Topographic map 70713 224949758 2008-07-11T03:53:01Z VoABot II 1879647 BOT - Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.184.179.21|68.184.179.21]] {[[User:VoABot_II/Help#Revert_reasons|possible vandalism]]} ([[User:VoABot_II/Mistakes|mistake?]]) to last version by "85.110.134.80". {{FixHTML|beg}} [[Image:Topographic map example.png|thumb|right|350px|Example of a topographic map with contour lines]] {{FixHTML|mid}} [[Image:Topographic-Relief-perspective-sample.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Part of the same map in a perspective shaded relief view illustrates how the contour lines of the original follow the terrain]] {{FixHTML|mid}} {{TOCright}} {{FixHTML|end}} A '''topographic map''' is a type of [[map]] characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative representation of [[terrain|relief]], usually using [[contour lines]] in modern mapping, but historically using a [[cartographic relief depiction|variety of methods]]. Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features,<ref>"A topographic map is a detailed and accurate graphic representation of cultural and natural features on the ground." [http://maps.nrcan.gc.ca/topo101/faq_e.php Centre for Topopgraphic Information - Topographic Maps: Frequently Asked Questions]</ref> <ref>"Traditionally, the main division of maps is into topographic and thematic maps. Topographic maps supply a general image of the earth's surface: roads, rivers, buildings, often the nature of the vegetation, the relief and the names of the various mapped objects." M.-J. Kraak and F. Ormeling, ''Cartography: Visualization of Spatial Data'', Longman, 1996, ISBN 0-582-25953-3, p. 44.</ref> The Centre for Topographic Information provides this definition of a topographic map: {{dablink|"A topographic map is a detailed and accurate graphic representation of cultural and natural features on the ground."}}However, in the vernacular and day to day world, the representation of relief (contours) is popularly held to define the genre, such that even small-scale maps showing relief are commonly (and erroneously, in the technical sense) called "topographic." According to Cartographer's Kraak and Ormeling, {{dablink|"Traditionally, the main division of maps is into topographic and thematic maps. Topographic maps supply a general image of the earth's surface: roads, rivers, buildings, often the nature of the vegetation, the relief and the names of the various mapped objects."}} The study or discipline of [[topography]], while interested in relief, is actually a much broader field of study which takes into account all [[Landform feature|natural]] and man made features of terrain. ==History== Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys. Performed at large scales, these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of [[Topography as the study of place|topography]], showing a variety of landmark and landscape information.<ref>The range of information is indicated by the title of a map produced in 1766: ''A Topographical Map of Hartfordshire from an Actual Survey in which is Express'd all the Roads, Lanes, Churches, Noblemen and Gentlemen's Seats, and every Thing remarkable in the County'', by Andrew Dury and John Andrews, reprinted by Hertfordshire Publications in 1980. This showed the relief by using [[hachures]].</ref> This is in contrast to older [[cadastral]] surveys, which primarily show property and governmental boundaries. The first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the ''Carte géométrique de la France'', was completed in 1789.<ref>[http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmillgen.html Library of Congress: Geography and Maps, General Collections]</ref> Topographic surveys were prepared by the military to assist in planning for battle and for defensive emplacements (thus the name and history of the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Ordnance Survey]]).<ref>Peter Barber, ''The Map Book'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005, ISBN 0-297-84372-9, pp. 232, 250.</ref> As such, elevation information was of vital importance. As they evolved, topographic map series became a basic national resource in modern nations in planning infrastructure and resource exploitation. In the United States, the national map-making function which had been shared by both the [[Army Corps of Engineers]] and the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]] migrated to the newly created [[United States Geological Survey]] in 1879, where it has remained since.<ref> {{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1050/organize.htm |title=Organizing the U.S. Geological Survey|accessdate=2007-06-19 | date=[[2000-04-10]] | work=The United States Geological Survey: 1879-1989| publisher=U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior}}</ref> <ref> {{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1050/surveys.htm |title=The Four Great Surveys of the West|accessdate=2007-06-19 | date=[[2000-04-10]] | work=The United States Geological Survey: 1879-1989| publisher=U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior}} </ref> ==Uses== Topographic maps have multiple uses in the present day: any type of geographic [[planning]] or large-scale [[architecture]]; [[earth sciences]] and many other [[geography|geographic]] disciplines; [[mining]] and other earth-based endeavours; and recreational uses such as [[hiking]] or, in particular, [[orienteering]], which uses highly detailed maps in its standard requirements. ==Map conventions== The various features shown on the map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. These signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.