Trajan
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{{Infobox Roman emperor
| title = [[Roman emperor|Emperor]] of the [[Roman Empire]]
| name = Trajan
| full name = Imperator Caesar Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus Augustus Germanicus Dacicus
| image = [[Image:Traianus Glyptothek Munich 336.jpg|240px]]
| caption = Marble bust of Trajan at the [[Glyptothek]], [[Munich]]
| reign = [[January 28]], [[98]]-<br>[[August 9]], [[117]]
| predecessor = [[Nerva]]
| successor = [[Hadrian]]
| spouse 1 = [[Pompeia Plotina]]
| spouse 1 2 =
| issue = [[Hadrian]] (adoptive)
| dynasty = [[Nervan-Antonian Dynasty|Nervan-Antonine]]
| father = [[Marcus Ulpius Traianus (senator)|Marcus Ulpius Traianus]]
| mother = Marcia
| date of birth = {{birth date|53|9|18|mf=y}}
| place of birth = [[Italica]], ancient [[Hispania]]
| date of death = {{death date and age|117|8|9|53|9|18|mf=y}}
| place of death = [[Selinus]]
| place of burial = Rome (ashes in foot<br>of [[Trajan's Column]], now lost.)
|}}
'''Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus''', commonly known as '''Trajan''' ([[September 18]] [[53]] – [[August 9]] [[117]]), was a [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] who reigned from 98 until his death in 117. Born '''Marcus Ulpius Traianus''' into a nonpatrician family<ref>Justian Bennett, Trajan: Optimus Princeps, 2nd Edition, Routledge 2000, 12.</ref> in the [[Hispania Baetica]] province (modern day [[Spain]]), Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor [[Domitian]], serving as a general in the [[Roman army]] along the [[Limes Germanicus|German frontier]], and successfully crushing the revolt of [[Lucius Antonius Saturninus|Antonius Saturninus]] in 89. On [[September 18]] [[96]], Domitian was succeeded by [[Nerva|Marcus Cocceius Nerva]], an old and childless senator who proved to be unpopular with the army. After a brief and tumultuous year in power, a revolt by members of the [[Praetorian Guard]] compelled him to adopt the more popular Trajan as his heir and successor. Nerva died on [[January 27]] [[98]], and was succeeded by his adopted son without incident.
As a civilian administrator, Trajan is best known for his extensive public building program, which reshaped the city of [[Rome]] and left multiple enduring landmarks such as [[Trajan's Forum]], [[Trajan's Market]] and [[Trajan's Column]]. It was as a military commander however that Trajan celebrated his greatest [[Roman triumph|triumphs]]. In 101, he launched a punitive expedition into the kingdom of [[Dacia]] against king [[Decebalus]], defeating the Dacian army near [[Second Battle of Tapae|Tapae]] in 102, and finally conquering Dacia completely in 106. In 107, Trajan pushed further east and conquered [[Nabatea]], gaining the short-lived province of [[Arabia Petraea]]. After a period of relative peace within the Empire, he launched his final campaign in 113 against [[Parthia]], advancing as far as the city of [[Susa]] in 116, and expanding the Roman Empire to its greatest extent. During this campaign Trajan was struck by illness, and late in 117, while sailing back to Rome, he died of [[stroke]] on [[August 9]], in the city of [[Selinus]]. He was [[apotheosis|deified]] by the Senate and his ashes were laid to rest in the [[Mausoleum of Augustus]]. He was succeeded by his first cousin once removed [[Hadrian|Publius Aelius Hadrianus]]—commonly known as Hadrian.
As an emperor, Trajan's reputation has endured throughout history. Every new emperor after him was honored by the Senate with the prayer ''felicior Augusto, melior Traiano'', meaning "may he be luckier than Augustus and better than Trajan". Contrary to many lauded rulers in history, this reputation survived nearly undiminished for over nineteen centuries. Among [[Middle Ages|medieval]] Christian theologians, Trajan was considered a virtuous pagan, while the 18th century historian [[Edward Gibbon]] popularized the notion of the [[Five Good Emperors]], of which Trajan was the second.
