Tragedy
57993
222849388
2008-07-01T12:22:08Z
196.204.163.3
/* Etymology */
{{other uses}}
{{redirect|Tragedian}}
{{Literature}}
{{Performing arts}}
In a figurative sense a '''tragedy''' (from [[Classical Greek]] {{polytonic|τραγῳδία}}, "song for the goat", see below) is any event with a sad and unfortunate outcome, but the [[term]] also applies specifically in [[Western culture]] to a form of [[drama]] defined by [[Aristotle]] characterized by seriousness and [[dignity]] and involving a great [[person]] who experiences a reversal of [[fortune]] (''[[Peripeteia]]''). (Aristotle's [[definition]] can include a change of [[fortune]] from bad to good as in the ''[[Eumenides]]'', but he says that the change from good to bad as in ''[[Oedipus Rex]]'' is preferable because this effects [[pity]] and [[fear]] within the [[spectators]].) According to [[Aristotle]], "the [[structure]] of the best [[tragedy]] should be not simple but complex and one that represents incidents arousing [[fear]] and [[pity]]--for that is peculiar to this form of art."<ref>Aristotle. ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'', Trans. W.H. [[Fyfe]]. [[Cambridge]]: [[Harvard UP]], 1932. Section 1452b</ref> This [[reversal]] of fortune must be caused by the tragic hero's ''[[hamartia]]'', which is often mistranslated as a [[character]] [[flaw]], but is more correctly translated as a mistake (since the [[original]] [[Greek language|Greek]] [[etymology]] traces back to ''hamartanein'', a sporting term that refers to an [[archer]] or [[spear]]-thrower missing his target).<ref>Rorty, Amelie Oksenberg. ''[[Literary criticism|Essays on Aristotle’s Poetics]]''. Princeton: [[Princeton UP]], 1992. Page 178</ref> According to [[Aristotle]], "The change to bad [[fortune]] which he undergoes is not due to any [[moral]] [[defect]] or [[flaw]], but a mistake of some kind."<ref>''Poetics'', Aristotle</ref> It is also a misconception that this reversal can be brought about by a higher power (e.g. the [[law]], the [[god]]s, [[destiny|fate]], or [[society]]), but if a character’s downfall is brought about by an [[external]] cause, [[Aristotle]] describes this as a [[misadventure]] and not a tragedy.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics''. Section 1135b</ref>
==Etymology==
The word's origin is [[Greek language|Greek]] ''tragōidiā'' ([[Classical Greek]] {{Polytonic|τραγῳδία}}) [[sandhi|contracted]] from ''trag(o)-aoidiā'' = "goat song" from ''tragos'' = "goat" and ''aeidein'' = "to sing". This dates back to a time when religion and theatre were more or less intertwined in early ritual events. Goats would be traditionally sacrificed, as an early precursor to the Greek Chorus would sing a song of sacrifice-- a "Goat Song". This may also refer to the horse or goat costumes worn by actors who played the [[satyr]]s in early dramatizations of mythological stories, or a goat being presented as a [[prize]] at a song contest and in both cases the reference would have been the respect for Dionysus.
==Origin==
{{See also|Theatre of ancient Greece}}
The origins of tragedy in the West are obscure, but the art form certainly developed out of the poetic and religious traditions of [[ancient Greece]]. Its roots may be traced more specifically to the [[dithyramb|dithyrambs]], the chants and dances honoring the [[Greek mythology|Greek god]] [[Dionysus]], later known to the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] as [[Bacchus]]. These drunken ecstatic performances were said to have been created by the [[satyrs]], half-goat beings who surrounded Dionysus in his revelry.