<ref>Ordnance Survey, [http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/education/pdf/25knewEGMlegend.pdf Explorer Map Symbols]; Swisstopo, [http://www.swisstopo.admin.ch/internet/swisstopo/en/home/products/maps/leisure/hiking.parsysrelated1.96279.downloadList.81398.DownloadFile.tmp/symbolsen.pdf Conventional Signs]; United States Geological Survey, [http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/symbols/ Topographic Map Symbols].</ref> Topographic maps are also commonly called '''''contour maps''''' or '''''topo maps'''''. In the United States, where the primary national series is organized by a strict 7.5 minute grid, they are often called '''''topo quads''''' or quadrangles. Topographic maps conventionally show [[topography]], or land contours, by means of [[contour line]]s. Contour lines are [[curve]]s that connect contiguous points of the same [[altitude]] ([[isohypse]]). In other words, every point on the marked line of 100&nbsp;m [[elevation]] is 100&nbsp;m above mean sea level. There are several rules to note when viewing topographic maps: *'''The rule of V's''': sharp-pointed vees usually are in stream valleys, with the drainage channel passing through the point of the vee, with the vee pointing upstream. This is a consequence of [[erosion]]. *'''The rule of O's''': closed loops are normally uphill on the inside and downhill on the outside, and the innermost loop is the highest area. If a loop instead represents a depression, some maps note this by short lines radiating from the inside of the loop, called "hachures". *'''Spacing of contours''': close contours indicate a steep slope; distant contours a shallow slope. Two or more contour lines merging indicates a cliff. Of course, to determine differences in elevation between two points, the contour interval, or distance in altitude between two adjacent contour lines, must be known, and this is given at the bottom of the map. In most cases, contour intervals are consistent throughout a map. Sometimes dashed contour lines are present; these represent half the noted contour interval. These maps usually show not only the contours, but also any significant [[stream]]s or other bodies of [[water]], [[forest]] cover, built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest. Today, topographic maps are prepared using [[photogrammetry|photogrammetric]] interpretation of [[aerial photography]]. Older topographic maps were prepared using traditional [[surveying]] instruments. ==Publishers of national topographic map series== Most countries have some sort of national mapping program. Those listed below are only a small selection. Several commercial vendors supply international topographic map sets. ===Canada=== The '''Centre for Topographic Information''' produces topographic maps of [[Canada]] at scales of 1:50,000 and 1:250,000. They are known as the [[National Topographic System]] (NTS).<ref>[http://maps.nrcan.gc.ca/index_e.php Centre for Topographic Information website].</ref> A government proposal to discontinue publishing of all hardcopy or paper topographic maps in favor of digital-only mapping data was shelved in 2006 after intense public opposition.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/canada/ottawa/story/2006/10/12/map-office.html Canada shreds plan to scrap paper maps<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ===Denmark=== The '''[[National Survey and Cadastre of Denmark]]''' is responsible for producing topographic and nautical geodata of [[Denmark]], [[Greenland]] and the [[Faroe Islands]].<ref>[http://www.kms.dk/ Kort & Matrikelstyrelsens website] (in Danish).</ref> ===Finland=== The '''National Land Survey of Finland''' produces topographic maps of [[Finland]] at 1:20,000 and 1:50,000.<ref>[http://www.maanmittauslaitos.fi/en/default.asp?id=287 National Land Survey of Finland].</ref> ===France=== The '''[[Institut Géographique National (France)|Institut Géographique National]]''' (or '''IGN''') produces topographic maps of [[France]] at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000.<ref>[http://www.ign.fr/ Institut Géographique National website] (in French, English and German).</ref> ===India=== The '''[[Survey of India]]''' is responsible for all topographic control, surveys and mapping of [[India]].<ref>[http://dst.gov.in/scientific_services/survey.htm Department of Scientific and Technology: Survey of India]</ref> ===Japan=== The [[Geographical Survey Institute of Japan]] is responsible for base mapping of Japan. Standard map scales are 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:200,000 and 1:500,000 <ref>[http://www.omnimap.com/catalog/int/japan2.htm#p5 Omni Resources catalog page]</ref> ===New Zealand=== '''Land Information New Zealand''' is the government agency responsible for providing up-to-date topographic mapping. LINZ topographic maps cover all of New Zealand, offshore islands, some Pacific Islands and the Ross Sea Region.