] By this century, three [[numeral system|systems of counting]] are used in the Arab world. Finger-reckoning arithmetic, with numerals written entirely in words, used by the business community; the [[sexagesimal|sexagesimal system]], a remnant originating with the [[Babylonians]], with numerals denoted by letters of the [[arabic alphabet]] and used by Arab mathematicians in astronomical work; and the [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]], which was used with various sets of symbols.<ref name="one"/> Its arithmetic at first required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld [[blackboard]]) because "the methods required moving the numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded." [[Al-Uqlidisi]] (born [[920]]) modified these methods for pen and paper use.<ref name="one"/> Eventually the advances enabled by the [[decimal system]] led to its standard use throughout the region and the world. * 900s - [technology] The first [[Mill (grinding)|milling]] [[factory]] is built in [[Baghdad]].<ref name=Hill-783>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1996), "Engineering", p. 783, in {{Harvard reference |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |volume=1 & 3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pages=751-95}}</ref> * 900s - [astronomy, mathematics, technology] The [[Cartography|cartographic]] [[Grid reference|grid]] is invented in [[Baghdad]],<ref name=Reflections>David A. King, "Reflections on some new studies on applied science in Islamic societies (8th-19th centuries)", ''Islam & Science'', June 2004</ref> and [[graph paper]] is also invented in the Islamic world.<ref>David J Roxburgh (2000), ''Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World'', p. 21, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004116699.</ref><ref>Josef W. Meri (2006), ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia'', p. 75, [[Taylor and Francis]], ISBN 0415966914.</ref><ref>David A. King (1999), ''World-maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science'', p. 17, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004113673.</ref> * 900s - [[Islamic astronomy|Muslim astronomers]] also invent the [[almucantar]] [[Quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]],<ref>Elly Dekker (1995), "An unrecorded medieval astrolabe quadrant from c. 1300", ''Annals of Science'' '''52''' (1), p. 1-47 [6].</ref> [[Mariner's astrolabe|navigational astrolabe]],<ref>Robert Hannah (1997). "''The Mapping of the Heavens'' by Peter Whitfield", ''Imago Mundi'' '''49''', pp. 161-162.</ref> vertical [[sundial]], and polar sundial.<ref name=King-Astronomy>{{citation|first=David A.|last=King|contribution=Astronomy and Islamic society|pages=163-8}}, in {{Harvard reference |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |volume=1 & 3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pages=128-184}}</ref> * 900s - [chemistry] [[Shaving cream|Shaving soap]] is invented by [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Arabic chemists]]. * 900s - [medicine] [[Alcohol]] is first employed for medical uses by [[Islamic medicine|Arabic physicians]].<ref name=Ajram/> * [[800]] - [[1000]] - [[Inventions in the Islamic world|Muslim engineers]] invented a variety of [[surveying]] instruments for accurate [[levelling]], including: a wooden board with a [[plumb line]] and two [[hook]]s, an [[equilateral triangle]] with a plumb line and two hooks, and a "[[Reed (instrument)|reed]] level". They also invented a rotating [[alhidade]] used for accurate alignment, and a surveying [[astrolabe]] used for alignment, measuring angles, [[triangulation]], finding the [[width]] of a [[river]], and the distance between two points separated by an impassable obstruction.<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1996), "Engineering", pp. 766-9, in {{Harv|Rashed|Morelon|1996|pp=751-95}}</ref> * [[903]] - [[986]] - [astronomical instruments] [[Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi]] (Latinized name, ''Azophi'') first described over 1,000 different uses of an [[astrolabe]], in areas as diverse as [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], [[Islamic astrology|astrology, horoscope]]s, [[Mariner's astrolabe|navigation]], [[surveying]], [[time]]keeping, [[Qibla]], [[Salah]] prayer, etc.<ref name=Winterburn>{{cite web|author=Dr. Emily Winterburn ([[National Maritime Museum]])|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=529|title=Using an Astrolabe|publisher=Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation|year=2005|accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref> * [[964]] - [astronomy] [[Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi]] writes the ''[[Book of Fixed Stars]]'', a [[star catalogue]] thoroughly illustrated with observations and descriptions of the [[star]]s, their positions, their [[apparent magnitude]]s and their colour. He identified the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]], which is visible from [[Yemen]], though not from Isfahan; it was not seen by Europeans until [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]]'s voyage in the 16th century. <ref name="obspm">{{cite web | title=Observatoire de Paris (Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi) | url=http://messier.obspm.fr/xtra/Bios/alsufi.html | accessdate=2007-04-19 }}</ref><ref name="obspm2">{{cite web | title=Observatoire de Paris (LMC) | url=http://messier.obspm.fr/xtra/ngc/lmc.html | accessdate=2007-04-19 }}</ref> He also made earliest recorded observation of the [[Andromeda Galaxy]] in 964 AD; describing it as a "small cloud".<ref name="NSOG">{{cite book |last= Kepple |first= George Robert |coauthors= Glen W. Sanner |title= The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Volume 1 |publisher= Willmann-Bell, Inc. |year= 1998 |id= ISBN 0-943396-58-1 |pages=18 }}</ref> He also cataloged the Omicron Velorum [[star cluster]] as a "nebulous star", and an additional "nebulous object" in Vulpecula, a cluster now variously known as Al Sufi's Cluster, the "Coathanger [[asterism]]", [[Brocchi's Cluster]] or Collinder 399. * [[909]] - [[950]] [ceramics, pottery] The [[Hispano-Moresque]] style of [[Islamic pottery]] emerged in [[Andalusia]] under the [[Fatimid]]s. * [[920]] [mathematics] Born [[al-Uqlidisi]]. Modified arithmetic methods for the Indian numeral system to make it possible for pen and paper use. Until then, doing calculations with the Indian numerals necessitated the use of a dust board as noted earlier. * [[927]] - [[928]] - [astronomical instruments] The [http://www.soas.ac.uk/visitors/gallery/previous/islamicpatronage/popup25732.html earliest surviving example] of an [[astrolabe]] is dated 315 AH in the [[Islamic calendar]]. * [[936]] - [[1013]] [medicine] [[Al-Zahrawi]] (Latinized name, Albucasis) [[Surgery]], Medicine. Called the "Father of Modern Surgery."<ref name="four"/> * [[940]] - [[997]] [astronomy; mathematics] [[Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani|Muhammad Al-Buzjani]]. Mathematics, Astronomy, Geometry, Trigonometry. * [[940]] [mathematics] Born [[Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani]]. Wrote several [[treatise]]s using the finger-counting system of arithmetic, and was also an expert on the Indian numerals system. About the Indian system he wrote: "''[it] did not find application in business circles and among the population of the Eastern [[Caliphate]] for a long time.''"<ref name="one"/> Using the Indian numeral system, abu'l Wafa was able to extract [[root (mathematics)|roots]]. * [[945]] - [[1000]] [cuisine] Some of the earliest [[restaurant]]s came into existence throught the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] at this time. The [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] had "restaurants where one could purchase all sorts of prepared [[Dish (food)|dishes]]." These restaurants were mentioned by [[Al-Muqaddasi]] (born 945) in the late 10th century.<ref>{{citation|title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World|first=James E.|last=Lindsay|year=2005|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0313322708|page=131}}</ref> * [[953]] [mathematics] Born [[al-Karaji]] of Karaj and Baghdad (full name, Abu Bekr ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn Al-Karaji or al-Karkhi). Believed to be the "first person to completely free [[algebra]] from geometrical operations and to replace them with the arithmetical type of operations which are at the core of algebra today. He was first to define the [[monomial]]s <math>x</math>, <math>x^2</math>, <math>x^3</math>, ... and <math>1/x</math>, <math>1/x^2</math>, <math>1/x^3</math>, ... and to give rules for [[product (mathematics)|products]] of any two of these. He started a school of algebra which flourished for several hundreds of years".<ref name="one"/> Discovered the [[binomial theorem]] for [[integer]] [[exponent]]s. This "was a major factor in the development of [[numerical analysis]] based on the decimal system."<ref name="one"/> * [[953]] [technology] The earliest historical record of a reservoir [[fountain pen]] dates back to 953, when [[Al-Muizz Lideenillah|Ma'ād al-Mu'izz]], the [[caliph]] of [[Egypt]], demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and delivered it to the nib via gravity and capillary action, as recorded by [[Qadi]] al-Nu'man [[Banu Tamim|al-Tamimi]] (d. 974) in his ''Kitdb al-Majalis wa'l-musayardt''.<ref>{{citation|journal=[[Journal of Semitic Studies]]|volume=XXVl|issue=i|date=Autumn 1981|title=A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?|first=C. E.|last=Bosworth}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = "Origins of the Fountain Pen " | publisher = Muslimheritage.com | url = http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=365 | accessmonthday = September 18| accessyear = 2007 }}</ref> * [[957]] [geography; cartography; exploration; chemistry] died Abul Hasan Ali [[Masudi|Al-Masudi]], best known as a cartographer, was also a traveler historian, etc. Al-mas`oudi described his visit to the [[oilfield]]s of [[Baku]]. Wrote on the reaction of alkali water with zaj ([[vitriol]]) water giving [[sulfuric acid]]. * [[965]] - [[1040]] [mathematics; optics; physics] Born [[ibn al-Haitham]] (full name, ; Latinized name, Alhazen). Possibly the first to classify all even [[perfect number]]s (i.e., numbers equal to the sum of their proper divisors) as those of the form <math>2^{k-1}(2^k - 1)</math> where <math>2^k - 1</math> is [[prime number]].<ref name="one"/> Al-Haytham is also the first person to state [[Wilson's theorem]]. if <math>p</math> is prime than <math>1+(p-1)!</math> is divisible by <math>p</math>. "It is called ''Wilson's theorem'' because of a comment by Waring in 1770 that John Wilson had noticed the result. There is no evidence that Wilson knew how to prove it. It was over 750 years later that [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]] gave the first known proof to the statement in [[1771]].!<ref name="one"/> “Haytham in the tenth-eleventh century wrote a scathing critique of Ptolemy’s work: ‘Ptolemy assumed an arrangement that cannot exist, and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement, for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist’.”<ref>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , [http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/copernicus /index.html (Nicolaus Copernicus)] in M. Gill (2005), [http://www.chowk.com/show_article.cgi?aid=00005502&channel=university%20ave Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?]</ref> * [[972]] - [[1058]] [humanities] [[Al-Mawardi]] (Alboacen) [[Political science]], [[Sociology]], [[Jurisprudence]], [[Ethics]]. * [[975]] - [education] [[Al-Azhar University]], founded in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], was a ''Jami'ah'' ("[[university]]" in Arabic) which offered a variety of [[post-graduate]] [[academic degree]]s (''[[ijazah]]''),<ref name=Alatas/> and had individual [[Faculty (university)|faculties]]<ref>{{citation|title=A History of Christian-Muslim Relations|first=Hugh|last=Goddard|year=2000|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=074861009X|page=99}}</ref> for a theological [[seminary]], [[Sharia|Islamic law]] and [[Fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], [[Arabic grammar]], [[Islamic astronomy]], [[early Islamic philosophy]] and [[logic in Islamic philosophy]].<ref name=Alatas>{{citation|title=From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|first=Syed Farid|last=Alatas|journal=Current Sociology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112-32}}</ref> * [[975]] - [[1075]] - [ceramics, pottery] [[Fustat]] becomes a center for innovative [[Islamic pottery]] and [[ceramics]].<ref name=Mason-7>Mason (1995), p. 7</ref> * [[980]] [mathematics] Born [[al-Baghdadi]] (full name, ). Studied a slight variant of [[Thabit ibn Qurra]]'s theorem on [[amicable number]]s.<ref name="one"/> Al-Baghdadi also wrote texts comparing the three systems of counting and arithmetic used in the region during this period. Made improvements on the decimal system. * [[981]] - [[1037]] [astronomy; mathematics; medicine; philosophy] [[Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna); Medicine, Philosophy, Mathematics, Astronomy. Is considered to be the father of modern medicine * [[994]] - [astronomy, engineering] [[Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi]] constructs the first [[sextant (astronomical)|astronomical sextant]] in [[Ray, Iran]]. * [[996]] - [astronomy, engineering] The [[gear]]ed mechanical [[astrolabe]], featuring eight gear-wheels, is invented by [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/introduction/woi_knowledge.html|title=Islam, Knowledge, and Science|publisher=[[University of Southern California]]|accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref> === 11th century === *c. [[1000]] - [medicine, ophthalmology] Ammar ibn Ali of [[Mosul]] writes the ''Choice of Eye Diseases'', a landmark text on [[ophthalmology in medieval Islam]]. In [[cataract surgery]], He attempted the earliest extraction of [[cataract]]s using [[suction]]. He invented a hollow metallic [[syringe]] [[hypodermic needle]], which he applied through the [[sclerotic]] and successfully extracted the cataracts through suction. He discovered the technique of cataract extraction while [[experiment]]ing with his hypodermic needle invention on a patient.<ref>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''2''' (2002): 2-9 [7].</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function|first=Stanley|last=Finger|year=1994|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0195146948|page=70}}</ref> *c. [[1000]] - [physics, mathematics] [[Abū Sahl al-Qūhī|Abu Sahl al-Quhi]] (Kuhi), discovers that the [[weight|heaviness]] of bodies vary with their distance from the [[center of mass|center]] of the Earth, and solves [[equation]]s higher than the [[Quadratic equation|second degree]]. *c. [[1000]] - [mathematics] [[Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi]] first states a special case of [[Fermat's last theorem]]. *c. [[1000]] - [mathematics] [[Law of sines]] is discovered by [[Islamic mathematics|Muslim mathematicians]], but it is uncertain who discovers it first between [[Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi]], [[Abu Nasr Mansur]], and [[Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī|Abu al-Wafa]]. * [[1000]] - [mathematics] [[Al-Karaji]] writes a book containing the first known [[Mathematical proof|proofs]] by [[mathematical induction]]. He who used it to prove the [[binomial theorem]], [[Pascal's triangle]], and the sum of [[integral]] [[Cube (algebra)|cubes]].<ref>Victor J. Katz (1998). ''History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 255-259. [[Addison-Wesley]]. ISBN 0321016181.</ref> He was "the first who introduced the [[theory]] of [[algebra]]ic [[calculus]]."<ref>F. Woepcke (1853). ''Extrait du Fakhri, traité d'Algèbre par Abou Bekr Mohammed Ben Alhacan Alkarkhi''. [[Paris]].</ref> * [[1000]] - [medicine, surgery, engineering] [[Abu al-Qasim]] al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), the father of modern surgery, publishes his 30-volume medical encyclopedia, the ''Kitab [[al-Tasrif]]'', which remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European [[University|universities]] until the 16th century. The book first introduced many [[surgical instruments]], including the first instruments unique to women,<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> as well as the surgical uses of [[catgut]] and [[forceps]], the [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]], [[surgical needle]], [[curette]], [[retractor]], surgical [[spoon]], [[Sound (medical instrument)|sound]], surgical [[hook]], surgical [[rod]], [[Speculum (medical)|specula]],<ref>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslim Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref> [[lithotomy]] [[scalpel]],<ref name=Kaadan>Abdul Nasser Kaadan PhD, "Albucasis and Extraction of Bladder Stone", ''Jounal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2004 (3): 28-33.</ref> and [[bone]] [[saw]].<ref name=Vallely>Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World], ''[[The Independent]]'', 11 March 2006.</ref> He also invented the the [[Adhesive bandage|plaster]]<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> cotton [[Dressing (medical)|dressing]],<ref name=Patricia>Patricia Skinner (2001), [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2603/is_0007/ai_2603000716 Unani-tibbi], ''Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine''</ref> oral [[anaesthesia]], [[inhalational anaesthetic]], and [[anaesthetic]] sponge.<ref name=Hunke>[[Sigrid Hunke]] (1969), ''Allah Sonne Uber Abendland, Unser Arabische Erbe'', Second Edition, p. 279-280 ([[cf.]] Prof. Dr. M. Taha Jasser, [http://www.islamset.com/hip/i_medcin/taha_jasser.html Anaesthesia in Islamic medicine and its influence on Western civilization], Conference on Islamic Medicine)</ref> * 1000s - [glass] Clear [[glass]] [[mirror]]s were being produced in [[al-Andalus]].