[[Phrynichus]], son of [[Polyphradmon]] and pupil of [[Thespis]], was one of the earliest of the [[Greece|Greek]] tragedians. "The honour of introducing Tragedy in its later acceptation was reserved for a scholar of Thespis in 511 BC, Polyphradmon's son, Phrynichus; he dropped the light and ludicrous cast of the original drama and dismissing Bacchus and the Satyrs formed his plays from the more grave and elevated events recorded in mythology and history of his country."<ref>P.W. Buckham, ''Theatre of the Greeks,'' p. 108</ref>, and some of the ancients regarded him as the real founder of tragedy. He gained his first poetical victory in 511 BC. However, P.W. Buckham asserts (quoting [[August Wilhelm von Schlegel]]) that Aeschylus was the inventor of tragedy. "Aeschylus is to be considered as the creator of Tragedy: in full panoply she sprung from his head, like Pallas from the head of Jupiter. He clad her with dignity, and gave her an appropriate stage; he was the inventor of scenic pomp, and not only instructed the chorus in singing and dancing, but appeared himself as an actor. He was the first that expanded the dialogue, and set limits to the lyrical part of tragedy, which, however, still occupies too much space in his pieces." <ref>P.W. Buckham, ibid, p. 121, quoting from ''Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature'' by [[August Wilhelm von Schlegel]][http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7148]</ref>
Later in ancient Greece, the word "tragedy" meant any serious (not [[comedy]]) drama, not merely those with a sad ending.
There is some dissent to the dithyrambic origins of tragedy mostly based in the differences between the shapes of their choruses and styles of dancing. A common descent from pre-[[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]] fertility and burial rites has been suggested.
Tragedy depicts the downfall of a noble hero or heroine, usually through some combination of [[hubris]], fate, and the will of the gods. The tragic hero's powerful wish to achieve some goal inevitably encounters limits, usually those of human frailty (flaws in reason, hubris, society), the gods (through oracles, prophets, fate), or nature. Aristotle says that the tragic hero should have a flaw and/or make some mistake ([[hamartia]]). The hero need not die at the end, but he or she must undergo a change in fortune. In addition, the tragic hero may achieve some revelation or recognition ([[anagnorisis]]--"knowing again" or "knowing back" or "knowing throughout") about human fate, destiny, and the will of the gods. Aristotle terms this sort of recognition "a change from ignorance to awareness of a bond of love or hate."
Aristotle is very clear in his [[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]] that tragedy proceeded from the authors of the Dithyramb.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'', IV, [[1449a]], "To consider whether tragedy is fully developed by now in all its various species or not, and to criticize it both in itself and in relation to the stage, that is another question. At any rate it originated in improvisation--both tragedy itself and comedy. The one tragedy came from the prelude to the dithyramb and the other [[comedy]] from the prelude to the phallic songs which still survive as institutions in many cities. Tragedy then gradually evolved as men developed each element that came to light and after going through many changes, it stopped when it had found its own natural form."[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Aristot.+Poet.+1449a]</ref>
P.W. Buckham writes that the tragedy of the ancients resembled modern operatic performance,<ref name="buckham3">P.W. Buckham, ibid, p. 243</ref> and that the lighter sort of Iambic became Comic poets, the graver became Tragic instead of Heroic.<ref name="buckham3" />
[[Image:Dionysos mask Louvre Myr347.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Mask of [[Dionysus]]. Greek, Myrina, second century BCE]]
Greek literature boasts three great writers of tragedy whose works are extant: [[Sophocles]], [[Euripides]] and [[Aeschylus]]. The largest festival for Greek tragedy was the [[Dionysia]] held for five days in March, for which competition prominent playwrights usually submitted three tragedies and one [[satyr play]] each. The [[Roman theatre (structure)|Roman theater]] does not appear to have followed the same practice. [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] adapted Greek stories, such as ''[[Phaedra (Seneca)|Phaedra]]'', into [[Latin]] plays; however, [[Senecan tragedy]] has long been regarded as [[closet drama]], meant to be read rather than played.