==Early life and rise to power==
{{Nervo-Trajanic Dynasty
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Trajan was the son of Marcia and [[Marcus Ulpius Traianus (senator)|Marcus Ulpius Traianus]], a prominent [[Roman Senate|senator]] and general from the famous [[Ulpius|''gens'' Ulpia]]. The family had settled in [[Hispania]] (the [[Iberian Peninsula]], comprising modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]), in the province of [[Hispania Baetica]] in what is now [[Andalusia]] (in modern Spain), a province that was thoroughly Romanized and called southern Hispania. Trajan himself was just one of many well-known Ulpii in a line that continued long after his own death. His elder sister was [[Ulpia Marciana]] and his niece was [[Salonina Matidia]].
He was born on [[September 18]] [[53]], in the city of [[Italica]]. As a young man, he rose through the ranks of the [[Roman army]], serving in some of the most contentious parts of the Empire's frontier. In 76–77, Trajan's father was [[Governor]] of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] (''[[Legatus]] pro praetore Syriae''), where Trajan himself remained as ''[[Tribunus]] legionis''. Trajan was nominated as [[Consul]] and brought [[Apollodorus of Damascus]] with him to [[Rome]] around 91. Along the [[Rhine River]], he took part in the Emperor [[Domitian]]'s wars while under Domitian's successor, [[Nerva]], who was unpopular with the army and needed to do something to gain their support. He accomplished this by naming Trajan as his adoptive son and successor in the summer of 97. According to the ''[[Augustan History]]'', it was the future Emperor [[Hadrian]] who brought word to Trajan of his adoption.<ref>Augustan History, ''Life of Hadrian'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html#2.5 2.5–6].</ref> When Nerva died on [[January 27]] [[98]], the highly respected Trajan succeeded without incident.
==Emperor==
===Relation with the Senate===
[[Image:SPQR COIN Roman.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[As (coin)|As]] issued by the Roman Senate, to the "Optimus Princeps" Trajan.]]
The new emperor was greeted by the people of Rome with great enthusiasm, which he justified by governing well and without the bloodiness that had marked Domitian's reign. He freed many people who had been unjustly imprisoned by Domitian and returned a great deal of private property that Domitian had confiscated; a process begun by Nerva before his death. His popularity was such that the [[Roman Senate]] eventually bestowed upon Trajan the [[honorific]] of ''optimus'', meaning "the best".
[[Dio Cassius]], sometimes known as Cassius Dio, reports that Trajan drank heavily and was a [[Pederasty|pederast]]. "I know, of course, that he was devoted to boys and to wine, but if he had ever committed or endured any base or wicked deed as the result of this, he would have incurred censure; as it was, however, he drank all the wine he wanted, yet remained sober, and in his relation with boys he harmed no one."<ref>Dio Cassius, Epitome of Book LXVIII; 6.4</ref> This sensibility was one that influenced even his governing, leading him to favour the king of Edessa out of appreciation for his handsome son: "On this occasion, however, [[Abgarus]], induced partly by the persuasions of his son Arbandes, who was handsome and in the pride of youth and therefore in favour with Trajan, and partly by his fear of the latter's presence, he met him on the road, made his apologies and obtained pardon, for he had a powerful intercessor in the boy."<ref>Dio Cassius, Epitome of Book LXVIII; 21.2–3</ref>
===Dacian Wars===
{{main|Trajan's Dacian Wars}}
[[Image:Trajan s column.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Trajan's Column]].]]