<ref name=Ajram>{{cite book|author=Dr. Kasem Ajram|title=The Miracle of Islam Science|edition=2nd Edition|publisher=Knowledge House Publishers|year=1992|id=ISBN 0-911119-43-4}}</ref> * 1000s - [civil engineering] [[Cob (material)|Cobwork]] (''tabya'') first appeared in the [[Maghreb]] and [[al-Andalus]] in the 11th century, and was later described in detail by [[Ibn Khaldun]] in the 14th century, who regarded it as a characteristically Muslim practice. Cobwork later spread to other parts of Europe from the 12th century onwards.<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1996), "Engineering", p. 766, in {{Harvard reference |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 |pages=751-795}}</ref> * 1000s - [mechincal technology] In [[Al-Andalus]], Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi invents complex [[gear]]ing, [[Epicyclic gearing]], segmental [[gear]]ing, and the [[gear]]ed mechanical [[clock]]. [[Inventions in the Islamic world|Muslim engineers]] also invent the [[Maintaining power|Weight-driven]] mechanical [[clock]].<ref name=Transfer/> *c. [[1000]] - [[1009]] - [physics, engineering] [[Ibn Yunus]] publishes his astronomical treatise ''Al-Zij al-Hakimi al-Kabir'' in [[Egypt]]. It contains the earliest desciption of a [[pendulum]].<ref>Piero Ariotti (Winter, 1968). "Galileo on the Isochrony of the Pendulum", ''[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]'' '''59''' (4), p. 414.</ref> He also constructs the first [[monument]]al [[astrolabe]].<ref>Salah Zaimeche (2002), [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=235 The Muslim Pioneers of Astronomy], FSTC</ref> * [[1000]] - [[1020]] - [astronomy, engineering] [[Al-Sijzi]] invents the ''Zuraqi'', a unique [[astrolabe]] designed for a [[heliocentric]] planetary model in which the Earth is moving rather than the sky.<ref>Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] (1993), ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines'', p. 135-136. [[State University of New York Press]], ISBN 0791415163.</ref> * [[1000]] - [[1030]] - [biology] - [[Ibn Miskawayh]] discusses ideas on [[evolution]]. * [[1000]] - [[1031]] - [astronomy] [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] was the first to conduct elaborate [[experiment]]s related to astronomical phenomena. He discovered the [[Milky Way]] [[galaxy]] to be a collection of numerous [[Nebula|nebulous]] [[star]]s.<ref name=Zahoor>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/biruni.html Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni], [[Hasanuddin University]].</ref> * [[1000]] - [[1037]] - [mechanics, physics] [[Ibn al-Haytham]] discusses the theory of [[Gravitation|attraction]] between [[mass]]es, and it seems that he was aware of the [[Magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] of [[acceleration]] due to [[gravity]]. Ibn al-Haytham also discovered the law of [[inertia]], known as [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's first law of motion]], when he stated that a body moves [[perpetual motion|perpetually]] unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of [[Motion (physics)|motion]].<ref name=Bizri>Dr. Nader El-Bizri, "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia'', Vol. II, p. 343-345, [[Routledge]], New York, London.</ref> * [[1000]] - [[1037]] - [alchemy, chemistry, engineering] [[Avicenna]] criticizes the theory of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of metals]].<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 196-197.</ref> He also invents the chemical process of [[steam distillation]] and extracts the first [[fragrance]]s and [[essential oil]]s as a result, for use in [[aromatherapy]] and the [[drinking]] and [[perfume]]ry industries.<ref name=Ericksen>Marlene Ericksen (2000). ''Healing with Aromatherapy'', p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0658003828.</ref> He also invents the air [[thermometer]] for use in his laboratory [[experiment]]s.<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 191.</ref> * [[1000]] - [[1037]] - [mechanics, physics] [[Avicenna]], the father of the fundamental concept of [[momentum]] in [[Islamic physics|physics]],<ref>Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]], "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974.</ref> discovered the concept of [[momentum]], when he referred to [[impetus]] as being proportional to [[weight]] times [[velocity]], a precursor to the concept of momentum in [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's second law of motion]]. His theory of motion was also consistent with the concept of [[inertia]] in Newton's first law of motion.<ref>A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '''500''' (1), p. 477–482.</ref> * [[1000]] - [[1038]] - [astronomy, physics] [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen), in his ''Epitome of Astronomy'', was the first to insist that the [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] "were accountable to the [[Physical law|laws of physics]]".<ref>Pierre Duhem (1908, 1969). ''To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo'', p. 28. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.</ref> * [[1000]] - [[1038]] - [biology] [[Ibn al-Haytham]] writes a book in which he argues for [[evolutionism]]. * [[1000]] - [[1048]] - [alchemy, chemistry] [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] criticizes the theory of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of metals]].<ref>Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]", ''Speculum'' '''40''' (4), p. 744-746.</ref> * [[1000]] - [[1048]] - [anthropology, [[Indology]], history] [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], considered "the first [[anthropology|anthropologist]]"<ref name=Ahmed>Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '''60''', p. 9-10.</ref> and the father of [[Indology]],<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> wrote detailed comparative studies on the [[anthropology]] of peoples, religions and cultures in the [[Middle East]], [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and [[South Asia]]. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations.<ref>J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''59''' (3), p. 389-403.</ref> Biruni has also been praised for his [[Islam]]ic anthropology.<ref>Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", ''Anthropological Quarterly'' '''68''' (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.</ref> * [[1000]] - [[1048]] - [earth sciences, Indology, [[geodesy]], geology] [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], who is considered the father of [[Indology]], the father of [[geodesy]], one of the first [[geology|geologists]], and an influential [[geographer]], hypothesized that [[India (disambiguation)|India]] was once covered by the [[Indian Ocean]] while observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers,<ref>[[Abdus Salam]] (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), ''Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam'', 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213.</ref> introduced techniques to measure the Earth and distances on it using [[triangulation]], and measured the [[radius]] of the Earth as 6339.6 km, the most accurate up until the 16th century.<ref name=Biruni/> He also determines the Earth's circumference. * [[1000]] - [[1048]] - [engineering, mechanics, physics] [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] was the first to realize that [[acceleration]] is connected with non-uniform [[Motion (physics)|motion]].<ref name=Biruni>{{MacTutor|id=Al-Biruni|title=Al-Biruni}}</ref> He also invents the [[laboratory flask]], [[pycnometer]],<ref>Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Khazini", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. VII, p. 346.</ref> and [[conical measure]].<ref>Marshall Clagett (1961). ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages'', p. 64. [[University of Wisconsin Press]].</ref> * [[1000]] - [[1121]] - [mechanics, physics] [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], and later [[al-Khazini]], were the first to apply [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]]s to [[mechanics]], especially the fields of [[statics]] and [[Dynamics (physics)|dynamics]], particularly for determining [[specific weight]]s, such as those based on the theory of [[balance]]s and [[Weighing scale|weighing]]. [[Islamic physics|Muslim physicists]] unified statics and dynamics into the science of mechanics, and they combined the fields of [[hydrostatics]] with dynamics to give birth to [[hydrodynamics]]. They applied the mathematical theories of [[ratio]]s and [[infinitesimal]] techniques, and introduced [[algebra]]ic and fine [[calculation]] techniques into the field of statics. They were also generalized the theory of the [[centre of gravity]] and applied it to [[Three-dimensional space|three-dimensional]] bodies. They also founded the theory of the [[wiktionary:ponderable|ponderable]] [[lever]] and created the "science of [[gravity]]" which was later further developed in medieval Europe.<ref name=Rozhanskaya-642>Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", p. 642, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=614-642}}</ref> * [[1019]] - [astronomy, technology] In [[Afghanistan]], [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] observed and described the [[solar eclipse]] on April 8, 1019, and the [[lunar eclipse]] on September 17, 1019, in detail, and gave the exact [[latitude]]s of the stars during the lunar eclipse.<ref name=Zahoor/> He also invents the [[Orthographic projection (cartography)|Orthographical]] [[astrolabe]]<ref name=Khwarizm/> and the [[planisphere]], which was the earliest [[star chart]].<ref name=Durant>[[Will Durant]] (1950). ''[[The Story of Civilization]] IV: The Age of Faith'', p. 239-45.</ref><ref name=Khwarizm>[http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 Khwarizm], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref> He also invents a [[gear]]ed mechanical [[lunisolar calendar]] [[analog computer]] with [[gear train]] and eight gear-wheels,<ref name=Biruni>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", ''Annals of Science'' '''42''', p. 139-163.</ref> an early example of a fixed-[[wire]]d knowledge processing [[machine]].<ref name=Oren>Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents", ''Turk J Elec Engin'' '''9''' (1), p. 63-70 [64].</ref> * [[1020]] - [astronomical instruments] The [[gear]]ed mechanical [[astrolabe]] is perfected by Ibn Samh in [[Al-Andalus]]. These can be considered as an ancestor of the [[mechanical clock]].<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/introduction/woi_knowledge.html Islam, Knowledge, and Science.] [[University of Southern California]].</ref> * [[1021]] - [optics, physics, engineering, mathematics, ophthalmology, psychology, scientific method, surgery] [[Ibn al-Haytham]], who is considered the father of [[optics]], the pioneer of the [[scientific method]], the "first [[scientist]]",<ref>Bradley Steffens (2006), ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. ([[cf.]] [http://www.ibnalhaytham.net/custom.em?pid=571860 Reviews of ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist''], ''The Critics'', [[Barnes & Noble]].)</ref> and the founder of [[psychophysics]] and [[experimental psychology]], completes his ''[[Book of Optics]]'', which has been ranked alongside [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' as one of the most influential books ever written in the [[history of physics]].<ref> H. Salih, M. Al-Amri, M. El Gomati (2005). "The Miracle of Light", ''A World of Science'' '''3''' (3). [[UNESCO]].</ref> The book drastically transformed the understanding of [[light]] and [[Visual perception|vision]], and introduced the [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]], hence the book is considered the root of [[experimental physics]]. It correctly explained and proved the modern intromission theory of [[visual perception|vision]], and described [[experiment]]s on [[lens (optics)|lenses]], [[mirror]]s, [[refraction]], [[Reflection (physics)|reflection]], and the dispersion of [[light]] into its constituent [[colours]].<ref>Dr. Mahmoud Al Deek. "Ibn Al-Haitham: Master of Optics, Mathematics, Physics and Medicine", ''Al Shindagah'', November-December 2004.</ref> It also explained [[binocular vision]] and the [[moon illusion]], speculated on the [[speed of light|finite speed]], [[rectilinear propagation]] and [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] aspects of light,<ref>Hamarneh, p. 119.</ref> first stated [[Fermat's principle]] of least time, described an early version of [[Snell's law]], and argued that [[Ray (optics)|rays]] of light are streams of [[photon|energy particles]]<ref>Rashed (2007), p. 19.</ref> travelling in straight lines.<ref>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2002). [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Light_1.html Light through the ages: Ancient Greece to Maxwell], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.</ref> The book also contains the earliest discussions and descriptions on [[psychophysics]] and [[experimental psychology]],<ref name=Khaleefa>Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'' '''16''' (2).</ref> the [[psychology]] of [[visual perception]],<ref>Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.</ref> [[phenomenology]], and the inventions of the [[pinhole camera]], [[camera obscura]],<ref>Nicholas J. Wade, Stanley Finger (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective", ''Perception'' '''30''' (10), p. 1157-1177.</ref> and [[Parabolic reflector|parabolic mirror]]. In [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], the book formulated and solved "Alhazen's problem" geometrically, and developed and proved the earliest general formula for [[infinitesimal]] and [[integral]] [[calculus]] using [[mathematical induction]]. In [[Islamic medicine|medicine]] and [[Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|ophthalmology]], the book also made important advances in [[eye surgery]], as it correctly explained the process of [[sight]] and [[visual perception]] for the first time.<ref name=Saad/> The work also had an influence on the use of optical aids in [[Renaissance]] [[art]] and the development of the [[telescope]] and [[microscope]].<ref>Richard Power ([[University of Illinois]]), [http://online.physics.uiuc.edu/courses/phys199epp/fall06/Powers-NYTimes.pdf Best Idea; Eyes Wide Open], ''[[New York Times]]'', April 18, 1999.</ref> * [[1021]] - [glass, scientific instruments] In the ''[[Book of Optics]]'', [[Ibn al-Haytham]] develops the following scientific instruments: [[magnifying glass]],<ref>{{citation|last1=Kriss|first1=Timothy C.|last2=Kriss|first2=Vesna Martich|title=History of the Operating Microscope: From Magnifying Glass to Microneurosurgery|journal=Neurosurgery|volume=42|issue=4|pages=899-907|date=April 1998}}</ref> [[Parabolic reflector|parabolic mirror]], [[spherical mirror]],<ref name=Bizri>Dr. Nader El-Bizri, "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia'', Vol. II, p. 343-345, [[Routledge]], New York, London.</ref> [[concave mirror]], [[convex mirror]],<ref name=Elliott>R. S. Elliott (1966), ''Electromagnetics'', Chapter 1, [[McGraw-Hill]]</ref> [[pinhole camera]], and [[camera obscura]].<ref name=Wade>Nicholas J. Wade, Stanley Finger (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective", ''Perception'' '''30''' (10), p. 1157-1177.</ref> * [[1021]] - [[1037]] - [optics, physics] [[Avicenna]] "observed that if the perception of [[light]] is due to the emission of some sort of [[Subatomic particle|particle]]s by a luminous source, the [[speed of light]] must be finite."<ref>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science'', Vol. 1, p. 710.</ref> He also provided a sophisticated explanation for the [[rainbow]] phenomenon.<ref>[[Carl Benjamin Boyer]] (1954). "Robert Grosseteste on the Rainbow", ''Osiris'' '''11''', p. 247-258 [248].</ref> * [[1021]] - [[1048]] - [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] stated that [[light]] has a finite speed, and he was the first to discover that the [[speed of light]] is much faster than the [[speed of sound]].<ref name=Biruni/> * [[1025]] - [medicine, pathology, physiology] [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina), who is considered the father of modern medicine and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history,<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science''.<br>([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science], Cyberistan.</ref> publishes his 14-volume medical encyclopedia, ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', which remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European [[University|universities]] until the 17th century. The book's contributions to medicine includes the introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] in the study of [[physiology]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the discovery of [[Infectious disease|contagious diseases]], the distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]], the contagious nature of [[phthisis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by [[water]] and [[soil]], the first careful descriptions of [[skin]] troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton/> the use of [[ice]] to treat [[fever]]s, the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]] (important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]]),<ref name=Saad/> the introduction of [[quarantine]] to limit the spread of contagious [[disease]]s, and the introduction of [[evidence-based medicine]], [[experimental medicine]],<ref name=Huff>{{Citation |first=Toby |last=Huff |year=2003 |title=The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West |page=218 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0521529948 }}</ref> [[clinical trial]]s,<ref name=Tschanz>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref> [[randomized controlled trial]]s,<ref name=Eldredge>Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", ''Health Information and Libraries Journal'' '''20''', p. 34–44 [36].</ref><ref name=Bloom>Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", ''International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care'' '''16''' (1), p. 13–21 [19].</ref> [[efficacy]] tests,<ref name=Brater-449>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [449].