Trans-New Guinea languages
295640
225490771
2008-07-13T23:43:38Z
N-true
14495
/* The languages */
{{nofootnotes|date=April 2008}}
'''Trans–New Guinea''' (TNG) is a [[hypothetical]] [[language family|family]] of [[Papuan languages]] spoken in [[New Guinea]] and neighboring islands. There have been three main versions of the proposed family.
==History of the proposal==
Although Papuan languages for the most part are poorly documented, several of the branches of Trans–New Guinea have been recognized for some time. The Eleman languages were first proposed by S. Ray in [[1907]], parts of Marind were recognized by Ray and JHP Murray in [[1918]], and the Rai Coast languages in [[1919]], again by Ray.
The original Trans–New Guinea proposal was published in 1970 by [[C. L. Voorhoeve]] and [[Kenneth McElhanon]]. They noted 91 lexical resemblances between
the [[Finisterre–Huon languages]] and the [[Central and South New Guinea languages]]. Although they did not work out regular sound correspondences, and so could not distinguish between cognates due to genealogical relationship, cognates due to borrowing, and chance resemblances, their research was taken seriously. The name ''Trans–New Guinea'' was chosen because this new family was the first to cover large areas of eastern New Guinea.
Then in 1975 [[Stephen Wurm]] expanded TNG into an enormous language phylum that covered most of the island of New Guinea, as well as [[Timor]] and neighboring islands, and included over 500 languages spoken by some 2 300 000 people. However, part of the evidence for this revision was [[language typology|typological]], and Wurm stated that he did not expect it to stand up well to scrutiny. Although he based the phylum on characteristic [[personal pronoun]]s, several of the branches had no pronouns in common with the rest of the family, or even had pronouns related to non-TNG families, but were included because they were grammatically similar to TNG. Other families which had typical TNG pronouns were excluded because they did not resemble other TNG families in their grammatical structure.
Because grammatical typology is readily borrowed — many of the [[Austronesian languages]] in New Guinea have grammatical structures similar to their Papuan neighbors, for example, and conversely many Papuan languages resemble typical Austronesian languages typologically, — later linguists such as [[William Foley]] rejected Wurm's results, and broke TNG into its constituent parts: several dozen small but clearly valid families, plus a number of apparent [[language isolate|isolates]]
In 2005 [[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]] published a draft proposal re-evaluating Trans–New Guinea, and found what he believed to be overwhelming evidence for a reduced version of the phylum, based solely on lexical resemblances, which retained as much as 85% of Wurm's hypothesis.
The strongest lexical evidence for any language family is shared [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] paradigms. For example, if the only recorded German words were ''gut'' "good" and ''besser'' "better", that alone would be enough to demonstrate that in all probability German is related to English. However, because of the great morphological complexity of many Papuan languages, and the poor state of documentation of nearly all, in New Guinea this approach is essentially restricted to comparing [[pronoun]]s. Ross reconstructed pronouns sets for Foley's basic families and compared these reconstructions, rather than using a direct mass comparison of all Papuan languages; attempted to then reconstruct the ancestral pronouns of the proto–Trans–New Guinea language, such as ''*ni'' "we", ''*ŋgi'' "you", ''*i'' "they"; and then compared poorly supported branches directly to this reconstruction. Families required at least two apparent cognates to be included.
Ross also included in his proposal several better-attested families for non-pronominal evidence, despite a lack of pronouns common to other branches of TNG, and he suggested that there may be other families that would have been included if they had been better attested. Several additional families are only tentatively linked to TNG. Note also that because the boundaries of Ross's proposal is based primarily on a single parameter, pronouns, all internal structure remains tentative.
==The languages==
Most TNG languages are spoken by only a few thousand people, with only four ([[Melpa_language|Melpa]], [[Enga language|Enga]], [[Dani_people|Western Dani]], and [[Ekari language|Ekari]]) being spoken by more than 100,000. The most populous language outside of mainland New Guinea is Makasai on Timor, with 70,000.