<ref>[http://www.linz.govt.nz/core/topography/index.html Land Information New Zealand].</ref> Vector data[http://www.linz.govt.nz/core/topography/topographicdata/topodtabase/index.html] from the New Zealand Topographic Database (NZTopo) is also available. NZTopo''Online''[http://www.nztopoonline.linz.govt.nz/] is a publicly accessible, free online service. ===Switzerland=== '''[[Swisstopo]]''' (the Federal Office of Topography) produces topographic maps of [[Switzerland]] at seven different scales. ===United Kingdom=== The '''[[Ordnance Survey]]''' (or '''OS''') produces topographic map series covering the [[United Kingdom]] at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales. The 1:25,000 scale is known as the "Explorer" series, and include an "OL" (Outdoor Leisure) sub-series for areas of special interest to hikers and walkers. It was formerly known as the "Pathfinder" series. The 1:50,000 scale is known as the "Landranger" and carries a distinctive pink cover. More detailed mapping as fine as 1:10000 cover some parts of the country.<ref>[http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/products/10kraster/ 1:10 000 Scale Raster: mid-scale high-resolution detailed mapping<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The 1:25K and 1:50K metric scales are easily coordinated with standard [[romer]] scales on currently available compasses and plotting tools. Ordnance survey maintains a mapping database from which they can print specialist maps at virtually any scale.<ref>[http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/ Ordnance Survey website]. The [[MasterMap]] [http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/products/osmastermap/layers/topography Topography Layer] contains information about buildings, roads, woodland, administrative boundaries, etc, with just a few spot heights along the roads. For contours or a digital terrain model, a separate product called [http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/products/landformprofile Land-Form Profile] is required.</ref> ===United States=== The '''[[United States Geological Survey]]''' (or '''USGS'''), a civilian Federal agency, produces several national series of topographic maps which vary in [[scale (map)|scale]] and extent, with some wide gaps in coverage, notably the complete absence of 1:50,000 scale topographic maps or their equivalent. The largest (both in terms of scale and quantity) and best-known topographic series is the '''7.5-minute, 1:24,000''' scale, [[Quadrilateral|quadrangle]], a non-metric scale virtually unique to the United States. Each of these maps covers an area bounded by two lines of [[latitude]] and two lines of [[longitude]] spaced '''7.5 [[minute of arc|minutes]]''' apart. Nearly 57,000 individual maps in this series cover the [[Continental United States|48 contiguous states]], [[Hawaii]], [[United States Territories|U. S. territories]], and areas of [[Alaska]] near Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Prudhoe Bay. The area covered by each map varies with the latitude of its represented location due to convergence of the meridians. At lower latitudes, near 30° north, a 7.5-minute quadrangle contains an area of about {{convert|64|sqmi|km2|0}}. At 49° north latitude, {{convert|49|sqmi|km2|0}} are contained within a quadrangle of that size. As a unique non-metric map scale, the 1:24,000 scale naturally requires a separate and specialized [[romer]] scale for plotting map positions.<ref name="USGS">[http://topomaps.usgs.gov/ USGS Topographic Maps] and {{cite web | url=http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/usgsmaps/usgsmaps.html | title=USGS Maps Booklet }}</ref> In recent years, budget constraints have forced the USGS to rely on donations of time by civilian volunteers in an attempt to update its 7.5-minute topographic map series, and USGS stated outright in 2000 that the program was to be phased out in favor of their [[National Map]]<ref>"[http://thor-f5.er.usgs.gov/topomaps/revision_overview.pdf The U.S. Geological Survey's Revision Program for 7.5-Minute Topographic Maps]", Larry Moore (USGS), December, 2000.</ref> (not to be confused with the [[National Atlas of the United States]] produced by the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]], one of whose bureaus is USGS). An older series of maps, the '''15-minute''' series, was once used to map the contiguous 48 states at a scale of 1:62,500, but was discontinued some time ago for maps covering the continental U.S. Each map was bounded by two [[latitude|parallels]] and two [[longitude|meridians]] spaced 15 minutes apart - the same area covered by four maps in the 7.5-minute series. The 15-minute series, at a scale of '''1:63,360''' (one inch representing one mile), remains the primary topographic quadrangle for the state of Alaska (and only for that particular state). Nearly 3,000 maps cover 97% of the state.