</ref><ref name=Daly>Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", ''Perspectives in Biology and Medicine'' '''43''' (4), p. 530–540 [536], [[Johns Hopkins University Press]].</ref> [[clinical pharmacology]],<ref name=Brater-448>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [448].</ref> [[neuropsychiatry]],<ref name=Workman>S. Safavi-Abbasi, L. B. C. Brasiliense, R. K. Workman (2007), "The fate of medical knowledge and the neurosciences during the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire", ''Neurosurgical Focus'' '''23''' (1), E13, p. 3.</ref> [[physiological psychology]],<ref name=Syed-7-8/> [[risk factor]] analysis, and the idea of a [[syndrome]] in the [[diagnosis]] of specific diseases.<ref name=Goodman>Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), ''Islamic Humanism'', p. 155, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0195135806.</ref> The ''Canon'' is also considered the first [[pharmacopoeia]].<ref>[[Philip Khuri Hitti|Philip K. Hitti]] (cf. Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992), ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B, Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434).</ref><ref>Dr. Z. Idrisi, PhD (2005). [http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/AgricultureRevolution2.pdf The Muslim Agricultural Revolution and its influence on Europe]. The Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilization, UK.</ref> * [[1025]] - [medicine, pathology] In ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', [[Avicenna]] is the first to carry out [[unproven cancer therapy|cancer therapy]]. He recognized [[cancer]] as a [[tumor]] and noted that a "cancerous tumour progressively increases in size, is destructive and spreads roots which insinuate themselves amongst the tissue elements." He also attempted the earliest known treatments for cancer. One method he discovered was the "Hindiba", a herbal compound drug which [[Ibn al-Baitar]] later identified as having "anticancer" properties and which could also treat other [[tumor]]s and [[neoplastic]] disorders.<ref name=Sari>{{cite web|author=Prof. Nil Sari ([[Istanbul University]], Cerrahpasha Medical School)|title=Hindiba: A Drug for Cancer Treatment in Muslim Heritage|publisher=FSTC Limited|date=06 June, 2007|url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=707}}</ref> After recognizing its usefulness in treating neoplastic disorders, Hindiba was [[patent]]ed in 1997 by Nil Sari, Hanzade Dogan, and John K. Snyder.<ref>{{patent|US|5663196|Methods for treating neoplastic disorders}}</ref> Another method for treating cancer first described by Avicenna was a surgical treatment. He stated that the [[excision]] should be radical and that all diseased [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]] should be removed, which included the use of [[amputation]] or the removal of [[vein]]s running in the direction of the [[tumor]]. He also recommended the use of [[cauterization]] for the area being treated if necessary.<ref name=Patricia/> Avicenna's ''Canon'' was also the first to describe the symptoms of [[esophageal cancer]] and the first to refer to it as "cancer of the [[esophagus]]."<ref>{{citation|title=The Historical Basis for the AEsophageal Cancer Belt of South-Central Asia|last=Saidi|first=F., MD|journal=Archives of Iranian Medicine|volume=2|issue=1|date=January 1999}}</ref> [[Hirudotherapy]], the use of [[medicinal leech]] for medical purposes, was also introduced by [[Avicenna]] in ''The Canon of Medicine''. He considered the application of [[leech]] to be more useful than [[cupping]] in "letting off the [[blood]] from deeper parts of the body." He also introduced the use of leech as treatment for [[skin disease]]. Leech therapy became a popular method in [[medieval Europe]] due to the influence of his ''Canon''.<ref>Nurdeen Deuraseh, "Ahadith of the Prophet (s.a.w) on Healing in Three Things (al-Shifa’ fi Thalatha): An Interpretational", ''Jounal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2004 (3): 14-20 [18].</ref> In [[phytotherapy]], Avicenna also introduced the medicinal use of [[Taxus baccata]] L. He named this herbal [[drug]] as "Zarnab" and used it as a [[Heart|cardiac]] remedy. This was the first known use of a [[calcium channel blocker]] drug, which were not used in the [[Western world]] until the 1960s.<ref>Yalcin Tekol (2007), "The medieval physician Avicenna used an herbal calcium channel blocker, Taxus baccata L.", ''Phytotherapy Research'' '''21''' (7): 701-2.</ref> * [[1025]] - [[1028]] - [astronomy] [[Ibn al-Haytham]], in his ''Doubts on Ptolemy'', criticizes [[Ptolemy]]'s astronomical system for relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines, and circles. * [[1027]] - [arithmetic, astronomy, earth sciences, geology, geometry, logic, mathematics, music, natural sciences, philosophy, psychology] [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina) writes one of the first scientific [[encyclopedia]]s, ''[[The Book of Healing]]''. Its contributions include nine volumes on [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|Avicennian logic]]; eight on the [[natural science]]s; four on the [[quadrivium]] of [[arithmetic]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], [[geometry]] and [[music]]; a number of volumes on [[early Islamic philosophy]], [[Islamic mathematics]], [[metaphysics]] and [[psychology]];<ref>Lenn Evan Goodman (1992), ''Avicenna'', p. 31, [[Routledge]], ISBN 041501929X.</ref> the astronomical theory that [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] is closer to Earth than the Sun; and a geological hypothesis on two causes of [[mountain]]s.<ref>Stephen Toulmin and June Goodfield (1965). ''The Discovery of Time'', p. 64. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.</ref> * [[1028]] - [[1087]] - [astronomy, engineering] [[Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī]] (Arzachel) invents the "Saphaea", the first universal latitude-independent [[astrolabe]] which did not depend on the [[latitude]] of the observer and could be used anywhere. He also invents the [[equatorium]], a mechanical [[analog computer]] device,<ref>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/zarqali.html Al-Zarqali (Arzachel)], [[University of Indonesia]].</ref> and he discovers that the orbits of the planets are [[ellipse]]s and not circles.<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 190.</ref> * [[1029]] - [chemistry, technology] The purification process for [[potassium nitrate]] (saltpetre; ''natrun'' or ''barud'' in Arabic) was first described by the [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Muslim chemist]] Ibn Bakhtawayh in his ''Al-Muqaddimat''.<ref name=Gunpowder/> * [[1030]] - [astronomy] [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] discussed the [[Indian astronomy|Indian planetary theories]] of [[Aryabhata]], [[Brahmagupta]] and [[Varahamihira]] in his ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'' (Latinized as ''Indica''). Biruni stated that [[Brahmagupta]] and others consider that the [[Earth's rotation|earth rotates]] on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems.<ref>S. H. Nasr, ''Islamic Cosmological Doctrines'', p. 135, n. 13</ref> * [[1030]] - [[1048]] - [astronomy] Abu Said Sinjari suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] did not reject.<ref name=Baker>A. Baker, L. Chapter (2002)</ref> Al-Biruni agreed with the [[Earth's rotation]] about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] and [[geocentric model]]s,<ref>Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]", ''Speculum'' '''40''' (4), p. 744-746.</ref> he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem.<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1999). [http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?] [[Columbia University]].</ref> He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters.<ref name=Khwarizm>[http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 Khwarizm], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref> * [[1031]] - [astronomy] [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] completes his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia ''Canon Mas’udicus'',<ref>Richard Covington (May-June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', p. 2-16.</ref> in which he records his astronomical findings and formulates astronomical tables. It presents a geocentric model, tabulating the distance of all the [[celestial spheres]] from the central Earth.<ref>S. H. Nasr, ''Islamic Cosmological Doctrines'', p. 134</ref> The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the [[acceleration]] of the planets, and first states that the motions of the [[Apsis|solar apogee]] and the [[precession]] are not identical. Al-Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than [[Ptolemy]]'s estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded the annual [[solar eclipse]]s. Al-Biruni also described the Earth's [[gravitation]] as "the attraction of all things towards the centre of the earth."<ref name=Khwarizm/> * [[1038]] - [astronomy] [[Ibn al-Haytham]] described the first non-Ptolemaic configuration in ''The Model of the Motions''. His reform excluded [[cosmology]], as he developed a systematic study of celestial [[kinematics]] that was completely [[geometry|geometric]]. This in turn led to innovative developments in [[infinitesimal]] [[geometry]].<ref>Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'' '''17''', p. 7-55. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> His reformed model was the first to reject the [[equant]]<ref>Rashed (2007), p. 20, 53.</ref> and [[eccentricity|eccentrics]],<ref>Rashed (2007), p. 33-34.</ref> free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. The model also propounded the [[Earth's rotation]] about its axis,<ref>Rashed (2007), p. 20, 32-33.</ref> and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like [[Johannes Kepler]]'s model centuries later.<ref>Rashed (2007), p. 51-52.</ref> * [[1038]] - [[1075]] - [engineering] Ibn Bassal invents the [[flywheel]] in [[al-Andalus]], and he first employs it in a [[Noria]] and a Saqiya [[chain pump]].<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%204.htm Flywheel Effect for a ''Saqiya''].</ref> * [[1044]] or [[1048]] - [[1123]] [mathematics, literature] [[Omar Khayyám]], a mathematician and poet, "gave a complete classification of [[cubic equation]]s with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting [[conic section]]s. Khayyam also wrote that he hoped to give a full description of the algebraic solution of cubic equations in a later work: 'If the opportunity arises and I can succeed, I shall give all these fourteen forms with all their branches and cases, and how to distinguish whatever is possible or impossible so that a paper, containing elements which are greatly useful in this art will be prepared'."<ref name="one"/> He later became the first to find general [[geometry|geometric]] solutions of [[cubic equation]]s and laid the foundations for the development of [[analytic geometry]] and [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. He extracted [[root (mathematics)|roots]] using the [[decimal]] system ([[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]]). He is well-known for his poetic work ''[[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]]'', but there is dispute whether the ''[[Maqamat]]'', a famous diwan of poetry translated to English are actually his work. * [[1058]] - [[1111]] [law; theology] [[Al-Ghazali]] (Algazel), judge and prolific thinker and writer on topics such as [[sociology]], [[theology]] and [[philosophy]]. He critiqued the philosophers [[Avicenna]] and [[al-Farabi]] in ''[[The Incoherence of the Philosophers]]''. Wrote extensive expositions on Islamic tenets and foundations of [[jurisprudence]]. Also critiqued the Muslim scholastics (al-mutakallimun.) Was associated with [[sufism]] but he later critiqued it as well. * [[1070]] - [astronomy] [[Juzjani, Abu Ubaid|Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani]] proposed a non-Ptolemaic configuration in his ''Tarik al-Aflak''. In his work, he indicated the so-called "[[equant]]" problem of the Ptolemic model, and proposed a solution for the problem. * [[1085]] - [[1099]] - [related] First wave of devastation of Muslim resources, lives, properties, institutions, and infrastructure over a period of one hundred years: Fall of Muslim [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] ([[1085]]), [[Malta]] ([[1090]]), [[Sicily]] ([[1091]]) and [[Jerusalem]] ([[1099]]). This was followed by several [[Crusades]] from [[1095]] to [[1291]]. * [[1087]] - [astronomy] [[Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī]] publishes the ''Almanac of Azarqueil'', the first [[almanac]]. The entries found in the almanac "give directly the positions of the celestial bodies and need no further computation". The work provided the true daily positions of the sun, moon and planets for four years from 1088 to 1092, as well as many other related tables. A [[Latin]] translation and adaptation of the work appeared as the ''[[Tables of Toledo]]'' in the 12th century and the ''[[Alfonsine tables]]'' in the 13th century.<ref>{{Harv|Glick|Livesey|Wallis|2005|p=30}}</ref><ref>{{Harvard reference |first1=Thomas F. |last1=Glick |first2=Steven John |last2=Livesey |first3=Faith |last3=Wallis |year=2005 |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415969301 |page=30}}</ref> * [[1091]] - [education] Another early [[university]], the [[Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad]], was founded, and is considered the "largest [[Medieval university|university of the Medieval world]]".<ref>[http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/index/1F7AAVLC25YV4PF2.pdf A European Civil Project of a Documentation Center on Islam]</ref> === 12th century === {{see also|Latin translations of the 12th century}} * [[12th century|1100s]] - [engineering] The [[Ventilation (architecture)|ventilator]] is invented in [[Egypt]].<ref>David A. King (1984). "Architecture and Astronomy: The Ventilators of Medieval Cairo and Their Secrets", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''104''' (1), p. 97-133.</ref> The [[bridge]] [[Mill (grinding)|mill]],<ref name=Lucas>Adam Lucas (2006), ''Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology'', p. 62. BRILL, ISBN 9004146490.</ref> [[hydropower]]ed [[forge]] and [[finery forge]] are also invented in [[Al-Andalus]].<ref name=Lucas-65/> The [[war machine]] is also invented in [[Turkey]].<ref name=Terzioglu/> * 1100s - [astronomical instruments] The [[Astrolabe|astrolabic]] [[Quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]] is invented in [[Egypt]].<ref>Roberto Moreno, Koenraad Van Cleempoel, David King (2002). "A Recently Discovered Sixteenth-Century Spanish Astrolabe", ''Annals of Science'' '''59''' (4), p. 331-362 [333].</ref> * 1100s - [chemistry, military technology] The [[Seljuqs]] had facilities in [[Sivas]] for manufacturing [[war machine]]s.<ref name=Terzioglu/> * [[1100]] - [[1138]] - [astronomy] [[Ibn Bajjah]] (Avempace) develops the first planetary model without any [[Deferent and epicycle|epicycles]], as an alternative to [[Ptolemy]]'s model. * [[1100]] - [[1138]] - [mechanics, physics] [[Ibn Bajjah]] (Avempace) is the first to state that there is always a [[Reaction (physics)|reaction]] force for every force exerted, a precursor to [[Gottfried Leibniz]]'s idea of force which underlies [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's third law of motion]].<ref>[[Shlomo Pines]] (1964), "La dynamique d’Ibn Bajja", in ''Mélanges Alexandre Koyré'', I, 442-468 [462, 468], Paris. <br>([[cf.]] Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4), p. 521-546 [543].)</ref> His theory of motion later has an important influence on later physicists like [[Galileo Galilei]].<ref>Ernest A. Moody (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''12''' (2), p. 163-193.</ref> * [[1100]] - [[1150]] - [astronomical instruments] [[Jabir ibn Aflah]] (Geber) invents the [[torquetum]], an observational instrument and mechanical analog computer device used to transform between [[spherical coordinate system]]s.<ref>{{citation|first=R. P.|last=Lorch|title=The Astronomical Instruments of Jabir ibn Aflah and the Torquetum|journal=[[Centaurus (journal)|Centaurus]]|volume=20|issue=1|year=1976|pages=11-34}}</ref> He also invents the [[celestial globe]], being "the first to design a portable celestial sphere to measure and explain the movements of celestial objects."<ref>{{cite web|title=An overview of Muslim Astronomers|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=232|publisher=FSTC Limited|date=26 December, 2001|accessdate=2008-02-01}}</ref> * [[1100]] - [[1161]] - [anatomy, anesthesiology, biology, medicine, physiology, surgery] [[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) invents the surgical procedure of [[tracheotomy]] in [[al-Andalus]].<ref>A. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", ''AlShindagah'' '''68''', January-February 2006.</ref> During his [[biomedical research]], Ibn Zuhr is also one of the earliest physician known to have carried out human [[dissection]]s and postmortem [[autopsy]]. As a pioneer in [[parasitology]], he proves that the [[List of skin diseases|skin disease]] [[scabies]] is caused by a [[parasite]], which contradicted the erroneous theory of [[humorism]] supported by [[Hippocrates]], [[Galen]] and [[Avicenna]]. The removal of the parasite from the patient's body did not involve [[purging]], [[bleeding]] or any other traditional treatments associated with the four humours.<ref>[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine Islamic medicine], ''[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]]''.</ref> His works show that he was often highly critical of previous medical authorities, including Avicenna's ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''.<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> He was one of the first physicians to reject the erroneous theory of [[humorism|four humours]], which dates back to Hippocrates and Galen. Avenzoar also confirmed the presence of [[blood]] in the body. He was also the first to give a correct description of the [[tracheotomy]] operation for [[Suffocation|suffocating]] patients, and the first to provide a real scientific [[etiology]] for the [[Inflammation|inflammatory diseases]] of the [[ear]], and the first to clearly discuss the causes of [[stridor]].