It was as a military commander that Trajan is best known to history, particularly for his conquests in the [[Near East]], but initially for the two wars against Dacia—his cowling conquest (101-102), then delayed re-conquest of the trans-Danube border kingdom of Dacia—an area that had troubled Roman thought for over a decade with the unfavorable (and to some, shameful) peace negotiated by [[Domitian]]'s retainers<ref name="Romanis REquote01"
>{{
cite web
|accessdate=2007-07-21
|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#t-inx
|title=De Imperatoribus Romanis
|work=An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors
|format=Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions
|quote= Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), A.D. 105. During Trajan's reign one of the most important Roman successes was the victory over the Dacians. The first important confrontation between the Romans and the Dacians took place in the year 87 and was initiated by Domitian. The [[praetorian prefect]] Cornelius Fuscus led five or six legions across the Danube on a bridge of ships and advanced towards [[Banat]] (in Romania). The Romans were surprised by a Dacian attack at Tapae (near the village of [[Bucova]], in Romania). [[Legion V Alaude]] was crushed and Cornelius Fuscus was killed. The victorious general was originally known as [[Diurpaneus]] (see Manea, p.109), but after this victory he was called [[Decebalus]] (the brave one).
}}
</ref> In the first war c. March–May 101, he launched a vicious attack into the kingdom of [[Dacia]] with four legions,<ref
name="Romanis REquote05">{{cite web
|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#t-inx
|title=De Imperatoribus Romanis
|work=An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors
|format=Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions, Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), A.D. 105
|accessdate=2007-11-08
|quote=Because the Dacians represented an obstacle against Roman expansion in the east, in the year 101 the emperor Trajan decided to begin a new campaign against them. The first war began on 25 March 101 and the Roman troops, consisting of four principal legions (X Gemina , XI Claudia , II Traiana Fortis, and XXX Ulpia Victrix), defeated the Dacians.
}}</ref> crossing to the northern bank of the [[Danube River]] on a stone bridge he had built, and defeating the Dacian army near or in a [[mountain pass]] called [[Tapae]] (see [[Second Battle of Tapae]]). Trajan's troops were mauled in the encounter, however and he put off further campaigning for the year to heal troops, reinforce, and regroup.<ref
name="Romanis REquote03"
>{{cite web
|title=Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), A.D. 105
|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#t-inx
|title=De Imperatoribus Romanis
|work=An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors
|format=Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions
|accessdate=2007-11-08
|quote=Although the Dacians had been defeated, the emperor postponed the final siege for the conquering of Sarmizegetuza because his armies needed reorganization. Trajan imposed on the Dacians very hard peace conditions: Decebalus had to renounce claim to some regions of his kingdom, including Banat, Tara Hategului, Oltenia, and Muntenia in the area south-west of Transylvania. He had also to surrender all the Roman deserters and all his war machines. At Rome, Trajan was received as a winner and he took the name of Dacicus, a title that appears on his coinage of this period. At the beginning of the year 103 A.D., there were minted coins with the inscription: IMP NERVA TRAIANVS AVG GER DACICVS.
}}</ref>
During the following winter king [[Decebalus]] launched a counter-attack across the [[Danube]] further downstream, but this was repulsed. Trajan's army advanced further into Dacian territory and forced King Decebalus to submit to him a year later, after Trajan took the Dacian capital/fortress of [[Sarmizegethusa]]. The Emperor Domitian had campaigned against [[Domitian's Dacian War|Dacia from 86 to 87]]<!--pending 12 Nov 2007--> without securing a decisive outcome, and Decebalus had brazenly flouted the terms of the peace (89 AD) which had been agreed on conclusion of this campaign.
Trajan now returned to Rome in triumph and was granted the title ''Dacicus Maximus''. The victory was celebrated by the [[Tropaeum Traiani]]. Decebalus though, after being left to his own devices, in 105 undertook an invasion against Roman territory by attempting to stir up some of the tribes north of the river against her.<ref
name="Romanis REquote04"
>{{cite web
|title=Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), A.D. 105
|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#t-inx
|title=De Imperatoribus Romanis
|work=An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors
|format=Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions
|accessdate=2007-11-08
|quote=However, during the years 103-105, Decebalus did not respect the peace conditions imposed by Trajan and the emperor then decided to destroy completely the Dacian kingdom and to conquer Sarmizegetuza.