A favorite theatrical device of many ancient Greek tragedians was the ''ekkyklêma,'' a cart hidden behind the scenery which could be rolled out to display the aftermath of some event which had happened out of sight of the audience. This event was frequently a brutal murder of some sort, an act of violence which could not be effectively portrayed visually, but an action of which the other characters must see the effects in order for it to have meaning and emotional resonance. Another reason that the violence happened off stage was that the theatre was considered a holy place, so to kill someone on stage is to kill them in the real world. A prime example of the use of the ''ekkyklêma'' is after the murder of [[Agamemnon (play)|Agamemnon]] in the first play of Aeschylus' ''[[The Oresteia|Oresteia]]'', when the king's butchered body is wheeled out in a grand display for all to see. Variations on the ''ekkyklêma'' are used in tragedies and other forms to this day, as writers still find it a useful and often powerful device for showing the consequences of extreme human actions. Another such device was a crane, the [[mechane]], which served to hoist a god or goddess on stage when they were supposed to arrive flying. This device gave origin to the phrase "[[deus ex machina]]" ("god out of a machine"), that is, the surprise intervention of an unforeseen external factor that changes the outcome of an event. Greek tragedies also sometimes included a chorus composed of singers to advance and fill in detail of the plot.
[[Nietzsche]] dedicated his famous early book, ''[[The Birth of Tragedy]]'', to a discussion of the origins of Greek tragedy. He traced the evolution of tragedy from early rituals, through the joining of Apollonian and Dionysian forces, until its early "death" in the hands of [[Socrates]]. In opposition to Schopenhauer, Nietzsche viewed tragedy as the art form of sensual acceptance of the terrors of reality and rejoicing in these terrors in love of fate ([[amor fati]]), and therefore as the antithesis to the [[Socratic Method]], or the belief in the power of reason to unveil any and all of the mysteries of existence. Ironically, Socrates was fond of quoting from tragedies.
==Performance==
Greek tragedies were performed in late March/early April at an annual state religious festival in honor of Dionysus. The presentation took the form of a contest between three playwrights, who presented their works on three successive days. Each playwright would prepare a trilogy of tragedies, plus an unrelated concluding comic piece called a satyr play. Often, the three plays featured linked stories, but later writers like Euripides may have presented three unrelated plays. Only one complete trilogy has survived, the Oresteia of Aeschylus. The Greek theatre was in the open air, on the side of a hill, and performances of a trilogy and satyr play probably lasted most of the day. Performances were apparently open to all citizens, including women, but evidence is scanty. The theatre of Dionysus at Athens probably held around 12,000 people (Ley 33-34).
The presentation of the plays probably resembled modern opera more than what we think of as a "play." All of the choral parts were sung (to flute accompaniment) and some of the actors' answers to the chorus were sung as well. The play as a whole was composed in various verse meters. All actors were male and wore masks, which may have had some amplifying capabilities. A Greek chorus danced as well as sang. (The Greek word choros means "a dance in a ring.") No one knows exactly what sorts of steps the chorus performed as it sang. But choral songs in tragedy are often divided into three sections: strophe ("turning, circling"), antistrophe ("counter-turning, counter-circling") and epode ("after-song"). So perhaps the chorus would dance one way around the orchestra ("dancing-floor") while singing the strophe, turn another way during the antistrophe, and then stand still during the epode.
==Theories of tragedy==
The philosopher [[Aristotle]] theorized in his work [[Poetics (Aristotle)|''Poetics'']] that tragedy results in a [[catharsis]] (emotional cleansing) of healing for the audience through their experience of these emotions in response to the suffering of the characters in the drama. He considers it superior when a character passes from good fortune to bad rather than the reverse; at the time, the term "tragedy" was not yet fixed solely on stories with unhappy endings.
In ''Poetics'', Aristotle gave the following definition in [[ancient Greek]] of the word "tragedy" (τραγωδία):
Ἐστὶν οὖν τραγωδία μίμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας καὶ τελείας, μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ, χωρὶς ἑκάστῳ τῶν εἰδὼν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις, δρώντων καὶ οὐ δι'ἀπαγγελίας, δι' ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων παθημάτων κάθαρσιν.
which means ''Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is admirable, complete (composed of an introduction, a middle part and an ending), and possesses magnitude; in language made pleasurable, each of its species separated in different parts; performed by actors, not through narration; effecting through pity and fear the purification of such emotions.''