<ref>Prof. Dr. Mostafa Shehata, "The Ear, Nose and Throat in Islamic Medicine", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2003 (1): 2-5 [4].</ref> Modern [[anesthesia]] was also developed in [[al-Andalus]] by the Muslim [[anesthesiologist]]s Ibn Zuhr and [[Abulcasis]]. They were the first to utilize oral as well as [[Inhalational anaesthetic|inhalant anesthetics]], and they performed hundreds of surgeries under [[inhalant]] anesthesia with the use of [[narcotic]]-soaked [[sponge]]s which were placed over the face.<ref name=Ajram/><ref name=Hunke/> * [[1100]] - [[1161]] - [medicine, pharmacopoeia] [[Ibn Zuhr]] writes ''The Method of Preparing Medicines and Diet'', in which he performed the first [[parenteral]] nutrition of humans with a silver needle. He also wrote an early [[pharmacopoeia]], which later became the first Arabic book to be [[Printing|printed]] with a [[movable type]] in 1491.<ref>M. Krek (1979). "The Enigma of the First Arabic Book Printed from Movable Type", ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'' '''38''' (3), p. 203-212.</ref> Ibn Zuhr (and other Muslim physicians such as [[al-Kindi]], [[Ibn Sahl]], [[Abulcasis]], [[al-Biruni]], [[Avicenna]], [[Averroes]], [[Ibn al-Baitar]], [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]] and [[Ibn al-Nafis]]) also developed [[Pharmacology|drug therapy]] and [[Medication|medicinal]] [[drug]]s for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases. His use of practical experience and careful observation was extensive.<ref name=Ajram/> * [[1100]] - [[1165]] - [mechanics, physics] [[Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi]] writes a critique of [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian philosophy]] and [[Aristotelian physics]] entitled ''al-Mu'tabar''. He is the first to negate [[Aristotle]]'s idea that a constant [[force]] produces uniform [[Motion (physics)|motion]], as he realizes that a force applied continuously produces [[acceleration]], which is considered "the fundamental law of [[classical mechanics]]" and an early foreshadowing of [[Newton's second law of motion]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last = [[Shlomo Pines]] | title = Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī , Hibat Allah | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | volume = 1 | pages = 26-28 | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | location = New York | date = 1970 | isbn = 0684101149 }} <br>([[cf.]] Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''64''' (4), p. 521-546 [528].)</ref> Like Newton, he described acceleration as the rate of change of [[velocity]].<ref>A. C. Crombie, ''Augustine to Galileo 2'', p. 67.</ref> * [[1100]] - [[1166]] [cartography, geography] [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]], aka Idris al-Saqalli aka al-sharif al-idrissi of [[Andalusia]] and [[Sicily]], also known as Dreses in Latin. Among his works are a world map and the first known [[globe]]. He is said to draw the first correct map of the world "lawh al-tarsim" (plank of draught). His maps were used extensively during the explorations of the era of European [[renaissance]]. [[Roger II of Sicily]] commemorated his world map on a circle of silver weighing about 400 pounds. Works include ''Nozhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-&agrav;faq'' dedicated to Roger II of Sicily, which is a compendium of the geographic and sociologic knowledge of his time as well as descriptions of his own travels illustrated with over seventy maps; ''Kharitat al-`alam al-ma`mour min al-ard'' (Map of the inhabited regions of the earth) wherein he divided the world into 7 regions, the first extending from the [[equator]] to 23 degrees [[latitude]], and the seventh being from 54 to 63 degrees followed by a region uninhabitable due to cold and snow. * [[1100]] - [[1600]] - [ceramics, pottery] [[Damascus]] becomes a center for innovative [[Islamic pottery]] and [[ceramics]].<ref name=Mason-7/> * [[1105]] - [[1200]] [astronomy] [[Ibn Tufail]] (Abubacer) and [[Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi|al-Betrugi]] (Alpetragius) are the first to propose planetary models without any [[equant]], [[Deferent and epicycle|epicycles or eccentrics]]. Al-Betrugi was also the first to discover that the planets are [[Luminosity|self-luminous]].<ref>Bernard R. Goldstein (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy", ''Isis'' '''63''' (1), p. 39-47 [41].</ref> * [[1106]] - [[1138]] [polymath] [[Ibn Bajjah|Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Yahya]] (Ibn Bajjah or Avempace) writes books on [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophy]], [[Islamic medicine|medicine]], [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], [[Arabic poetry|poetry]], and [[Arabic music|music]]. * [[1110]] - [[1185]] [literature, philosophy] Abdubacer [[Ibn Tufayl]] of Spain. Philosophy, medicine, poetry, fiction. His most famous work is ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqzan]]'', which is a spiritual investigation into the reality of the world narrated by a man who was raised from infancy by a roe or [[gazelle]] on a [[desert island]]. This work later had a strong influence on [[early Islamic philosophy]], [[Arabic literature]], [[European literature]], the [[Scientific Revolution]], and [[modern philosophy]]. * [[1115]] - [[1116]] [astronomy, engineering] [[Al-Khazini]] wrote the ''Sinjaric Tables'', in which he gave a description of his construction of a 24 hour [[water clock]] designed for astronomical purposes, an early example of an [[astronomical clock]], and the positions of 46 stars computed for the year 500 AH (1115-1116 CE). He also computed tables for the observation of celestial bodies at the [[latitude]] of Merv.<ref>Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). [http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Merv.pdf Merv], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.</ref><ref>[[George Sarton]] (1927). ''Introduction to the History of Science'', vol. I, p. 565. The Carnegie Institution, [[Washington]].</ref><ref>E. S. Kennedy (1956). "A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables", ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', New Series, '''46''' (2), pp. 7 & 37-39.</ref> The ''Sinjaric Tables'' was later translated into [[Greek language|Greek]] by [[Gregory Choniades]] in the 13th century and was studied in the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref>David Pingree (1964), "Gregory Chioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy", ''Dumbarton Oaks Papers'' '''18''', p. 135-160.</ref> * [[1115]] - [[1130]] [astronomy, biology, chemistry, evolution] [[Al-Khazini]]'s ''Treatise on Instruments'' has seven parts describing different scientific [[instrument]]s: the [[Triquetrum (astronomy)|triquetrum]], [[dioptra]], a [[triangle|triangular]] instrument he invented, the [[quadrant]] and [[Sextant (astronomical)|sextant]], the [[astrolabe]], and original instruments involving [[reflection]].<ref>Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Biruni", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. VII, p. 338.</ref> He also wrote another work on [[evolution]] in [[Alchemy (Islam)|chemistry]] and [[biology]], and how they were perceived by [[Natural philosophy|natural philosophers]] and common people in the Islamic world at the time. He wrote that there were many Muslims who believed that humans evolved from apes.<ref>[[John William Draper]] (1878), ''History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science'', p. 237, ISBN 1603030964.</ref> * [[1118]] - [[1174]] - [education, medicine] Al-Nuri hospital in [[Egypt]] was a famous [[teaching hospital]] built by [[Nur ad-Din]] Zanqi, and was where many renowned physicians were taught. The hospital's medical school is said had elegant rooms, and a library which many of its books were donated by Zangi's physician, Abu al-Majid al-Bahili.<ref>al-Hassani, Woodcock and Saoud(2007),'Muslim Heritage in Our World', FSTC Publishing, p.158-59</ref> * [[1121]] - [astronomy, astrophysics, engineering, mechanics, physics] [[Al-Khazini]] publishes ''The Book of the Balance of Wisdom'', in which he is the first to propose that the [[Gravitation|gravity]] and [[Potential energy|gravitational potential energy]] of a body varies depending on its distance from the centre of the Earth. This phenomenon is not proven until [[Newton's law of universal gravitation]] centuries later. Al-Khazini is also one of the first to clearly differentiate between [[force]], [[mass]], and [[weight]], and he shows awareness of the weight of the air and of its decrease in [[density]] with [[altitude]], and discovers that there is greater density of water when nearer to the Earth's centre.<ref>Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). [http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Merv.pdf Merv], p. 5-7. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.</ref> He also invents several scientific instruments, including the [[steelyard]] and [[hydrostatic balance]].<ref>Robert E. Hall (1973). "Al-Khazini", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. VII, p. 346.</ref> [[Al-Biruni]] and al-Khazini were also the first to apply [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]]s to the fields of [[statics]] and [[dynamics]], particularly for determining [[specific weight]]s, such as those based on the theory of [[balance]]s and [[Weighing scale|weighing]]. He and his Muslim predecessors unified statics and dynamics into the science of mechanics, and they combined the fields of [[hydrostatics]] with dynamics to give birth to [[hydrodynamics]]. They applied the mathematical theories of [[ratio]]s and [[infinitesimal]] techniques, and introduced [[algebra]]ic and fine [[calculation]] techniques into the field of statics. They were also the first to generalize the theory of the [[centre of gravity]] and the first to apply it to [[Three-dimensional space|three-dimensional]] bodies. They also founded the theory of the [[wiktionary:ponderable|ponderable]] [[lever]] and created the "science of [[gravity]]" which was later further developed in medieval Europe. The contributions of al-Khazini and his Muslim predecessors to mechanics laid the foundations for the later development of [[classical mechanics]] in Renaissance Europe.<ref>Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 2, pp. 614-642 [642]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref> * [[1126]] - [[1198]] - [mechanics, physics] [[Averroes]] (Ibn Rushd) is the first to define and measure [[force]] as "the rate at which [[Mechanical work|work]] is done in changing the [[Kinetic energy|kinetic]] condition of a material [[Physical body|body]]"<ref>Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''12''' (3), p. 375-422 [375].</ref> and the first to correctly argue "that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially [[Friction|resistant]] [[mass]]."<ref>Ernest A. Moody (June 1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (II)", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''12''' (3), p. 375-422 [380].</ref> * [[1126]] - [[1198]] - [astronomy] [[Averroes]] rejects the [[Deferent and epicycle|eccentric deferents]] introduced by [[Ptolemy]]. He rejects the [[Ptolemaic model]] and instead argues for a strictly [[concentric]] model of the universe.<ref>Owen Gingerich (April 1986). "Islamic astronomy", ''Scientific American'' '''254''' (10), p. 74.</ref> * [[1128]] - [[1198]] - [philosophy, [[Islamic law|law]], [[Islamic medicine|medicine]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], theology] [[Averroes]] writes books on [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophy]], law, medicine, astronomy, and [[theology]]. * [[1130]] - [mathematics] Born [[al-Samawal]]. An important member of al-Karaji's school of algebra. Gave this definition of algebra: "[it is concerned] with operating on unknowns using all the arithmetical tools, in the same way as the arithmetician operates on the known."<ref name="one"/> * [[1135]] - [mathematics] Born [[Sharafeddin Tusi]]. Follows al-Khayyam's application of algebra of geometry, rather than follow the general development that came through al-Karaji's school of algebra. Wrote a treatise on [[cubic equation]]s which "represents an essential contribution to another [[algebra]] which aimed to study [[curve]]s by means of [[equation]]s, thus inaugurating the beginning of [[algebraic geometry]]."<ref name="three"/><ref name="one"/> * [[1135]] - [[1200]] - [astronomy, engineering] [[Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] invents the linear [[astrolabe]] (staff of al-Tusi).<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-342088/linear-astrolabe Linear astrolabe], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> * [[1150]] - [telecommunication] The use of [[homing pigeon]]s is introduced in [[Iraq]] and [[Syria]].<ref name=fbi>[http://www.fbipigeons.com/THE%20SPORT.htm First Birds' Inn: About the Sport of Racing Pigeons] </ref> * [[1154]] - [engineering] Al-Kaysarani invents the [[striking clock]] in [[Syria]].<ref>Abdel Aziz al-Jaraki (2007), [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=685 When Ridhwan al-Sa’ati Anteceded Big Ben by More than Six Centuries], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref> * 1187 - [military technology] [[Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi]] invents the counterweight [[trebuchet]]<ref>Scott Farrell, [http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/weaponry/3823351.html?page=2&c=y Weaponry: The Trebuchet]</ref><ref>Philip Daileader, [http://books.google.com/books?id=OVX8j0zR6QYC ''On the Social Origins of Medieval Institutions'']</ref> and the [[mangonel]].<ref>[[Jim Bradbury]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=fKFRvUiLEQYC ''Medieval Siege'']</ref> === 13th century === * [[1200s]] - [chemistry] Al-Jawbari describes the preparation of [[rose water]] in the ''Book of Selected Disclosure of Secrets'' (''Kitab kashf al-Asrar''). * [[1200s]] - [chemistry; materials, glassmaking] Arabic manuscript on the manufacture of false [[gemstone]]s and diamonds. Also describes spirits of [[alum]], spirits of [[saltpetre]] and spirits of salts ([[hydrochloric acid]]). * [[1200s]] - [chemistry] An [[Arabic]] manuscript written in [[Syriac script]] gives description of various chemical materials and their properties such as [[sulfuric acid]], [[sal-ammoniac]], [[saltpetre]] and zaj ([[vitriol]]). * [[1201]] - [[1274]] - [astronomy; mathematics] [[Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi]]; Astronomy, [[Non-Euclidean geometry]]. * [[1204]] - [astronomy] Died, [[Al-Bitruji]] (Alpetragius.) * [[1206]] - [engineering, mechanics, technology] [[Al-Jazari]], the father of modern-day [[engineering]] and the father of [[robotics]], publishes ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices'', in which he authors fifty inventions, including the [[combination lock]], mechanical [[clock]]s driven by [[hydropower]] and [[Maintaining power|weights]], [[bolted joint]] [[Lock (device)|lock]],<ref name=Hill2/> clock [[automaton]], [[Regulator (automatic control)|flow control regulator]], [[Control theory|closed-loop system]], [[elephant clock]], [[Home appliance|kitchen appliance]], [[cam]], [[camshaft]],<ref>Georges Ifrah (2001). ''The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quatum Computer'', p. 171, Trans. E.F. Harding, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (See [http://www.banffcentre.ca/bnmi/programs/archives/2005/refresh/docs/conferences/Gunalan_Nadarajan.pdf])</ref> [[connecting rod]], [[Crank (mechanism)|crank]]-connecting rod mechanism,<ref name=crank/> [[suction]] [[Water pipe|pipe]], suction [[piston]] [[pump]] with [[Reciprocating engine|reciprocating piston motion]] and [[Steam engine#Double-acting engine|double-action motion]],<ref name=Hassan>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]. [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%202.htm The Origin of the Suction Pump - Al-Jazari 1206 A.D.]</ref> [[Computer programming|programmable]] [[humanoid robot]],<ref name=Sheffield>[http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html A 13th Century Programmable Robot.] [[University of Sheffield]].</ref> [[Gate operator|automatic gate]],<ref name=Turner>Howard R. Turner (1997), ''Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction'', p. 181, [[University of Texas Press]], ISBN 0292781490.</ref> [[pointer]],<ref name=Turner/><ref name=Hill2>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", ''Scientific American'', May 1991, p. 64-69. ([[cf.]] [[Donald Routledge Hill]], [http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering])</ref> and [[gear]]ed and [[hydropower]]ed [[water supply system]].<ref name=Turner/> and especially the [[crankshaft]], which is considered one of the most important mechanical inventions after the [[wheel]].<ref name=crank>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%203.htm The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine]</ref> Other devices he invented include a [[hand washing]] device, machines for [[watermill|raising water]], accurate calibration of [[orifice]]s, [[lamination]] of [[timber]] to reduce warping, [[Mechanical equilibrium|static balancing]] of [[wheel]]s, use of [[paper model]]s to establish a design, [[casting]] of [[metal]]s in closed [[Sand casting|mould boxes]] with [[green sand]], [[Emery (mineral)|emery]] powder, the most sophisticated [[candle clock]]s and [[water clock]]s of his time,<ref name=Hill2/> crank-driven [[chain pump]],<ref name=Hill-776>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], "Engineering", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 2, p. 751-795 [776]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref> water-powered saqiya chain pump,<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%206.htm Al-Jazari and the History of the Water Clock]</ref> and [[Intermittency|intermittent working]],<ref name=Hill-776/> and [[hour hand]].