}}</ref>
Trajan took to the field again and after building with the design of [[Apollodorus of Damascus]] his [[Trajan's bridge|massive bridge over the Danube]], he conquered Dacia completely in 106. Sarmizegethusa was destroyed, [[Decebalus]] committed [[suicide]], and his severed head was exhibited in Rome on the steps leading up to the [[Capitoline Hill|Capitol]]. Trajan built a new city, "Colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica Sarmizegetusa", on another site than the previous Dacian Capital, although bearing the same full name, Sarmizegetusa. He resettled Dacia with Romans and annexed it as a province of the Roman Empire. Trajan's Dacian campaigns benefited the Empire's finances through the acquisition of Dacia's gold mines. The victory is celebrated by [[Trajan's Column]].
===Expansion in the East===
At about the same time, one of Rome's client kings, the last king of [[Nabatea]], [[Rabbel II Soter]], died. This might have prompted Trajan's annexation of Nabatea, although the reasons for annexation are not known, nor is the exact manner of annexation. Some epigraphic evidence suggests a military operation, with forces from [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] and [[Aegyptus Province|Egypt]]. What is clear, however, is that by 107, Roman legions were stationed in the area around [[Petra]] and [[Bostra]], as is shown by a papyrus found in Egypt. The Empire gained what became the province of [[Arabia Petraea]] (modern southern [[Jordan]] and north west [[Saudi Arabia]]).
===Period of peace===<!-- This section is linked from [[Mérida, Spain]] -->
[[Image:ROM9211.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Coin showing the Forum of Trajan.]]
The next seven years, Trajan ruled as a civilian emperor, to the same acclaim as before. It was during this time that he corresponded with [[Pliny the Younger]] on the subject of how to deal with the [[Christianity|Christians]] of [[Pontus]], telling Pliny to leave them alone unless they were openly practising the religion. He built several new buildings, monuments and roads in [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia]] and his native [[Hispania]]. His magnificent complex in Rome raised to commemorate his victories in [[Dacia]] (and largely financed from that campaign's loot)—consisting of a [[Trajan's Forum|forum]], [[Trajan's Column]], and Trajan's Market still stands in Rome today. He was also [[Arches of Trajan|a prolific builder of triumphal arches]], many of which survive, and rebuilder of roads ([[Via Traiana]] and [[Via Traiana Nova]]).
One notable act of Trajan was the hosting of a three-month [[gladiator]]ial festival in the great [[Colosseum]] in Rome (the precise date of this festival is unknown). Combining chariot racing, beast fights and close-quarters gladiatorial bloodshed, this gory spectacle reputedly left 11,000 dead (mostly slaves and criminals, not to mention the thousands of ferocious beasts killed alongside them) and attracted a total of five million spectators over the course of the festival.
===Maximum extent of the Empire===
[[Image:RomanEmpire 117.svg|thumb|right|300px|The extent of the Roman Empire under Trajan (117)]]
In 113, he embarked on his last campaign, provoked by [[Parthia]]'s decision to put an unacceptable king on the throne of [[Armenia]], a kingdom over which the two great empires had shared [[hegemony]] since the time of [[Nero]] some fifty years earlier. Trajan marched first on Armenia, deposed the king and annexed it to the Roman Empire. Then he turned south into Parthia itself, taking the cities of [[Babylon]], [[Seleucia on the Tigris|Seleucia]] and finally the capital of [[Ctesiphon]] in 116. He continued southward to the [[Persian Gulf]], whence he declared [[Mesopotamia]] a new province of the Empire and lamented that he was too old to follow in the steps of [[Alexander the Great]] and reach the distant [[Kushan Empire|India]] itself.
But he did not stop there. Later in 116, he captured the great city of [[Susa]]. He deposed the Parthian king [[Osroes I of Parthia|Osroes I]] and put his own puppet ruler [[Parthamaspates]] on the throne. Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east.
[[Image:Traianus Glyptothek Munich 72.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Bust of Trajan, [[Glyptothek]], [[Munich]].]]