Common usage of ''tragedy'' refers to any story with a sad ending, whereas to be an [[Aristotelian]] tragedy the [[story]] must fit the set of requirements as laid out by ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. By this definition [[social drama]] cannot be tragic because the hero in it is a victim of circumstance and incidents which depend upon the society in which he lives and not upon the inner compulsions — psychological or religious — which determine his progress towards self-knowledge and death.<ref>[[Chiari]], [[J]]. ''Landmarks of Contemporary Drama''. [[London]]: [[Jenkins]], 1965. Page 41.</ref> Exactly what constitutes a "tragedy", however, is a frequently debated matter.
In [[History of India|ancient India]], the writer [[Bharata Muni]] in his work on dramatic theory ''[[Natya Shastra of Bharata|Natya Shastra]]'' recognized tragedy in the form of several ''[[Rasa (art)|rasas]]'' (emotional responses), such as pity, anger, disgust and terror.
[[G.W.F. Hegel]], the German philosopher most famous for his dialectical approach to epistemology and history, also applied such a methodology to his theory of tragedy. In his essay "Hegel's Theory of Tragedy," [[A.C. Bradley]] first introduced the English-speaking world to Hegel's theory,which Bradley called the "[[tragic collision]]", and contrasted against the Aristotelian notions of the "[[tragic hero]]" and his or her "hamartia" in subsequent analyses of the Aeschylus' Oresteia trilogy and of Sophocles' Antigone. (Bradley, 114-156). Hegel himself, however, in his seminal "[[The Phenomenology of Spirit]]" argues for a more complicated theory of tragedy, with two complementary branches which, though driven by a single dialectical principle, differentiate Greek tragedy from that which follows Shakespeare. His later lectures formulate such a theory of tragedy as a conflict of ethical forces, represented by characters, in ancient Greek tragedy, but Shakespearean tragedy the conflict is rendered as one of subject and object, of individual personality which must manifest self-destructive passions because only such passions are strong enough to defend the individual from a hostile and capricious external world:
"The heroes of ancient classical tragedy encounter situations in which, if they firmly decide in favor of the one ethical pathos that alone suits their finished character, they must necessarily come into conflict with the equally [gleichberechtigt] justified ethical power that confronts them. Modern characters, on the other hand , stand in a wealth of more accidental circumstances, within which one could act this way or that, so that the conflict which is, though occasioned by external preconditions, still essentially grounded in the character. The new individuals, in their passions, obey their own nature...simply because they are what they are. Greek heroes also act in accordance with individuality, but in ancient tragedy such individuality is necessarily... a self-contained ethical pathos...In modern tragedy, however, the character in its peculiarity decides in accordance with subjective desires...such that congruity of character with outward ethical aim no longer constitutes an essential basis of tragic beauty..." (Hegel, ed. Glockner, vol XIV pp567-8).
Hegel's comments on a particular play may better elucidate his theory: "Viewed externally, Hamlet's death may be seen to have been brought about accidentally ...but in Hamlet's soul, we understand that death has lurked from the beginning: the sandbank of finitude cannot suffice his sorrow and tenderness, such grief and nausea at all conditions of life...we feel he is a man whom inner disgust has almost consumed well before death comes upon him from outside."(Hegel, ed. Glockner,XIV,p572)
[[Nietzsche]] in [[Twilight of the Idols]], What I Owe to the Ancients, 5: had this to say: "The psychology of the orgiastic as an overflowing feeling of life and strength, where even pain still has the effect of a stimulus, gave me the key to the concept of tragic feeling, which had been misunderstood both by Aristotle and even more by modern pessimists. Tragedy is so far from being a proof of the pessimism (in Schopenhauer's sense) of the Greeks that it may, on the contrary, be considered a decisive rebuttal and counterexample. Saying Yes to life even in its strangest and most painful episodes, the will to life rejoicing in its own inexhaustible vitality even as it witnesses the destruction of its greatest heroes — that is what I called Dionysian, that is what I guessed to be the bridge to the psychology of the tragic poet. Not in order to be liberated from terror and pity, not in order to purge oneself of a dangerous affect by its vehement discharge — which is how Aristotle understood tragedy — but in order to celebrate oneself the eternal joy of becoming, beyond all terror and pity — that tragic joy included even joy in destruction"
==Renaissance and 17th century tragedy==
The classical Greek and Roman tragedy was largely forgotten in Western Europe from the Middle Ages to the beginning of 16th century, and public theater in this period was dominated by [[mystery play]]s, [[morality play]]s, [[farce]]s and [[miracle play]]s, etc. As early as 1503 however, original language versions of [[Sophocles]], [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], [[Euripides]], [[Aristophanes]], [[Terence]] and [[Plautus]] were all available in Europe and the next forty years would see humanists and poets both translating these classics and adapting them. In the 1540s, the continental university setting (and especially – from 1553 on – the Jesuit colleges) became host to a Neo-Latin theater (in Latin) written by professors. The influence of Seneca was particularly strong in humanist tragedy. His plays – with their ghosts, lyrical passages and rhetorical oratory – brought to many humanist tragedies a concentration on rhetoric and language over dramatic action.