<ref name=Hill>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1996), ''A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times'', Routledge, p.224.</ref><ref>Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (ed. 1974), ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices'', translated and annotated by [[Donald Routledge Hill]], Dordrecht / D. Reidel, part II</ref> * [[1206]] - [astronomy, technology] [[Al-Jazari]] invented monumental [[Water clock|water-powered]] [[astronomical clock]]s which displayed moving models of the [[Sun]], [[Moon]], and [[star]]s. His largest astronomical clock displayed the [[zodiac]] and the [[Heliocentric orbit|solar]] and [[lunar orbit]]s. Another innovative feature of the clock was a [[pointer]] which traveled across the top of a [[gate]]way and caused automatic [[door]]s to open every [[hour]].<ref name=Hill2/> * [[1207]] - [[1273]] [sociology; poetry; spirituality] [[Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi]], one of the best known Persian passion poets, famous for poignant poetry on the theme of spiritual [[enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]] and passion. * [[1217]] - [[1329]] [related] "Second wave of devastation of Muslim resources, lives, properties, institutions, and infrastructure over a period of one hundred and twelve years. [[Crusade]]r invasions ([[1217]]-[[1291]]) and [[Mongol]] invasions ([[1219]]-[[1329]]). Crusaders active throughout the [[Mediterranean]] from [[Jerusalem]] and west to Muslim [[Spain]]. Fall of Muslim [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] ([[1236]]), [[Valencia (city in Spain)|Valencia]] ([[1238]]) and [[Seville]] ([[1248]]). Mongols devastation from the eastern most Muslim frontier, Central and Western Asia, [[India]], [[Persia]] to Arab heartland. Fall of Baghdad (1258) and the end of [[Abbasid]] [[Caliphate]]. Two million Muslims massacred in Baghdad. Major scientific institutions, laboratories, and infrastructure destroyed in leading Muslim centers of civilization." * [[1213]] - [[1242]] [anatomy, biology, medicine, pharmacology, pharmacopoeia, physiology] [[Ibn al-Nafis]] publishes his ''Commentary on Compound Drugs'', a commentary on [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' concerning [[pharmacopoeia]]. It contains criticisms of [[Galen]]'s doctrines on the [[heart]] and the [[blood vessel]]s and dealt with the [[circulatory system]] to some extent. This work was later translated into [[Latin]] by Andrea Alpago of [[Belluno]] (d. [[1520]]), who had lived in Syria for about 30 years before returning to [[Italy]] with a collection of medical Arabic books. A [[Printing press|printed]] version of his translation was available in [[Venice]] from [[1547]].<ref>C. D. O'Malley (1957), "A Latin translation of Ibn Nafis (1547) related to the problem of the circulation of the blood", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'' '''12''' (2), p. 248-249. <br> ([[cf.]] Dr. Albert Zaki Iskandar (1982), "Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine", ''Symposium on Ibn al Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait) <br> ([[cf.]] Dr. Albert Zaki Iskandar, [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/iskandar.html Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> * [[1213]] - [[1288]] [biology, cosmology, epistemology, futurology, geology, literature, physiology, psychology, science fiction, sociology] [[Ibn al-Nafis]] publishes his ''Theologus Autodidactus'', the first [[science fiction]] [[novel]], where he uses the plot to express many of his own [[Theme (literature)|themes]] on a wide variety of subjects, including [[Islamic medicine|biology, physiology]], [[Islamic astronomy|cosmology]], [[epistemology]], [[futurology]], [[geology]], [[natural philosophy]], [[psychology]], and [[Early Muslim sociology|sociology]]. The narrative is used to present religious, philosophical and scientific arguments on [[spontaneous generation]] and bodily [[resurrection]], and the book also contains the earliest medical description on [[metabolism]]: "Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and [[Nutrition|nourishment]], so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change."<ref>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> * [[1213]] - [[1288]] - [anatomy, biology, medicine, ophthalmology, physiology] [[Ibn al-Nafis]] publishes his [[Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|ophthalmological work]], ''The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology'', where he discovers that the [[muscle]] behind the [[eye]]ball does not support the [[ophthalmic nerve]], that they do not get in contact with it, that the [[optic nerve]]s [[transect]] but do not get in touch with each other, and many new treatments for [[glaucoma]] and the weakness of [[Visual system|vision]] in one eye when the other eye is affected by [[disease]]. * [[1228]] - [[1229]] - [chemistry, military technology] Medieval [[French language|French]] reports suggest that Muslim armies also used [[explosive]]s against the [[Sixth Crusade]] army led by [[Ludwig IV, Landgrave of Thuringia]] in the 13th century.<ref name=Terzioglu/> * [[1235]] - [astronomical instruments] A [[gear]]ed mechanical [[astrolabe]] with an [[analog computer]] [[calendar]] is invented by Abi Bakr of [[Isfahan]].<ref name=Bedini>Silvio A. Bedini, Francis R. Maddison (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi", ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' '''56''' (5), p. 1-69.</ref> His geared astrolabe uses a set of gear-wheels and is the oldest surviving complete mechanical geared [[machine]] in existence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/astrolabe/exhibition/gearing.htm|title=Astrolabe gearing|publisher=[[Museum of the History of Science, Oxford]]|year=2005|accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/students/03to04/Astrolabes/Starholder_history.html|title=History of the Astrolabe|publisher=[[Museum of the History of Science, Oxford]]}}</ref> * [[1242]] - [anatomy, biology, medicine, physiology, scientific method] [[Ibn al-Nafis]], an [[Arab]] [[Islamic medicine|physician and anatomist]] publishes another commentary on [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' called the ''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon'', in which Ibn al-Nafis discovers the [[pulmonary circulation]] (the cycle involving the [[Ventricle (heart)|ventricle]]s of the [[heart]] and the [[lungs]]) and [[coronary circulation]],<ref>Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''1''', p. 22–28.</ref> and describes the mechanism of [[breath]]ing and its relation to the [[blood]] and how it nourishes on air in the lungs, for which he is considered the father of [[Circulatory system|circulation theory]]<ref>Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", ''Heart Views'' '''5''' (2), p. 74-85 [80].</ref> and one of the greatest [[physiologists]] in history.<ref>[[George Sarton]] ([[cf.]] Dr. Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait) <br> ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drpaul.html The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> He followed a "constructivist" path of the smaller circulatory system: "blood is purified in the lungs for the continuance of life and providing the body with the ability to work." During his time, the common view was that blood originates in the liver then travels to the right ventricle, then on to the organs of the body; another contemporary view was that blood is filtered through the diaphragm where it mixes with the air coming from the lungs. Ibn al-Nafis discredited all these views including ones by [[Galen]] and [[Avicenna]], and at least an illustration of his manuscript is still extant. [[William Harvey]] later explained the circulatory system without reference to Ibn al-Nafis in [[1628]]. Ibn al-Nafis also extolled the study of comparative anatomy in his ''Explaining the dissection of [Avicenna's] Canon'' which includes prefaces and citations of sources. He emphasized the rigours of verification by [[measurement]], [[observation]] and [[experiment]]. He subjected conventional wisdom of his time to a critical [[review]] and verified it with experiment and observation, discarding [[error]]s. He was also an early proponent of [[experimental medicine]], postmortem [[autopsy]], and human [[dissection]],<ref>Ingrid Hehmeyer and Aliya Khan (2007), "Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science", ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' '''176''' (10), p. 1467-1468 [1467].</ref> and he also discredited many other erroneous [[Avicenna|Avicennian]] and [[Galen]]ic doctrines on the [[humorism]], [[pulse]] [[bone]]s, [[muscle]]s, [[intestine]]s, [[Sensory system|sensory organs]], [[Bile|bilious]] [[Canal (anatomy)|canals]], [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], and the [[anatomy]] of almost every other part of the [[human body]].<ref>Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/index.html Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> Ibn al-Nafis also drew [[diagram]]s to illustrate different body parts in his new physiological system.<ref>Dr Ibrahim Shaikh (2001), [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=209 Who Discovered Pulmonary Circulation, Ibn Al-Nafis or Harvey?], FSTC.</ref> * [[1242]] - [[1244]] [biology, medicine, surgery, urology, scientific method] [[Ibn al-Nafis]] publishes the first 43 volumes of his [[Islamic medicine|medical encyclopedia]], ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine''. One volume is dedicated to [[surgery]], where he describes the "general and absolute principles of surgery", a variety of [[Islamic medicine#Surgical instruments|surgical instruments]], and the examination of every type of surgical operation known to him. He states that in order for a surgical operation to be successful, full attention needs to be given to three stages of the operation: the "time of presentation" when the [[surgeon]] carries out a [[diagnosis]] on the affected area, the "time of operative treatment" when the surgeon repairs the affected [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]], and the "time of preservation" when the patient needs to be taken care of by [[nurse]]s. ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' was also the earliest book dealing with the [[decubitus]] of a patient.<ref>Dr. Albert Zaki Iskandar (1982), "Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine", ''Symposium on Ibn al Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/iskandar.html Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' is also the earliest book dealing with the [[decubitus]] of a patient.<ref name=Iskandar-603>Iskandar (1974), p. 603</ref> Another section is dedicated to [[urology]], including the issues of [[sexual dysfunction]] and [[erectile dysfunction]], where Ibn al-Nafis is one of the first to prescribe clinically [[Drug test|tested drugs]] as [[medication]] for the treatment of these problems. His treatments are mainly oral [[drugs]], though early [[topical]] and [[Transurethral resection of the prostate|transurethral]] treatments are also mentioned in a few cases.<ref name=Dayela/> * [[1242]] - [[1288]] [medicine] [[Ibn al-Nafis]] publishes more commentaries on [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''. All of his commentaries on ''The Canon of Medicine'' add up to 20 volumes in length. * [[1244]] - [[1288]] [medicine] [[Ibn al-Nafis]] writes down notes for upcoming volumes of his [[Islamic medicine|medical encyclopedia]], ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine''. His notes add up to a total of 300 volumes in length, though he is only able to publish 80 volumes before he dies in 1288.<ref>Iskandar (1974), p. 602-603</ref> Even in its incomplete state, however, ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' is one of the largest known medical [[encyclopedia]]s in history, and was much larger than the more famous ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' by [[Avicenna]]. However, only several volumes of ''The Comprehensive Book on Medicine'' have survived into modern times.<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 61, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> * [[1244]] - [[1288]] [anatomy, medicine, science of hadith] [[Ibn al-Nafis]] publishes many other works, including ''The Choice of Foodstuffs'' which places a greater emphasis on [[diet]] and [[nutrition]] rather than the [[prescription]]s of [[drug]]s; ''Commentary on Hippocrates' Aphorisms'' where he expresses his rebellious nature against established authorities as he states that he has decided to "throw light on and stand by true opinions, and forsake those which are false and erase their traces";<ref>Iskandar (1974), p. 604.</ref> ''A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith'' on the [[science of hadith]]; ''Epitome of the Canon''; ''Synopsis of Medicine''; ''An Essay on Organs''; ''Reference Book for Physicians''; among many others. * [[1248]] - [anatomy, botany, pharmacy, veterinary medicine] [[Ibn al-Baitar]] dies. He studied and wrote on [[botany]], [[pharmacy]] and is best known for studying animal anatomy and medicine. The Arabic term for veterinary medicine is named after him. * [[1258]] - The [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|sack of Baghdad]] results in the destruction of [[Baghdad]] along with all its libraries, including the [[House of Wisdom]]. Survivors said that the waters of the [[Tigris]] ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books flung into the river. * [[1259]] - [astronomy, instutution] The [[Maragheh observatory]] is founded by [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] at the patronage of [[Hulagu Khan]]. It was the first example of the [[observatory]] as a [[research institute]] (as opposed to an ancient [[observation post]]).<ref name=Kennedy-1962>{{Harvard reference |last=Kennedy |first=Edward S. |year=1962 |title=Review: ''The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory'' by Aydin Sayili |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=237-239 }}</ref> * [[1260]] - [mathematics] [[Al-Farisi]] isa born. He gave a new proof of [[Thabit ibn Qurra]]'s theorem, introducing important new ideas concerning [[factorization]] and combinatorial methods. He also gave the pair of [[amicable number]]s 17296, 18416 which have also been attributed to [[Fermat]] as well as [[Thabit ibn Qurra]].<ref>[http://amicable.homepage.dk/apstat.htm#discoverer Various AP Lists and Statistics<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> * [[1260]] - [chemistry, military technology] The first portable [[hand cannon]]s (''midfa'') loaded with explosive gunpowder, the first example of a [[handgun]] and portable [[firearm]], were used by the [[Egypt]]ians to repel the [[Mongols]] at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]]. The gunpowder compositions used for the [[cannon]]s at these battles were later described in several manuscripts in the early 14th century. According to Shams al-Din Muhammad (d. 1327), the cannons had an explosive gunpowder composition (74% saltpetre, 11% sulfur, 15% carbon) almost identical to the ideal compositions for explosive gunpowder used in modern times. [[Cartridge (firearms)|Gunpowder cartridges]] were also first employed at the Battle of Ain Jalut by the Egyptians, for use in their [[fire lance]]s and hand cannons against the Mongols. Egyptian soldiers at the Battle of Ain Jalut were also the first to smear dissolved [[talc]] (from Arabic ''talq'') on their hands, as forms of [[fire protection]] from gunpowder. They also wore [[fireproof]] clothing, to which gunpowder cartridges were attached.<ref name=Gunpowder/> * [[1270]] - [chemistry, military technology] The first complete purification process for [[potassium nitrate]] is described in 1270 by the [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Arab chemist]] and [[Inventions in the Islamic world|engineer]] Hasan al-Rammah of [[Syria]] in his book ''al-Furusiyya wa al-Manasib al-Harbiyya'' (''The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices'', a.k.a. the ''Treatise on Horsemanship and Stratagems of War''). He first described the use of [[potassium carbonate]] (in the form of [[wood]] ashes) to remove [[Calcium carbonate|calcium]] and [[Magnesium carbonate|magnesium]] [[salt]]s from the potassium nitrate.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref><ref name=Gunpowder>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref> Several almost identical compositions were first described by the [[Arab]] engineer Hasan al-Rammah as a recipe for the [[rocket]]s (''tayyar'') he described in ''The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices'' in 1270. Several examples include a ''tayyar'' "rocket" (75% saltpetre, 8% sulfur, 15% carbon) and the ''tayyar buruq'' "lightning rocket" (74% saltpetre, 10% sulfur, 15% carbon). He also states recipes for [[firework]]s and [[firecracker]]s made from these explosive gunpowder compositions. He states in his book that many of these recipes were known to his father and grandfather, hence dating back to at least the late 12th century. Compositions for an explosive gunpowder effect were not known in China or Europe until the 14th century.<ref name=Chemical/><ref name=Gunpowder/> The [[torpedo]] is also invented by Hasan al-Rammah, who shows illustrations of a torpedo running on water with a rocket system filled with explosive materials and having three firing points.<ref name=Terzioglu>[[Tosun Terzioğlu|Arslan Terzioglu]] (2007), "The First Attempts of Flight, Automatic Machines, Submarines and Rocket Technology in Turkish History", in ''The Turks'' (ed. H. C. Guzel), pp. 804-810.[http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Rocket_Technology_in_Turkish_history1.pdf]</ref> * 1270 - [medicine, psychiatry, psychology] Famous [[psychiatric hospital]]s are built by [[Islamic medicine|Muslim physicians]] in [[Damascus]] and [[Aleppo]].