<ref name="USGS" /> The U.S.A. remains virtually the only developed country in the world without a standardized civilian topographic map series in the standard 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 metric scales, making coordination difficult in border regions (the U.S. military does issue 1:50,000 scale topo maps of the continental U.S., though only for use by members of its defense forces). The next-smallest topographic series, in terms of scale, is the '''1:100,000''' series. These maps are bounded by two lines of longitude and two lines of latitude. However, in this series, the lines of latitude are spaced 30 minutes apart and the lines of longitude are spaced 60 minutes, which is the source of another name for these maps; the '''30 x 60-minute''' quadrangle series. Each of these quadrangles covers the area contained within 32 maps in the 7.5-minute series. The 1:100,000 scale series is unusual in that it employs the [[Metric system]] primarily. One centimeter on the map represents one kilometer of distance on the ground. [[contour line|Contour intervals]], spot elevations, and horizontal distances are also specified in meters. The final regular quadrangle series produced by the USGS is the '''1:250,000''' scale topographic series. Each of these quadrangles in the conterminous United States measures 1 degree of latitude by 2 degrees of longitude. This series was produced by the U.S. Army Map Service in the 1950s, prior to the maps in the larger-scale series, and consists of 489 sheets, each covering an area ranging from {{convert|8218|sqmi|km2|0}} at 30° north to {{convert|6222|sqmi|km2|0}} at 49° north.<ref name="USGS" /> Hawaii is mapped at this scale in quadrangles measuring 1° by 1°. USGS topographic quadrangle maps are marked with grid lines and tics around the map collar which make it possible to identify locations on the map by several methods, including the [[Geographic coordinate system|graticule]] measurements of [[longitude]] and [[latitude]], the [[Survey township|township]] and [[section (land)|section]] method within the [[Public Land Survey System]], and [[Cartesian coordinate system|cartesian coordinates]] in both the [[State Plane Coordinate System]] and the [[Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system]]. Other specialty maps have been produced by the USGS at a variety of scales. These include [[county (United States)|county]] maps, maps of special interest areas, such as the [[United States National Park|national parks]], and areas of scientific interest. A number of Internet sites have made these maps available on the web for affordable commercial and professional use. Because works of the U.S. Government are in the [[public domain]], it is also possible to find many of these maps for free at various locations on the Internet. [[Georeference]]d map images are available from the USGS as [[digital raster graphic]]s (DRGs), in addition to digital data sets based on USGS maps (notably [[Digital Line Graph]]s (DLGs) and [[digital elevation model]]s (DEMs)). == Global 1-kilometer map == This map is derived from [[GTOPO30]] data that describes the elevation of [[Earth]]'s terrain at intervals of 30 arcseconds (approximately 1 km). It uses color and shading instead of contour lines to indicate elevation. {| width=611 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=1 |- | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60W150.png|50px|N60-90, W150-180]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60W120.png|50px|N60-90, W120-150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60W90.png|50px|N60-90, W90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60W60.png|50px|N60-90, W60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60W30.png|50px|N60-90, W30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60W0.png|50px|N60-90, W0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60E0.png|50px|N60-90, E0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60E30.png|50px|N60-90, E30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60E60.png|50px|N60-90, E60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60E90.png|50px|N60-90, E90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60E120.png|50px|N60-90, E120-150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N60E150.png|50px|N60-90, E150-180]] |- | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30W150.png|50px|N30-60, W150-180]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30W120.png|50px|N30-60, W120-150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30W90.png|50px|N30-60, W90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30W60.png|50px|N30-60, W60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30W30.png|50px|N30-60, W30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30W0.png|50px|N30-60, W0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30E0.png|50px|N30-60, E0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30E30.png|50px|N30-60, E30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30E60.png|50px|N30-60, E60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30E90.png|50px|N30-60, E90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30E120.png|50px|N30-60, E120-150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N30E150.png|50px|N30-60, E150-180]] |- | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0W150.png|50px|N0-30, W150-180]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0W120.png|50px|N0-30, W120-150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0W90.png|50px|N0-30, W90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0W60.png|50px|N0-30, W60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0W30.png|50px|N0-30, W30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0W0.png|50px|N0-60, W0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0E0.png|50px|N0-60, E0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0E30.png|50px|N0-60, E30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0E60.png|50px|N0-60, E60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0E90.png|50px|N0-60, E90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0E120.png|50px|N0-60, E120-150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg N0E150.png|50px|N0-60, E150-180]] |- | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0W150.png|50px|S0-30, W150-180]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0W120.png|50px|S0-30, W120-150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0W90.png|50px|S0-30, W90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0W60.png|50px|S0-30, W60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0W30.png|50px|S0-30, W30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0W0.png|50px|S0-30, W0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0E0.png|50px|S0-30, E0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0E30.png|50px|S0-30, E30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0E60.png|50px|S0-30, E60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0E90.png|50px|S0-30, E90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0E120.png|50px|S0-30, E120-150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S0E150.png|50px|S0-30, E150-180]] |- | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30W150.png|50px|S30-60, W150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30W120.png|50px|S30-60, W120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30W90.png|50px|S30-60, W90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30W60.png|50px|S30-60, W60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30W30.png|50px|S30-60, W30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30W0.png|50px|S30-60, W0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30E0.png|50px|S30-60, E0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30E30.png|50px|S30-60, E30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30E60.png|50px|S30-60, E60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30E90.png|50px|S30-60, E90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30E120.png|50px|S30-60, E120-150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S30E150.png|50px|S30-60, E150-180]] |- | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60W150.png|50px|S60-90, W150-180]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60W120.png|50px|S60-90, W120-150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60W90.png|50px|S60-90, W90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60W60.png|50px|S60-90, W60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60W30.png|50px|S60-90, W30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60W0.png|50px|S60-90, W0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60E0.png|50px|S60-90, E0-30]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60E30.png|50px|S60-90, E30-60]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60E60.png|50px|S60-90, E60-90]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60E90.png|50px|S60-90, E90-120]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60E120.png|50px|S60-90, E120-150]] | [[Image:Topographic30deg S60E150.png|50px|S60-90, E150-180]] |- | colspan=12| Each tile is available at a resolution of 1800 × 1800 pixels (approximate file size 1 MB, 60 pixels = 1 degree, 1 pixel = 1 minute) |} ==See also== {{portalpar|Atlas|BlankMap-World.png|65}} *[[Bathymetric chart]] *[[Cartographic relief depiction]] *[[Digital raster graphic]] *[[Digital elevation model]] *[[Geography]] *[[Geologic map]] *[[Hypsometric tints]] *[[Raised-relief map]] ==Notes and references== {{Reflist}} == External links == * [http://www.wildernessmanuals.com/manual_5/index.html Topographic Symbols] - U.S. military guide to topographic maps (use "Index" on the right hand side to navigate around the website) * [http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Topographic-Map.html How a Topographic Map is Manufactured, History, and Other Information] * [http://www.topomaps.eu Digital topographic map library] * [http://boreal.net/BorealLinks/navigation-links.shtml#romer 1:50,000 Scale Romer for Download] * [http://www.topo.com National Geographic's TOPO! Explorer Website] Seamless USGS topographic maps for the US. * [http://ctxguide.com/forums/viewtopic.php?t=260 How to Read a topo map] a simple lesson. [[Category:Maps]] [[Category:Topography]] [[ar:خريطة طبوغرافية]] [[ca:Mapa topogràfic]] [[de:Topografische Karte]] [[et:Topograafiline kaart]] [[es:Mapa topográfico]] [[fr:Carte topographique]] [[it:Carta topografica]] [[he:מפה טופוגרפית]] [[hu:Topográfiai térkép]] [[nl:Topografische kaart]] [[ja:地形図]] [[no:Topografisk kart]] [[nn:Topografisk kart]] [[pl:Mapa topograficzna]] [[pt:Carta topográfica]] [[ru:Топографическая карта]] [[sr:Топографска карта]] [[tr:Topografik harita]] [[uk:Топографічна карта]] [[zh:地形图]]