Along with their work as translators and adaptors of plays, the humanists also investigated classical theories of dramatic structure, plot, and characterization. [[Horace]] was translated in the 1540s, but had been available throughout the Middle Ages. A complete version of [[Aristotle]]'s ''Poetics'' appeared later (first in 1570 in an Italian version), but his ideas had circulated (in an extremely truncated form) as early as the 13th century in Hermann the German's Latin translation of [[Averroes]]' Arabic gloss, and other translations of the ''Poetics'' had appeared in the first half of the 16th century; also of importance were the commentaries on Aristotle's poetics by [[Julius Caesar Scaliger]] which appeared in the 1560s. The 4th century grammarians Diomedes and [[Aelius Donatus]] were also a source of classical theory. The 16th century Italians played a central role in the publishing and interpretation of classical dramatic theory, and their works had a major effect on continental theater. [[Lodovico Castelvetro]]'s Aristotle-based ''Art of Poetry''Ŕ (1570) was one of the first enunciations of the "[[three unities]]". Italian theater (like the tragedy of [[Gian Giorgio Trissino]]) and debates on decorum (like those provoked by [[Sperone Speroni]]'s play ''Canace'' and [[Giovanni Battista Giraldi]]'s play ''[[Orbecche]]'') would also influence the continental tradition.
Humanist writers recommended that tragedy should be in five acts and have three main characters of noble rank; the play should begin in the middle of the action ([[in medias res]]), use noble language and not show scenes of horror on the stage. Some writers attempted to link the medieval tradition of morality plays and farces to classical theater, but others rejected this claim and elevated classical tragedy and comedy to a higher dignity. Of greater difficulty for the theorists was the incorporation of Aristotle's notion of "[[catharsis]]" or the purgation of emotions with Renaissance theater, which remained profoundly attached to both pleasing the audience and to the rhetorical aim of showing moral examples ([[exemplum]]).
The precepts of the "[[three unities]]" and theatrical decorum would eventually come to dominate French and Italian tragedy in the 17th century, while English Renaissance tragedy would follow a path far less behoving to classical theory and more open to dramatic action and the portrayal of tragic events on stage.
===English Renaissance Tragedy===
In the [[English language]], the most famous and most successful tragedies are those of [[William Shakespeare]] and his [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethan]] contemporaries. Shakespeare's tragedies include:
* ''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]''
* ''[[Coriolanus (play)|Coriolanus]]''
* ''[[Hamlet]]''
* ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]''
* ''[[King Lear]]''
* ''[[Macbeth]]''
* ''[[Othello]]''
* ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]''
* ''[[Timon of Athens]]''
* ''[[Titus Andronicus]]''
A contemporary of Shakespeare, [[Christopher Marlowe]], also wrote examples of tragedy in English, notably:
* ''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus]]''
* ''[[Tamburlaine (play)|Tamburlaine]]''
[[John Webster]] (1580?-1635?), also wrote famous plays of the genre:
* ''[[The Duchess of Malfi]]''
* ''[[The White Devil]]''
===French Tragedy in the 16th and 17th centuries===
In France, the most important source for tragic theater was [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] and the precepts of [[Horace]] and [[Aristotle]] (and modern commentaries by [[Julius Caesar Scaliger]] and [[Lodovico Castelvetro]]), although plots were taken from classical authors such as [[Plutarch]], [[Lives of the Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]], etc., from the Bible, from contemporary events and from short story collections (Italian, French and Spanish). The Greek tragic authors ([[Sophocles]], [[Euripides]]) would become increasingly important as models by the middle of the 17th century. Important models for both comedy, tragedy and tragicomedy of the century were also supplied by the Spanish playwrights [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca]], [[Tirso de Molina]] and [[Lope de Vega]], many of whose works were translated and adapted for the French stage.