<ref name=Syed-7-8/> * [[1271]] - [[1273]] - [[Ballistics|Ballistic]] weapons were manufactured in the Muslim world since the time of [[Kublai Khan]] in the 13th century. According to [[Chinese language|Chinese]] sources, two Muslim engineers, Alaaddin and Ismail (d. 1330), built machines of a ballistic-weapons nature before the besieged city of Hang-show between 1271-1273. Alaaddin's weapons also played a major role in the conquest of several other Chinese cities. His son Ma-ho-scha also developed ballistic weapons. Ismail (transliterated as ''I-ssu-ma-yin'') was present in the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] siege of Hsiang-yiang, where he built a war machine with the characteristics of a ballistic weapon. Chinese sources mention that when this war machines were fired, the earth and skies shook, the [[cannon]]s were buried seven feet into the ground and destroyed everything. His son Yakub also developed ballistic war machines.<ref name=Terzioglu/> * [[1273]] - [[1331]] [astronomy; geography; history] [[Abu al-Fida]] (Abulfeda). * [[1274]] - [chemistry, military technology] The use of [[cannon]]s as [[siege machine]]s dates back to [[Marinid dynasty|Abu Yaqub Yusuf]] who employed them at the siege of [[Sijilmasa]] in 1274, according to [[Ibn Khaldun]].<ref name=Gunpowder/> * [[1275]] - [engineering, rocketry, weaponry] Hasan al-Rammah invents the [[torpedo]] in [[Syria]].<ref>Arslan Terzioglu (2007). "The First Attempts of Flight, Automatic Machines, Submarines and Rocket Technology in Turkish History", ''The Turks'' (ed. H. C. Guzel), p. 804-810.</ref> * [[1277]] - [materials; glass and ceramics] A treaty for the transfer of [[glass]]making technology signed between the [[crusade]]r [[Bohemond VII]], titular prince of Antioch and the [[Doge of Venice]] leads to the transfer of [[Syria]]n glassworkers and their [[trade secret]]s and the subsequent rise of Venetian glass industry, the most prominent in Europe for centuries. The techniques henceforth, closely guarded by Venitians only become known in France in the [[1600s]]. * [[1285]] - [medicine] The largest [[hospital]] of the [[Middle Ages]] and pre-modern era is built in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], by [[Sultan]] Qalaun al-Mansur. According to [[Will Durant]], the hospital had a spacious quadrangular enclosure with four [[building]]s around a [[courtyard]] "adorned with [[Arcade (architecture)|arcades]] and cooled with [[fountain]]s and [[Stream|brooks]]." The hospital had "separate wards for diverse diseases and for [[Convalescence|convalescents]]", and had [[Laboratory|laboratories]], a dispensary, out-patient [[clinic]]s, [[kitchen]]s, [[bathing|bath]]s, a [[library]], a religious [[place of worship]], [[lecture]] halls, and "pleasant accommodations for the [[Mental disorder|insane]]." Treatment was given for free to patients of all backgrounds, regardless of gender, ethnicity or income, while convalescents were offered disbursements on their departure so that they wouldn't need to return to work immediately. "The [[Insomnia|sleepless]] were provided with soft [[Islamic music|music]], professional [[Islamic literature|story-tellers]], and perhaps books of [[Historiography of early Islam|history]]."<ref>{{citation|first=Will|last=Durant|author-link=Will Durant|title=[[The Story of Civilization]] IV: The Age of Faith|publisher=Simon and Shuster, [[New York]]|year=1950|pages=330-1}}</ref> * c. [[1296]] - [astronomy, technology] The first [[Islamic astronomy|astronomical uses]] of the magnetic [[compass]] is found in a treatise on astronomical instruments written by the [[Yemen]]i [[sultan]] al-[[Ashraf]] (d. 1296). This was the first reference to the compass in astronomical literature.<ref>Emilie Savage-Smith (1988), "Gleanings from an Arabist's Workshop: Current Trends in the Study of Medieval Islamic Science and Medicine", ''[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]'' '''79''' (2): 246-266 [263].</ref> === 14th century === * [[14th century|1300s]] - [astronomy, engineering] The [[spherical astrolabe]] is invented in the [[Middle East]]. [[Ibn al-Shatir]] also invents the [[Astrolabe|astrolabic]] [[clock]] in [[Syria]],<ref>David A. King (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", ''[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]'' '''74''' (4): 531-555 [545-6]</ref> and he also invents the [[compass dial]], a [[time]]keeping device incorporating both a universal [[sundial]] and a magnetic [[compass]], which he invented for the purpose of finding the times of [[Salah]] prayers.<ref>{{Harv|King|1983|pp=547-548}}</ref> * 1300s - [bacteriology, etiology, medicine, microbiology, pathology] When the [[Black Death]] [[bubonic plague]] reached [[al-Andalus]], Ibn Khatima discovered that infectious diseases are caused by [[microorganism]]s which enter the human body.<ref name=Syed>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2): 2-9.</ref> * [[1300]] - [[1348]] [navigation] [[Abubakari II]], a [[mansa]] of the [[Mali Empire]], attempts to cross the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. According to the Arabic historian Ibn Fadlullah al-Umari (1300-1348), in his encyclopaedic work ''Masalik Al-Absar'', Abubakari set out on a journey equipped with "two hundred boats full of men, and many others full of gold, water and provisions sufficient for several years" (see [[Pre-Columbian Islamic contact theories]]). * [[1301]] - [ceramics] Al-Kashani promotes a center for ceramics. He also writes a book on Islamic [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]] techniques. His name is still associated with ceramics in the Muslim [[Orient]] today. * [[1312]] - [[1361]] [cryptography] Taj ad-Din Ali ibn ad-Duraihim ben Muhammad ath-Tha 'alibi al-Mausili wrote on [[cryptology]], but his writings have been lost. To his work is attributed the section on cryptology in an encyclopedia (''Subh al-a 'sha'') by [[Ahmad al-Qalqashandi|Shihab al-Din abu 'l-Abbas Ahmad ben Ali ben Ahmad Abd Allah al-Qalqashandi]] (1355 or 1356 – 1418). The list of [[cipher]]s in this work included both [[Substitution cipher|substitution]] and [[Transposition cipher|transposition]], and for the first time, a cipher with multiple substitutions for each [[plaintext]] letter. Also traced to Ibn al-Duraihim is an exposition on and worked example of [[cryptanalysis]], including the use of tables of letter frequencies and sets of letters which can not occur together in one word. Al-Qalqashandi was a medieval Egyptian writer born in a village in the Nile Delta. He is the author of Subh al-a 'sha, a fourteen volume encyclopedia in Arabic, which included a section on cryptology. This information was attributed to Taj ad-Din al-Mausili (see [[Ahmad al-Qalqashandi]]). * [[1304]] - [[1369]] [exploration, travel] Abu Abdullah Muhammad [[Ibn Battuta]] was a world traveler. He travels along a 75,000 mile voyage from [[Morocco]] to [[China]] and back. These journeys covered much of the Old World, extending from [[North Africa]], [[West Africa]], [[Southern Europe]] and [[Eastern Europe]] in the west, to the [[Middle East]], [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Central Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]] and [[China]] in the east, a distance readily surpassing that of his predecessors and his near-contemporary [[Marco Polo]]. * [[1313]] - [[1374]] - [bacteriology, etiology, medicine, pathology] The Andalusian physician Ibn al-Khatib wrote a treatise called ''On the Plague'', in which he stated: "The existence of contagion is established by experience, investigation, the evidence of the senses and trustworthy reports. These facts constitute a sound argument. The fact of infection becomes clear to the investigator who notices how he who establishes contact with the aflicted gets the disease, whereas he who is not in contact remains safe, and how transmission is affected through garments, vessels and earrings."<ref name=Syed/> * [[1304]] – [[1375]] [astronomy] [[Ibn al-Shatir]], a [[Islamic astronomy|Muslim astronomer]] from [[Damascus]], in ''A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory'', incorporated the [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi|Urdi]] lemma and eliminated the need for an equant by introducing an extra epicycle (the [[Tusi-couple]]), departing from the [[Ptolemaic system]] in a way that was mathematically identical to what [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] did in the 16th century. Ibn al-Shatir's system was also only approximately geocentric, rather than exactly so, having demonstrated [[trigonometry|trigonometrically]] that the Earth was not the exact center of the universe. While previous [[Maragheh observatory|Maragha models]] were just as accurate as the Ptolemaic model, Ibn al-Shatir's geometrical model was the first that was actually superior to the Ptolemaic model in terms of its better agreement with [[Empiricism|empirical]] observations.<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1994), ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam'', p. 245, 250, 256-257. [[New York University Press]], ISBN 0814780237.</ref><ref>Y. M. Faruqi (2006). "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise", ''International Education Journal'' '''7''' (4), p. 395-396.</ref> Ibn al-Shatir’s rectified model was later adapted into a [[Copernican heliocentrism|heliocentric model]] by Copernicus,<ref>M. Gill (2005), [http://www.chowk.com/show_article.cgi?aid=00005502&channel=university%20ave Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?]</ref> which was mathematically achieved by reversing the direction of the last vector connecting the Earth to the Sun in Ibn al-Shatir's model.<ref>[[George Saliba]] (1999). [http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?] [[Columbia University]].</ref> * [[1371]] [astronomy, engineering] As ancient [[sundial]]s were nodus-based with straight hour-lines, they indicated unequal hours&mdash;also called temporary hours&mdash;that varied with the seasons. Every day was divided into twelve equal segments; thus, hours were shorter in winter and longer in summer. The idea of using hours of equal length throughout the year was the innovation of [[Ibn al-Shatir]], based on earlier developments in [[trigonometry]] by [[Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī]] (Albategni). Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using a [[gnomon]] that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His sundial is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the sundial|url=http://www.nmm.ac.uk/server/show/conWebDoc.353|publisher=[[National Maritime Museum]]|accessdate=2008-07-02}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=The Sundial And Geometry|first=Lawrence|last=Jones|journal=North American Sundial Society|volume=12|issue=4|date=December 2005}}</ref> * [[1377]] [demography, economics, historiography, history, humanities, political science, social sciences, sociology] [[Ibn Khaldun]], the father of [[demography]],<ref name=Mowlana>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> [[cultural history]],<ref>Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", ''Islam & Science'' '''5''' (1), p. 61-70.</ref> [[historiography]],<ref>Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). ''A Dictionary of Muslim Names''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.</ref> the [[philosophy of history]],<ref name=Akhtar>Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", ''Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture'' '''12''' (3).</ref> [[sociology]],<ref name=Mowlana/><ref name=Akhtar/> and the [[social sciences]],<ref>Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", ''Middle East Journal'' '''56''' (1), p. 25.</ref> and one of the forerunners of modern [[economics]], writes his most famous work, the ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (known as ''Prolegomenon'' in the West), which is encyclopedic in breadth, surveys the state of knowledge of his day, covering geography, accounts of the peoples of the world and their known history, the classification and aims of the sciences, and the religious sciences. In the social sciences, he introduces the concepts of [[social philosophy]], [[social conflict]] theories, [[Asabiyyah]] ([[Structural cohesion|social cohesion]]), [[social capital]], [[social network]]s, the [[Laffer curve]], the [[historical method]], standard of [[evidence]], [[propoganda]], [[systemic bias]], the rise and fall of [[civilization]]s, [[dialectic]] and [[feedback]] loops, [[systems theory]], [[corporate social responsibility]], [[economic growth]],<ref>Muqaddimah 2:272-73 quoted in Weiss (1995) p 30</ref> [[macroeconomics]], [[population growth]], [[human capital]] development,<ref>Weiss (1995) p31 quotes Muqaddimah 2:272-273</ref> and the Khaldun-[[Laffer curve]].<ref>[http://www.heritage.org/Research/Taxes/bg1765.cfm The Laffer Curve: Past, Present, and Future]</ref> * [[1377]] [biology, chemistry, evolution] [[Ibn Khaldun]]'s ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' also makes several contributions to [[biology]] and [[chemistry]]. He develops a biological theory of [[evolution]] based on [[empirical evidence]] and in which he begins with [[mineral]]s evolving into [[plant]]s and then [[animal]]s and ending with [[human]]s evolving from [[monkey]]s, which he states is "as far as our (physical) observation extends."<ref>''Muqaddimah'', pp. 74-75.</ref> In chemistry, he refutes the practice of [[Alchemy (Islam)|alchemy]] and discredits the theory of the [[Philosopher's Stone|transmutation of metals]].<ref>Prof. Hamed A. Ead (1998), [http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam20.html Alchemy in Ibn Khaldun's ''Muqaddimah''], [[Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg|Heidelberg University]].</ref> * [[1380]] [mathematics] [[Al-Kashi]] "contributed to the development of [[decimal fraction]]s not only for approximating [[algebraic number]]s, but also for [[real number]]s such as [[pi]]. His contribution to decimal fractions is so major that for many years he was considered as their inventor. Although not the first to do so, al-Kashi gave an algorithm for calculating [[root (mathematics)|nth roots]] which is a special case of the methods given many centuries later by [[Paolo Ruffini|Ruffini]] and [[William George Horner|Horner]]."<ref name="one"/> * [[1393]] - [[1449]] - [astronomy] [[Ulugh Beg]] commissions an observatory at [[Samarqand]] in present-day [[Uzbekistan]]. === 15th century === * [[1400]] - [[1500]] - [related] Third wave of devastation of Muslim resources, lives, properties, institutions, and infrastructure. End of Muslim rule in Spain after the completion of the [[Reconquista]] in [[1492]]. More than one million volumes of Muslim works on science, arts, philosophy and culture were burnt in the public square of Vivarrambla in [[Granada]]. Colonization began in [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and the [[Americas]].<ref>''A Chronology of Muslim History'', Parts IV, V (e.g., 1455, 1494, 1500, 1510, 1524, and 1538)</ref> * [[1400s]] [mathematics] [[Ibn al-Banna]] and [[al-Qalasadi]] used symbols for mathematics in the [[15th century]] "and, although we do not know exactly when their use began, we know that symbols were used at least a century before this."<ref name="one"/> * [[1400]] - [[1406]] [astronomy, mathematics, physics] [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī]] is invited to the [[Samarqand]] observatory by [[Ulugh Beg]] to pursue his study of mathematics, astronomy and physics. * [[1400]] - [[1429]] [astronomy, mathematics] [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī]] is the first to use the [[decimal point]] notation in [[arithmetic]] and [[Arabic numerals]]. His works include ''The Key of arithmetics, Discoveries in mathematics, The Decimal point'', and ''The benefits of the zero''. The contents of the ''Benefits of the Zero'' are an introduction followed by five essays: "On whole number arithmetic", "On fractional arithmetic", "On astrology", "On areas", and "On finding the unknowns [unknown variables]". He also wrote the ''Thesis on the sine and the chord''; ''The garden of gardens'' or ''Promenade of the gardens'' describing an instrument he devised and used at the Samarqand [[observatory]] to compile an [[ephemeris]] and for computing solar and [[lunar eclipse]]s; the ephemeresis ''Zayj Al-Khaqani'' which also includes mathematical tables and corrections of the ephemeresis by [[al-Tusi]]; ''Thesis on finding the first degree sine''; and more. * [[1400]] - [[1429]] [astronomical instruments] [[Al-Kashi]] invents the Plate of Conjunctions, an [[analog computer]] instrument used to determine the time of day at which [[planetary conjunction]]s will occur,<ref>E. S. Kennedy (1947), "Al-Kashi's Plate of Conjunctions", ''[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]'' '''38''' (1-2): 56-59 [56]</ref> and for performing [[linear interpolation]].<ref name=Kennedy/> He also invents a mechanical planetary computer which he calls the Plate of Zones, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, including the prediction of the true positions in [[longitude]] of the [[Sun]] and [[Moon]],<ref name=Kennedy>E. S. Kennedy (1950), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's Tabaq al-Manateq I. Motion of the Sun and Moon in Longitude", ''Isis'' '''41''' (2): 180-3</ref> and the [[planet]]s in terms of [[elliptical orbit]]s;<ref>E. S. Kennedy (1952), "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's Tabaq al-Maneteq II: Longitudes, Distances, and Equations of the Planets", ''Isis'' '''43''' (1): 42-50</ref> the [[latitude]]s of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the [[ecliptic]] of the Sun. The instrument also incorporated an [[alhidade]] and [[ruler]].<ref>E. S. Kennedy (1951), "An Islamic Computer for Planetary Latitudes", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''71''' (1): 13-21</ref> * [[1400]] - [[1474]] [astronomy, astrophysics, mathematics, physics] [[Ali al-Qushji]] (d. 1474) rejected [[Aristotelian physics]] and completely separated [[natural philosophy]] from [[Islamic astronomy]], allowing astronomy to become a purely [[empirical]] and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationery Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth instead. He found empirical evidence for the [[Earth's rotation]] through his observation on [[comet]]s and concluded, on the basis of [[empiricism]] rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory.<ref>{{Harv|Ragep|2001a}}</ref><ref name=Ragep2>{{Harv|Ragep|2001b}}</ref><ref>Edith Dudley Sylla, "Creation and nature", in Arthur Stephen McGrade (2003), p. 178-179, [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521000637.</ref> Ali al-Qushji also improved on [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]]'s planetary model and presented an alternative planetary model for [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]].<ref>[[George Saliba]], "Arabic planetary theories after the eleventh century AD", in Rushdī Rāshid and Régis Morelon (1996), ''Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science'', p. 58-127 [123-124], [[Routledge]], ISBN 0415124107.</ref> * [[1403]] - [[1433]] [navigation] The Chinese Muslim general [[Zheng He]] travels across the [[Indian Ocean]] in newly-constructed [[troopship]]s and [[treasure ship]]s. * [[1406]] - [[1409]] [astronomy] [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī]] computed and observed the [[solar eclipse]]s of 809 AH, 810 AH and 811 AH. * [[1411]] [mathematics] [[Al-Kashi]] writes ''Compendium of the Science of Astronomy''.<ref name="five">[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Chronology/index.html Chronology of mathematics], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]'', [[University of St Andrews]], Scotland</ref> * [[1424]] [mathematics] [[Al-Kashi]] writes ''Treatise on the Circumference'' giving a remarkably accurate approximation to [[pi]] in both [[sexagesimal]] and [[decimal]] forms, computing pi to 8 sexagesimal places and 16 decimal places.<ref name="five"/> * [[1427]] [mathematics] [[Al-Kashi]] completes ''The Key to Arithmetic'' containing work of great depth on [[decimal fraction]]s. It applies arithmetical and algebraic methods to the solution of various problems, including several geometric ones and is one of the best textbooks in the whole of medieval literature.<ref name="five"/> * [[1437]] [mathematics] [[Ulugh Beg]] publishes his [[star catalogue]], the ''[[Zij-i-Sultani]]''. It contains [[generating trigonometric tables|trigonometric tables]] correct to eight decimal places based on Ulugh Beg's calculation of the [[sine]] of one degree which he calculated correctly to 16 decimal places.<ref name="five"/> * [[1453]] [military technology] The first [[supergun]] was the [[Great Turkish Bombard]], used by the troops of [[Mehmed II]] to [[Fall of Constantinople|capture]] [[Constantinople]]. It had a 762 mm bore, and fired 680 kg (1500 lb) stones. * [[1470]] - [[1550]] - [ceramics, pottery] [[Tabriz]] becomes a center for innovative [[Islamic pottery]] and [[ceramics]].<ref name=Mason-7/> === 16th century === * [[16th century|1500s]] [architecture, engineering, urban planning] The city of [[Shibam]] is built in [[Yemen]]. This city is regarded as the "oldest [[skyscraper]]-city in the world", the "[[Manhattan]] of the desert", and the earliest example of [[urban planning]] based on the principle of vertical construction. Shibam was made up of over 500 tower houses, each one rising 5 to 9 [[storey]]s high, with each floor being an [[apartment]] occupied by a single family.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/192 Old Walled City of Shibam], [[UNESCO]]</ref> The city has the tallest [[mudbrick]] buildings in the world, with some of them being over 100 feet<ref>{{citation|title=The Hadhramaut|first=J. G. T.|last=Shipman|journal=[[Asian Affairs]]|volume=15|issue=2|date=June 1984|pages=154-62}}</ref> (over 30 meters) high, thus being the first [[high-rise]] (which need to be at least 75 feet or 23 meters) [[apartment building]]s and [[tower block]]s. * [[1500]] - [[1528]] [astronomy, astrophysics, physics] [[Al-Birjandi]] continued the debate on the [[Earth's rotation]] after [[Ali al-Qushji]]. In his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were rotating, he develops a hypothesis similar to [[Galileo Galilei]]'s notion of "circular [[inertia]]",<ref>{{Harv|Ragep|2001b|pp=63-4}}</ref> which he described in an [[Experiment|observational test]] (as a response to one of [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]]'s arguments): "The small or large rock will fall to the Earth along the path of a line that is perpendicular to the plane (''sath'') of the horizon; this is witnessed by experience (''tajriba''). And this perpendicular is away from the tangent point of the Earth’s sphere and the plane of the perceived (''hissi'') horizon. This point moves with the motion of the Earth and thus there will be no difference in place of fall of the two rocks."<ref>{{Harv|Ragep|2001a|pp=152-3}}</ref> * [[1500]] - [[1550]] [astronomy] [[Islamic astronomy|Shams al-Din al-Khafri]], the last major astronomer of the ''hay'a'' tradition, was the first to realize that "all mathematical modeling had no physical truth by itself and was simply another language with which one could describe the physical observed reality."<ref>[[George Saliba]] (2000). "Arabic versus Greek Astronomy: A Debate over the Foundations of Science", ''Perspectives on Science'' '''8''', p. 328-341.</ref> * [[1551]] [engineering] [[Taqi al-Din]] invents the [[steam turbine]] in [[Ottoman Egypt]]. He first described it in ''The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines'', which describes the use of his steam turbine as the [[Wiktionary:prime mover|prime mover]] for the first [[steam-power]]ed and self-rotating [[Spit (cooking aide)|spit]].<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]] (1976). ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', p. 34-35. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, [[University of Aleppo]].</ref> * [[1551]] - [[1574]] [astronomy, engineering] [[Taqi al-Din]] invents a rudimentary [[telescope]], as described in his ''Book of the Light of the Pupil of Vision and the Light of the Truth of the Sights'' around 1574. He describes it as an instrument that makes objects located far away appear closer to the observer, and states that the instrument helps to see distant objects in detail by bringing them very close. He also states that he wrote another earlier treatise explaining the way this instrument is made and used, suggesting that he invented it some time before 1574.<ref name=Topdemir>{{citation|first=Hüseyin Gazi|last=Topdemir|title=Takîyüddîn'in Optik Kitabi|publisher=Ministery of Culture Press, [[Ankara]]|year=1999}} ([[cf.]] {{cite web|author=Dr. Hüseyin Gazi Topdemir|title=Taqi al-Din ibn Ma‘ruf and the Science of Optics: The Nature of Light and the Mechanism of Vision|publisher=FSTC Limited|url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=951|date=30 June 2008|accessdate=2008-07-04}})</ref> * [[1556]] - [[1559]] [engineering] [[Taqi al-Din]] publishes ''The Brightest Stars for the Construction of Mechanical Clocks'', which describes the first mechanical [[alarm clock]], the first [[Spring (device)|spring]]-powered [[astronomical clock]], and the first [[clock]] and [[mechanical watch]] to first measure time in [[minute]]s.<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Salim Al-Hassani]]|title=The Astronomical Clock of Taqi Al-Din: Virtual Reconstruction|publisher=FSTC|url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=947|date=19 June 2008|accessdate=2008-07-02}}</ref> * [[1559]] [engineering] [[Taqi al-Din]] invents a 'Monobloc' [[pump]] with a [[six cylinder engine]]. It was a [[hydropower]]ed [[water]]-raising [[machine]] incorporating [[valve]]s, [[suction]] and delivery pipes, [[piston]] rods with [[lead]] weights, [[Trip hammer|trip]] [[lever]]s with [[Pin (device)|pin]] [[joint]]s, and [[cam]]s on the [[axle]] of a water-driven [[Scoop (tool)|scoop]]-[[Water wheel|wheel]].<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], "Engineering", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 2, p. 751-795 [779]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref> * [[1577]] [astronomy, engineering] [[Taqi al-Din]] builds the [[Istanbul observatory of al-Din]], the largest astronomical observatory in its time, with the patronage of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan [[Murad III]]. * [[1577]] - [[1580]] [astronomy, engineering] At the [[Istanbul observatory of al-Din]], [[Taqi al-Din]] carries out astronomical observations. He produces a [[zij]] (named ''Unbored Pearl'') and [[astronomical catalog]]ues that are more accurate than those of his contemporaries, [[Tycho Brahe]] and [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]. Taqi al-Din is able to achieve this with his new invention of the "observational clock", which he describes as "a mechanical [[clock]] with [[Clock face|three dials]] which show the [[hour]]s, the [[minute]]s, and the [[second]]s." This is the first clock to measure time in seconds, and he uses it for [[Astronomical clock|astronomical purposes]], specifically for measuring the [[right ascension]] of the [[star]]s. This is considered one of the most important innovations in 16th century practical astronomy, as previous clocks were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes.<ref name=Tekeli>Sevim Tekeli, "Taqi al-Din", in Helaine Selin (1997), ''Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures'', [[Kluwer Academic Publishers]], ISBN 0792340663.</ref> He further improves his observational clock, using only one dial to represent the hours, minutes and seconds, describing it as "a mechanical clock with a dial showing the hours, minutes and seconds and we divided every minute into five seconds."<ref>{{citation|first=Aydin|last=Sayili|authorlink=Aydin Sayili|title=The Observatory in Islam|year=1991|pages=289-305}} ([[cf.]] {{cite web|author=Dr. Salim Ayduz|title=Taqi al-Din Ibn Ma’ruf: A Bio-Bibliographical Essay|url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=949|date=26 June 2008|accessdate=2008-07-04}})</ref> Taqi al-Din is also the first astronomer to employ a [[Decimal separator|decimal point]] notation in his [[observation]]s rather than the [[sexagesimal]] fractions used by his contemporaries and predecessors.<ref name=Tekeli/> * [[1579]] [civil engineering] The first [[prefabricated home]]s and movable [[structure]] are invented by [[Akbar the Great]].<ref name=Habib>Irfan Habib (1992), "Akbar and Technology", ''Social Scientist'' '''20''' (9-10), pp. 3-15 [3-4].</ref> * [[1580]] [astronomy] The [[Istanbul observatory of al-Din]] is destroyed by Sultan [[Murad III]]. * [[1582]] [military technology] [[Fathullah Shirazi]], a [[Persian people|Persian]]-[[History of India|Indian]] [[polymath]] and mechanical engineer who worked for [[Akbar the Great]] in the [[Mughal Empire]], invented the [[autocannon]], the earliest multi-shot [[machine gun]]. As opposed to the [[polybolos]] and [[repeating crossbow]]s used earlier in [[ancient Greece]] and [[China]], respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple [[gun barrel]]s that fired [[hand cannon]]s loaded with [[gunpowder]].<ref>A. K. Bag (2005), "Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu", ''Indian Journal of History of Science'' '''40''' (3): 431-6</ref> Another [[cannon]]-related machine he created could clean sixteen gun barrels simultaneously, and was operated by a cow.<ref name="Amir">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-bE9AAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&client=firefox-a#PPA281,M1|title=The Emperor Akbar|author=Friedrich Christian Charles August|coauthors=Gustav von Buchwald|publisher=Trübner & Co.|year=1890|accessdate=2008-04-04}}</ref> * [[1582]] [technology] [[Fathullah Shirazi]] invents a [[corn]]-griding [[carriage]], which can be used to transport passengers and for grinding corn.<ref name="Amir"/> * [[1589]] - [[1590]] [astronomy, engineering, metallurgy] The [[Seamlessness|seamless]] [[celestial globe]] invented by Muslim metallurgists and instrument-makers in [[Mughal India]], specifically [[Lahore]] and [[Kashmir]], is considered to be one of the most remarkable feats in [[metallurgy]] and [[engineering]]. All [[globe]]s before and after this were seamed, and in the 20th century, it was believed by metallurgists to be technically impossible to create a metal globe without any [[wiktionary:seam|seams]]. It was in the 1980s, however, that Emilie Savage-Smith discovered several celestial globes without any seams in Lahore and Kashmir. The earliest was invented in Kashmir by the Muslim metallurgist Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589-1590 CE) during [[Akbar the Great]]'s reign; he invented the method of [[lost-wax casting]] in order to produce these globes. 21 such globes were produced, and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes. These seamless celestial globes are considered to be an unsurpassed feat in metallurgy, hence some consider this achievement to be comparable to that of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] which was considered an unsurpassed feat in [[architecture]] until the 19th century.<ref name=Kazi>{{cite web|first=Najma|last=Kazi|title=Seeking Seamless Scientific Wonders: Review of Emilie Savage-Smith's Work|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=832|publisher=FSTC Limited|date=24 November, 2007|accessdate=2008-02-01}}</ref> === 17th century === * [[1600s]] [mathematics] The Arabic mathematician [[Muhammad Baqir Yazdi]] jointly discovered the pair of [[amicable number]]s 9,363,584 and 9,437,056 along with [[Descartes]] (1636).<ref>[http://amicable.homepage.dk/apstat.htm#discoverer Various AP Lists and Statistics<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. * [[1600]] - [[1640]] [philosophy] Persian philosopher [[Mulla Sadra]] founded the school of [[Transcendent Theosophy]] and developed the concept of "[[existence precedes essence]]".<ref>{{Harv|Razavi|1997|pp=129-30}}</ref> His work bought "a new philosophical insight in dealing with the nature of [[reality]]" and created "a major transition from [[essentialism]] to [[existentialism]]" in Islamic philosophy, several centuries before this occurred in Western philosophy.<ref>{{citation|title=Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy|first=Muhammad|last=Kamal|year=2006|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=0754652718|pages=9 & 39}}</ref> * [[1630]] - [[1632]] [aviation, flight] The Turk [[Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi]] is said to have flown from the [[Galata Tower]] and crossed the [[Bosphorus]], landing 3.38 kilometers away in [[Üsküdar]]'s Doğancılar square. * [[1633]] [aviation, flight, rocketry] Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi's brother, [[Lagari Hasan Çelebi]], launched himself in the first artificially-powered manned [[rocket]], using 150 [[okka]] (about 300 pounds) of [[gunpowder]] as the firing fuel, and he landed successfully. This is more than two hundred years before similar attempts in modern Europe and the United States. * [[1659]] - [[1660]] Another [[Seamlessness|seamless]] [[celestial globe]] is produced in the [[Mughal Empire]] in 1070 AH (1659-60 CE) by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi with Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions.<ref>{{citation|first=Emilie|last=Savage-Smith|title=Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.|year=1985}}</ref><ref name=Kazi/> == Timeline of modern Muslim scientists and engineers == === 18th century === * [[1720]] - [navigation technology] The [[Ottoman]] dockyard architect Ibrahim Efendi invented a [[submarine]] called the ''tahtelbahir''. The Ottoman writer Seyyid Vehbi, in his ''Surname-i-Humayun'', compared this submarine to an [[alligator]]. He recorded that during the circumcision ceremony for Sultan [[Ahmed III]]'s sons, "the alligator-like submarine slowly emerged on the water and moved slowly to the sultan, and after staying on the sea for half an hour, submerged in the sea again to the great surprise of the public; then emerged one hour later, with five people walking outside the mouth of this alligator-like submarine, with trays of rice and ''zerde'' (a dish of sweetened rice) on their heads." He explained the technical information concerning the submarine "submerging in the sea and the crew being able to breath through pipes while under the sea".<ref name=Terzioglu/> * [[1783]] - [[1799]] - [rocketry] [[Tipu Sultan|Tipu]], [[Sultan]] of [[Mysore]] (r. 1783-1799) in the south of [[India]], was an experimenter with war [[rocket]]s and the inventor of [[iron]]-cased [[rocket artillery]]. He successfully used these iron rockets against the larger forces of the [[British East India Company]] during the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]. His rockets were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development and were soon put into use in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].<ref>Roddam Narasimha (1985). [http://nal-ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750-1850 A.D.] National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science.</ref> Two of his rockets, captured by the British at [[Srirangapatna]], are displayed in the [[Woolwich]] [[Royal Artillery Museum]] in [[London]]. They were the first rockets to have a rocket motor casing made of [[steel]] with multiple nozzles. The rocket, 50 mm in diameter and 250 mm long, had a range performance of 900 meters to 1.5 km.<ref>[http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic Muslim Scientists and Islamic Civilization], Cyberistan.</ref> === 19th century === * [[1814]] - [cosmetics, hygiene] - [[Sake Dean Mahomet]], a [[Bengali people|Bengali]] traveller and entrepreneur, developed the [[shampoo]], inspired by the Indian practice of making fragrant hair-oil. === 20th century === * [[1931]] - [[1942]] [chemistry] [[Salimuzzaman Siddiqui]] was a leading [[Pakistan]]i scientist in [[natural products]] [[chemistry]]. He is the pioneer in extracting chemical compunds from the [[Neem]] and [[Rauwolfia]], and is also known for isolating novel chemical compunds from various other [[flora]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. As the director of [[H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry]], he carried out extensive research with a team of scientists on [[pharmacology]] of various plants to extract a number of chemical substances of [[medicinal]] importance.