It was at this point that the fortunes of war—and his own health—betrayed Trajan. The fortress city of [[Hatra]], on the [[Tigris]] in his rear, continued to hold out against repeated Roman assaults. He was personally present at the [[siege]] and it is possible that he suffered a heat stroke while in the blazing heat. The [[Jew]]s inside the Roman Empire rose up in rebellion once more, as did the people of Mesopotamia. Trajan was forced to withdraw his army in order to put down the revolts. Trajan saw it as simply a temporary setback, but he was destined never to command an army in the field again, turning his Eastern armies over to the high ranking legate and governor of Judaea, Brinius Carnix Maximus.
Late in 116, Trajan grew ill and set out to sail back to Italy. His health declined throughout the spring and summer of 117, and by the time he had reached Selinus in [[Cilicia]] which was afterwards called Trajanopolis, he suddenly died from [[edema]] on August 9. Some say that he had adopted [[Hadrian]] as his successor, but others that it was his wife [[Pompeia Plotina]] who hired someone to impersonate him after he had died. [[Hadrian]], upon becoming ruler, returned Mesopotamia to Parthian rule. However, all the other territories conquered by Trajan were retained. Trajan's ashes were laid to rest underneath Trajan's column, the monument commemorating his success.
==Trajan's legacy==
[[Image:Traiani iustitia.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Eugène Delacroix]]. ''The Justice of Trajan'' (fragment).]]
Unlike many lauded rulers in history, Trajan's reputation has survived undiminished for nearly nineteen centuries. The [[Christianization]] of Rome resulted in further embellishment of his legend: it was commonly said in [[medieval]] times that [[Pope Gregory I]], through divine intercession, resurrected Trajan from the dead and baptized him into the Christian faith. An account of this features in the [[Golden Legend]]. Theologians, such as [[Thomas Aquinas]], discussed Trajan as an example of a virtuous pagan. In [[the Divine Comedy]], [[Dante]], following this legend, sees the spirit of Trajan in the Heaven of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] with other historical and mythological persons noted for their justice. He also features in ''[[Piers Plowman]]''. An episode, referred to as the [[justice of Trajan]] was reflected in several art works.
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References and further reading==
* Ancell, R. Manning. "Soldiers." ''[[Military Heritage]]. December 2001. Volume 3, No. 3: 12, 14, 16, 20 (Trajan, Emperor of Rome).
* Bennett, J. ''Trajan: Optimus Princeps'', 2nd Edition, Routledge 2001
* Bowersock, G.W. ''Roman Arabia'', Harvard University Press, 1983
* Fuller, J.F.C. ''A Military History of the Western World''. Three Volumes. New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1987 and 1988.
** v. 1. ''From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto''; ISBN 0-306-80304-6: 255, 266, 269, 270, 273 (Trajan, Roman Emperor).
* Isaac, B. ''The Limits of Empire'', The Roman Army in the East, Revised Edition, Oxford University Press, 1990
* Kennedy, D. ''The Roman Army in Jordan'', Revised Edition, Council for British Research in the Levant, 2004
* Lepper, F.A. ''Trajan's Parthian War''. London: Oxford University Press, 1948.
==External links==
{{Commons|Trajan}}
=== Primary sources ===
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' Book 68], English translation
*[http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm Aurelius Victor (attrib.), ''[[Epitome de Caesaribus]]'' Chapter 13], English translation
*[http://www.princeton.edu/~champlin/cla219/219pliny.htm Pliny the Younger, Letters, Book 10], English translation
=== Secondary material ===
*{{ cite web | last = Benario | first = Herbert W. | title = Trajan (A.D. 98-117) | publisher = [http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis] | year = 2000 | url = http://www.roman-emperors.org/trajan.htm | accessdate = 2007-09-24 }}
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{{end}}
{{Roman Emperors}}
<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
{{Persondata
|NAME = Trajan
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = Roman emperor
|DATE OF BIRTH = September 18, 53
|PLACE OF BIRTH = Italica
|DATE OF DEATH = August 9, 117
|PLACE OF DEATH = Selinus
}}
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]]
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[[Category:Andalusian people]]
[[Category:History of pederasty]]
[[Category:LGBT royalty]]
[[Category:Latin letter writers]]
[[Category:53 births]]
[[Category:117 deaths]]
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