After an initial period of emulation of highly rhetorical humanist tragedy in the late 16th century, the early years of the 17th century saw the creation of a baroque theater of action and tragedy (murders, rapes), before slowly adapting to the precepts of "Classicism" (the "three unities", decorum). French writers of tragedy from the late 16th century and early 17th century include: [[Robert Garnier]], [[Antoine de Montchrestien]], [[Alexandre Hardy]], [[Théophile de Viau]], [[François le Métel de Boisrobert]], [[Jean Mairet]], [[Tristan L'Hermite]], [[Jean Rotrou]].
For much of the 17th century, [[Pierre Corneille]], who made his mark on the world of tragedy with plays like ''Medée'' (1635) and ''Le Cid'' (1636), was the most successful writer of French tragedies. Corneille's tragedies were strangely un-tragic (his first version of "Le Cid" was even listed as a tragicomedy), for they had happy endings. In his theoretical works on theater, Corneille redefined both comedy and tragedy around the following suppositions:
* The stage -- in both comedy and tragedy -- should feature noble characters (this would eliminate many low-characters, typical of the farce, from Corneille's comedies). Noble characters should not be depicted as vile (reprehensible actions are generally due to non-noble characters in Corneille's plays).
* Tragedy deals with affairs of the state (wars, dynastic marriages); comedy deals with love. For a work to be tragic, it need not have a tragic ending.
* Although [[Aristotle]] says that [[catharsis]] (purgation of emotion) should be the goal of tragedy, this is only an ideal. In conformity with the moral codes of the period, plays should not show evil being rewarded or nobility being degraded.
Corneille continued to write plays through 1674 (mainly tragedies, but also something he called "heroic comedies") and many continued to be successes, although the "irregularities" of his theatrical methods were increasingly criticized (notably by [[François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac]]) and the success of Jean Racine from the late 1660s signaled the end of his preeminence.
[[Jean Racine]]'s tragedies -- inspired by Greek myths, [[Euripides]], [[Sophocles]] and [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] -- condensed their plot into a tight set of passionate and duty-bound conflicts between a small group of noble characters, and concentrated on these characters' double-binds and the geometry of their unfulfilled desires and hatreds. Racine's poetic skill was in the representation of [[pathos]] and amorous passion (like [[Phèdre]]'s love for her stepson) and his impact was such that emotional crisis would be the dominant mode of tragedy to the end of the century. Racine's two late plays ("Esther" and "Athalie") opened new doors to biblical subject matter and to the use of theater in the education of young women. Racine also faced criticism for his irregularities: when his play, ''[[Bérénice]]'', was criticised for not containing any deaths, Racine disputed the conventional view of tragedy.
For more on French tragedy of the 16th and 17th centuries, see [[French Renaissance literature]] and [[French literature of the 17th century]].
==Modern development==
In [[modernism|modernist literature]], the definition of tragedy has become less precise. The most fundamental change has been the rejection of Aristotle's dictum that true tragedy can only depict those with power and high status. [[Arthur Miller]]'s essay 'Tragedy and the Common Man' exemplifies the modern belief that tragedy may also depict ordinary people in domestic surroundings. British playwright [[Howard Barker]] has argued strenuously for the rebirth of tragedy in the contemporary theatre, most notably in his volume ''[[Arguments for a Theatre]]''. "You emerge from tragedy equipped against lies. After the musical, you're anybody's fool," he observes.<ref> Howard Barker. ''Arguments for a Theatre.''(London: John Calder, 1989), 13.</ref>
''[[A Doll's House]]'' (1879) by the [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[playwright]] [[Henrik Ibsen]], which depicts the breakdown of a middle-class marriage, is an example of a more contemporary tragedy. Like Ibsen's other dramatic works, it has been translated into English and has enjoyed great popularity on the English and [[United States|American]] stage.