<ref>M. Akhtar (1996), Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, ''Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society'', Vol. 42, November, pp. 400-417</ref> * [[1944]] - [[2000]] [medicine, engineering] [[Iran]]ian physician and engineer [[Toffy Musivand]] invents [[artificial heart|artificial cardiac pump]] as treatment for [[heart failure]], and develops "remote power transfer for implantable [[medical device]]s, remote patient monitoring ([[telemedicine]]), bio[[fluid dynamics]] to reduce/eliminate [[thrombosis]] in blood conducting devices, [[Simulated patient|patient care simulation]] centre, [[detection]] devices and methods for detection, [[in situ]] sterilization, medical devices ([[failure analysis]] and regulatory process), and medical [[sensor]]s."<ref>[http://www.ottawaheart.ca/UOHI/bio/Tofy_Mussivand.jsp Tofy Mussivand PhD, FRSC], [[University of Ottawa Heart Institute]].</ref> * [[1953]] [economics] [[Pakistan]]i developmental activist [[Akhtar Hameed Khan]] pioneers the concept of [[microcredit]] * [[1960]] [physics] Iranian physicist [[Ali Javan]] invents the [[gas laser]] * [[1961]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] rocket scientist [[Kerim Kerimov]] becomes one of the founders of the [[Soviet space program]] and one of the lead architects responsible for the launch of the [[Vostok 1]], the first [[human spaceflight]].<ref name=Bond>Peter Bond, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20030407/ai_n12692130 Obituary: Lt-Gen Kerim Kerimov], ''[[The Independent]]'', 7 April 2003.</ref> * [[1965]] [mathematics; formal logic] Iranian mathematician [[Lotfi Asker Zadeh]] founded [[fuzzy set]] theory as an extension of the classical notion of [[set]] and he founded the field of [[Fuzzy Mathematics]] * [[1966]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Kerim Kerimov]] becomes the lead scientist of the [[Soviet space program]].<ref name=Bond/> * [[1967]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Kerim Kerimov]] launches the [[Cosmos 186]] and [[Cosmos 188]], the first [[space dock]]s (and precursors of [[space station]]s), during which mutual search, approach, mooring and docking were automatically performed for the first time in the history of [[space exploration]].<ref name=Bond/> * [[1967]] - [[1972]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Farouk El-Baz]] from [[Egypt]] worked for [[NASA]] and was involved in the first [[Moon landing]]s with the [[Apollo program]], where he was secretary of the ''Landing Site Selection Committee'', ''Principal Investigator of Visual Observations and Photography'', chairman of the ''Astronaut Training Group'', and assisted in the planning of scientific explorations of the Moon, including the selection of landing sites for the Apollo missions and the training of astronauts in lunar observations and photography.<ref>[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1169545087624&pagename=Zone-English-HealthScience%2FHSELayout Farouk El-Baz: With Apollo to the Moon], [[IslamOnline]]</ref> * [[1969]] [engineering] [[Bangladesh]]i engineer [[Fazlur Khan]], regarded as the "[[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] of [[structural engineering]]" and "the greatest [[architectural engineer]] of the second half of the [[20th century]]" for his designs of structural systems that remain fundamental to all high-rise [[skyscraper]]s, designs and constructs the [[John Hancock Center]].<ref name=Mir>Ali Mir (2001). ''Art of the Skyscraper: the Genius of Fazlur Khan''. Rizzoli International Publications. ISBN 0847823709.</ref> * [[1969]] [chemistry, medicine] Iranian scientist [[Samuel Rahbar]] discovered [[glycosylated hemoglobin]] (HbA1C), a form of [[hemoglobin]] used primarily to identify [[blood plasma|plasma]] [[glucose]] [[concentration]] over time. He was also the first to describe its increase in [[diabetes]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rahbar S, Blumenfeld O, Ranney HM |title=Studies of an unusual hemoglobin in patients with diabetes mellitus |journal=Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=838–43 |year=1969 |pmid=5808299 |doi=10.1016/0006-291X(69)90685-8}}</ref> * [[1971]] [economics] Bangladeshi economist [[Muhammad Yunus]], founder of [[Grameen Bank]], successfully applies the concept of [[microcredit]] to the first [[microfinance]] banking system. * [[1971]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Kerim Kerimov]] launches the first [[space station]], the [[Salyut 1]].<ref name=Bond/> * [[1972]] - [[1982]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Kerim Kerimov]] launches more [[space station]]s as part of the [[Salyut]] series.<ref name=Bond/> * [[1973]] [engineering] [[Fazlur Khan]] designs and constructs the [[Sears Tower]].<ref name=Mir/> Standing at 527.3 metres tall, it remains the world's tallest building up until the construction of the [[Burj Dubai]] in 2007. * [[1973]] [mathematics, formal logic] [[Lotfi Zadeh]] founded the field of [[fuzzy logic]]. * [[1979]] [physics] A [[Pakistan]]i theoretical physicist, [[Abdus Salam]], received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his pioneering work on the [[electroweak interaction]] theory which is the mathematical and conceptual synthesis of the [[electromagnetic]] and [[weak interaction]]s * [[1980s]] [engineering, nuclear physics] Pakistan was the first Islamic country which successfully developed [[nuclear technology]], under the leadership of [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]] * [[1985]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Sultan bin Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud]] becomes the first Muslim [[astronaut]] in space, as a [[Payload Specialist]] aboard the [[STS-51-G]] [[Space Shuttle Discovery]], completed on [[June 24]] * [[1985]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Muhammed Faris]] is selected to participate in the [[Intercosmos]] spaceflight program on [[September 30]] as the first [[Syria]]n in space * [[1986]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Kerim Kerimov]] launches the [[Mir]], the first consistently inhabited long-term research [[space station]] and which holds the record for the [[spaceflight records|longest continuous human presence in space]].<ref name=Bond/> * [[1987]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Muhammed Faris]] becomes the first [[Syria]]n in space aboard the [[Soyuz TM-2]] and [[Soyuz TM-3]] expeditions to [[Mir]] space station. He is awarded the [[Hero of the Soviet Union]] and [[Order of Lenin]] titles later that year. * [[1988]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Abdul Ahad Mohmand]] becomes the first [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] astronaut in space, aboard the [[Soyuz TM-5]] expedition to [[Mir]] space station * [[1990]] [economics] Pakistani economist [[Mahbub ul Haq]] co-develops the [[Human Development Index]] * [[1994]] - [[1998]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Talgat Musabayev]] becomes the first [[Kazakhstan|Kazakh]] astronaut in space, as a [[flight engineer]] aboard the [[Soyuz TM-19]] (for over 125 days) and commander aboard the [[Soyuz TM-27]] (for over 207 days) expeditions to [[Mir]] space station * [[1995]] [computer science] Iranian American computer scientist [[Pierre Omidyar]],<ref>His religion is uncertain but it is known he grew up in a tightly-knit Muslim community in France, according to {{citation|title=Pierre Omidyar: The Founder of Ebay|first=Jennifer|last=Viegas|date=2006|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=1404207155|pages=14–6}}</ref> becomes the founder of [[eBay]] * [[1997]] [physics, string theory] Iranian physicist [[Cumrun Vafa]], one of the leading [[string theorists]] of modern times, develops the [[F-theory]] and proposes the [[Vafa-Witten theorem]] * [[1998]] [architecture, engineering] The world's tallest [[twin towers]], the [[Petronas Twin Towers]], is built in [[Malaysia]] * [[1999]] [chemistry] [[Egypt]]ian chemist [[Ahmed Zewail]] is awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for his advances in [[femtochemistry]] === 21st century === * [[1983]] - [[2008]] [architectural engineering] [[Zaha Hadid]] is an award-winning [[Iraq]]i [[Deconstructivism|deconstructivist]] [[architect]] who has won the [[European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture]], [[Pritzker Prize]] and [[Thomas Jefferson Medal in Architecture]]. She designed a number of famous [[postmodern architecture]], including The Peak Club in [[Hong Kong]], the [[Cardiff Bay Opera House]], [[Guggenheim-Hermitage Vilnius]], Eli and Edythe Broad Museum at [[Michigan State University]], [[CMA CGM]] Tower, [[Bridge Pavilion]], Kartal Urban Transformation at [[Istanbul]], [[Riverside Museum]], [[Glasgow Transport Museum]], [[Eleftheria square]], Nordkettenbahn ([[aerial tramway]]) at [[Innsbruck]], [[Nuragic and Contemporary art museum]], [[Maggie's centres]], [[High speed train]] station of [[Afragola]], [[BMW]] Central Building at [[Leipzig]], [[Ordrupgaard]] annexe, [[Phaeno Science Center]], [[Ursula (The Little Mermaid)]] at [[Hollywood]], [[Bergisel]] Ski Jump, [[Price Tower]] extension hybrid project, Hoenheim-North Terminus & Car Park at [[Strasbourg]], [[Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art]], [[Vitra]] Fire Station, and the Z.CAR [[Hydrogen-powered car|hydrogen-powered]] three-wheeled [[automobile]]. * [[2000]] [computer science] Many of the core components of [[PayPal]], including its real-time anti-[[Internet fraud|fraud]] systems,<ref name=Karim>[http://www.jawed.com/resume Jawed Karim Resume]</ref> is designed and implemented by [[Bangladeshi American]] software engineer [[Jawed Karim]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Omair Ali, Ani Zakarian, Valerie Enriquez|url=http://www.theculturalconnect.com/new/2007/08/10/mecca-one-radio-mideast|title=MeccaOne Media: A Voice for the Everyday Muslim|publisher=''The MidEast Connect Magazine''}}</ref> * [[2000]] - [[2007]] [chemistry, geometry, literature] In [[electrochemistry]], Iranian scientist [[Ali Eftekhari]] is regarded as a founder of electrochemical [[nanotechnology]],<ref>[http://www.wiley-vch.de/publish/en/books/bySubjectMS00/ISBN3-527-31876-3/?sID=b769201ff074e79e9824491197364440 Nanostructured Materials in Electrochemistry]</ref> particularly for his development of [[carbon nanotube]]s.<ref>A. Eftekhari, et al, ''Carbon'', 2006, 44 (7), 1343 – 1345.</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, et al, ''Chemistry Letters'', 2006, 35 (1), 138 – 139.</ref> He also carries out scientific research on the field of [[fractal]] geometry and applies it to different aspects of science, thus pioneering the concepts of fractal electrochemistry,<ref>A. Eftekhari, ''Electrochimica Acta'', 2003, 48 (19), 2831 – 2839</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, et al, ''Applied Surface Sciencs'', 2005, 239 (3), 311 – 319</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, ''Surface Review and Letters'', 2006, 13 (5), 703 – 710</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, ''Physica B'', 2007, 387 (1-2), 92 – 97</ref><ref>A. Eftekhari, et al, ''Surface Review and Letters'', 2006, 13 (6), 753 – 758</ref> [[electrochemical reaction]]s,<ref>A. Eftekhari, ''Journal of the Electrochemical Society'', 2004, 151 (9), E291 – E296</ref> and fractal geometry of literature. * [[2001]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Talgat Musabayev]] travels to the [[International Space Station]] as a commander aboard the [[Soyuz TM-31]] and [[Soyuz TM-32]] for over seven days. In total, he has spent over 339 days in space, making him one of the [[Spaceflight records#Total time in space|top 25 astronauts by time in space]]. * [[2001]] [physics] [[Iran]]ian physicist [[Mehran Kardar]] is awarded the [[Guggenheim Fellowship]] prize for his development of the Kardar-Parisi-Zhang (KPZ) equation * [[2002]] - [[2007]] [science and politics] [[Abdul Kalam]] serves as the twelfth [[President of India]]. A notable scientist and engineer, he is often referred to as the "Missile Man of India" for his work and is considered a progressive mentor, innovator and visionary in India. He is also popularly known as the People's President. * [[2004]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Anousheh Ansari|Anouseh]] and [[Amir Ansari]] set up the [[Ansari X Prize]] to encourage private spaceflight research. * [[2005]] [computer science] [[PayPal]] is re-designed and upscaled to 63 million users by [[Jawed Karim]].<ref name=Karim/> * [[2005]] [computer science] [[Jawed Karim]] pioneered the idea of a [[video hosting service]] with a [[web browser]]-embedded [[Video player (software)|video player]] and co-founded [[YouTube]] as a result.<ref>Jim Hopkins, [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2006-10-11-youtube-karim_x.htm Surprise! There's a third YouTube co-founder], ''[[USA Today]]'', 10-11-2006.</ref> * [[2006]] [economics] [[Bangladesh]]i banker and economist [[Muhammad Yunus]] and [[Grameen Bank]] receive the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for their pioneering work on [[microcredit]] and [[microfinance]] banking. * [[2006]] [nuclear physics] The [[United Nations Security Council]] demands that the [[nuclear program of Iran]] be suspended but [[Iran]], the second Muslim nation with a [[nuclear physics|nuclear program]] (after [[Pakistan]]), has rejected the demand * [[2006]] [astronautics, space exploration] [[Anousheh Ansari]] becomes the first woman to travel to the [[International Space Station]], the first Muslim woman in space, and the fourth [[space tourist]] * [[2006]] [technology] [[Prodea Systems]] is founded by Hamid, [[Anousheh Ansari|Anouseh]] and [[Amir Ansari]]. * [[2007]] [engineering] The [[Burj Dubai]], currently under construction in [[Dubai]], reaches 585.7 metres in height, surpassing the [[Sears Tower]] (previously constructed by [[Fazlur Khan]]) as the world's tallest building.<ref>[http://www.visitdubai.info/news/burjdubai.htm Burj Dubai surpasses the height of Sears Tower in Chicago]</ref> * [[2007]] [astronautics, space exploration] On [[October 10]], [[Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor]] travels to the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) with his [[Expedition 16]] crew aboard the [[Soyuz TMA-11]] as part of the [[Angkasawan program]], and becomes the first [[Malaysia]]n astronaut in space and the first Muslim astronaut in space during [[Ramadan]]. The [[National Fatwa Council]] writes the ''Guidelines for Performing Islamic Rites ([[Ibadah]]) at the International Space Station'', giving him advice on issues such as how to [[Salah|pray]] in a low-gravity environment, how to locate [[Mecca]] from the ISS, how to determine prayer times, and issues surrounding [[Sawm|fasting]]. On [[October 17]], he celebrated [[Eid ul-Fitr]] aboard the station. * [[2007]] [astronautics, biology, medicine, industry, orthopedic surgery, space exploration, technology] [[Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor]], who is both an astronaut and an [[orthopedic surgeon]], becomes the first to perform [[biomedical research]] in space. His medical experiments aboard the ISS were mainly related to the characteristics and growth of liver [[cancer]] and [[leukemia]] cells, and the crystallisation of various [[protein]]s and [[microbe]]s in space.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2007/10/11/nation/19136025&sec=nation|title=Mission in space|accessyear=2007|accessmonth=October 13|publisherTheStar|year=2007|author=theStar|language=English}}</ref> The experiments relating to liver cancer, leukemia cells and microbes will benefit general science and medical research, while the experiments relating to the crystallisation of proteins, lipases in this case, will directly benefit local industries in Malaysia. [[Lipase]] are a type of protein [[enzyme]]s used in the manufacturing of diverse range of products from [[textiles]] to [[cosmetics]], and the opportunity to grow these in space will allow Malaysian scientists to producing these locally rather than importing them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2007/9/22/nation/18514133&sec=nation|title=Tapping into space research|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=September 22|publisher=TheStar|year=2007|author=theStar|language=English}}</ref> ==Notes== {{reflist|3}} ==References== * [[Donald Routledge Hill]] and [[Ahmad Y Hassan]] (1986), ''Islamic technology - an illustrated history'', ISBN 0 521 263336. * Albert Z. Iskandar (1974), "Ibn al-Nafis", in ''[[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]]'', Vol. 9, p. 602-606. *{{Harvard reference |last=Ragep |first=F. Jamil |year=2001a |title=Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context |journal=Science in Context |volume=14 |issue=1-2 |pages=145–163 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] }} *{{Harvard reference |last=Ragep |first=F. Jamil |year=2001b |title=Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science |journal=Osiris, 2nd Series |volume=16 |issue=Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions |pages=49-64 & 66-71 }} *{{Harvard reference |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 }} *{{Harvard reference|title=Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination|first=Mehdi Amin|last=Razavi|year=1997|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=0700704124}} == See also == *[[Islamic Golden Age]] **[[Muslim Agricultural Revolution]] *[[Islamic science]] **[[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam]] **[[Islamic astronomy]] **[[Islamic geography]] **[[Islamic mathematics]] **[[Islamic medicine]] **[[Islamic physics]] **[[Islamic psychological thought]] **[[Islamic sociology]] *[[Inventions in the Islamic world]] *[[Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe]] **[[Latin translations of the 12th century]] *[[Science and technology in Iran]] *[[Timeline of historic inventions]] {{Islamic studies}} == External links == * [http://www.muslimheritage.com/timeline/chronology.cfm Chronology of major events in Muslim Heritage] * [http://www.muslimheritage.com Muslim Heritage] * [http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=309 1001 Inventions] [[Category:History of Islamic science]] [[Category:Timeline of Muslim history]] [[Category:Science timelines|Muslim scientists and engineers]] [[Category:Technology timelines|Muslim scientists and engineers]] [[Category:History of science and discoveries by region|Muslim]]