Although the most important American playwrights - [[Eugene O'Neill]], [[Tennessee Williams]] and Arthur Miller - wrote tragedies, the rarity of tragedy in the American theater may be owing in part to a certain form of idealism, often associated with Americans, that man is captain of his fate, a notion exemplified in the plays of [[Clyde Fitch]] and [[George S. Kaufmann]]. Arthur Miller, however, was a successful writer of American tragic plays, among them ''[[The Crucible]]'', ''[[All My Sons]]'' and ''[[Death of a Salesman]]''.
Contemporary [[postmodern theater]] moves the ground for the execution of tragedy from the ''[[hamartia]]'' (the tragic mistake or error) of the individual [[tragic hero]] to the tragic hero's inability to have agency over his own life, without even the free will to make mistakes. The fate decreed from the gods of classical Greek tragedy is replaced by the will of institutions that shape the fate of the individual through policies and practices.
Tragedy often shows the lack of escape of the protagonist, whereby he or she cannot remove themself from the present environment.
==Notes==
<references />
==References==
* Aristotle, ''Poetics''.
* [[August Wilhelm von Schlegel]], ''Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature'', 1809. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7148]
* P.W. Buckham, ''Theatre of the Greeks'', 1827.
* J.A. Symonds, ''Studies of the Greek Poets'', 1873.
* Lewis Campbell, ''(A Guide to) Greek Tragedy (for English Readers)'', 1891.
* [[Hegel, G.W.F.]], ed. Hermann Glockner. "Vorlesungen uber die Asthetik." "Samlichte Werke," Vol 14. Stuttgart, Fromann, 1927.
* [[Bradley, A.C.]], "Oxford Lectures on Poetry." London, Macmillan, [1909], 2d ed., 1960.
* Xavier Riu, ''Dionysism and Comedy'', 1999. [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2000/2000-06-13.html]
* Justina Gregory (ed.), ''A Companion to Greek Tragedy'', 2005.
* Felski, Rita (ed.), ''Rethinking Tragedy'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008). Pp. viii, 368.
==See also==
*[[Tragicomedy]]
*[[Classicism]]
*[[Tragic flaw]]
*[[Peripeteia]]
*[[Hubris]]
*[[Shakespearean tragedy]]
==External links==
*[http://home.wxs.nl/~brouw724/CommunitasEn.html Communitas and classical Greek ritual theatre on www.mysticism.nl]
[[Category:Drama]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek theatre]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]
[[Category:Humanities]]
[[af:Tragedie]]
[[bs:Tragedija]]
[[bg:Трагедия]]
[[ca:Tragèdia]]
[[cs:Tragédie]]
[[da:Tragedie]]
[[de:Tragödie]]
[[et:Tragöödia]]
[[el:Τραγωδία]]
[[es:Tragedia]]
[[eo:Tragedio]]
[[eu:Tragedia]]
[[fa:تراژدی]]
[[fr:Tragédie]]
[[gl:Traxedia]]
[[hr:Tragedija]]
[[it:Tragedia]]
[[he:טרגדיה]]
[[ka:ტრაგედია]]
[[la:Tragoedia]]
[[lv:Traģēdija]]
[[hu:Tragédia]]
[[nl:Attische tragedie]]
[[ja:ギリシア悲劇]]
[[no:Tragedie]]
[[nn:Tragedie]]
[[pl:Tragedia]]
[[pt:Tragédia]]
[[ro:Tragedie]]
[[ru:Трагедия]]
[[simple:Tragedy]]
[[sk:Tragédia]]
[[sh:Tragedija]]
[[fi:Tragedia]]
[[sv:Tragedi]]
[[th:โศกนาฏกรรม]]
[[tr:Trajedi]]
[[uk:Трагедія]]
[[ur:المیہ]]
[[yi:טראגעדיע]]
[[zh:悲劇]]