The greatest linguistic diversity in Ross's Trans–New Guinea proposal, and therefore perhaps the location of the proto–Trans–New Guinea homeland, is in the interior highlands of Papua New Guinea, in the central-to-eastern New Guinea cordillera. Indonesian [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]] and the southeastern peninsula of New Guinea (the "bird's tail") have fewer and more widely extended branches of TNG, and were therefore likely settled by TNG speakers after the [[protolanguage]] broke up. Ross speculates that the TNG family may have spread with the high population densities that resulted from the domestication of [[taro]], settling quickly in the highland valleys along the length of the cordillera but spreading much more slowly into the [[malaria]]l lowlands, and not at all into areas such as the [[Sepik River]] valley where the people already had yam agriculture and thus supported high population densities. Ross suggests that TNG may have arrived at its western limit, the islands near [[Timor]], perhaps four to 4.5 thousand years ago, before the expansion of Austronesian into this area.
==Classification==
===Wurm's TNG===
An updated version of Wurm's 1975 classification can be found at [[Ethnologue]] [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=89879 here]. Wurm identifies the subdivisions of his Papuan classification as ''families'' (on the order of relatedness of the [[Germanic languages]]), ''stocks'' (on the order of the [[Indo-European languages]]), and ''phyla'' (on the order of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]). Trans–New Guinea is a phylum in this terminology. A language that is not related to any other at a family level or below is called an [[language isolate|isolate]] in this scheme.
===Ross' TNG===
Ross does not use specialized terms for different levels of classification. In the list given here, the uncontroversial families that are accepted by Foley and other Papuanists and which are the building blocks of Ross's TNG are printed in '''boldface'''. Language isolates are printed in ''italics''.
Ross removed about 100 languages from Wurm's proposal, and only tentatively retained a few dozen more, but in one instance he added a language, the erstwhile isolate [[Porome language|Porome]].
Ross did not have sufficient evidence to classify all Papuan groups. In addition, the lower-level classification of a few of the groups illustrated here are taken from [[Ethnologue]], which is based on Wurm.
;Trans–New Guinea phylum (Ross 2005)
*West Trans–New Guinea linkage [a suspected old [[dialect continuum]]. The Irian Highlands families (Dani and Paniai Lakes) appear to belong together, and the Timor and West Bomberai share two probable innovations in their pronouns.]
** West Timor-Alor-Pantar [not well supported as a group]
*** '''''[[Adabe language|Adabe]]''''' isolate
*** '''''[[Bunak language|Bunak]]''''' isolate
*** '''''[[Kolana language|Kolana]]''''' isolate
*** '''Tanglapui''' family: [[Sawila language|Sawila]], [[Kula language|Kula]]
*** '''Alor-Pantar'''
**** Alor branch: [[Kamang language|Kamang]] (Woisika), [[Abui language|Abui]], [[Adang language|Adang]], [[Hamap language|Hamap]], [[Kabola language|Kabola]], [[Kafoa language|Kafoa]], [[Kui language|Kui]], [[Klon language|Klon]],
**** Pantar branch: [[Blagar language|Blagar]], [[Tewa Papuan language|Tewa]], [[Lamma language|Lamma]], [[Nedebang language|Nedebang]], [[Retta language|Retta]], [[Tereweng language|Tereweng]]
** East Timor [perhaps closest to West [[Bomberai]]]
*** '''''[[Fataluku language|Fataluku]]''''' isolate
*** '''''[[Maku'a language|Maku'a]] (Lovaea)''''' isolate
*** '''''[[Oirata language|Oirata]]''''' isolate
*** '''''[[Makasai language|Makasai]]''''' isolate
** West Bomberai [perhaps closest to East Timor]
*** '''''[[Karas language|Karas]]''''' isolate
*** '''West Bomberai''' family: [[Baham language|Baham]], [[Iha language|Iha]]
** '''Paniai Lakes (Wissel Lakes)''' family: [[Wolani language|Wolani]], [[Moni language|Moni]], [[Ekari language|Ekari]], [[Auye language|Auye]], [[Dao language|Dao]]
** '''Dani family'''
*** ''[[Wano language|Wano]]'' language
*** Dani proper: [[Hupla language|Hupla]], [[Nggem language|Nggem]], [[Walak language|Walak]], [[Upper Grand Valley Dani language|Upper Grand Valley Dani]], [[Lower Grand Valley Dani language|Lower Grand Valley Dani]], [[Mid Grand Valley Dani language|Mid Grand Valley Dani]], [[Western Dani language|Western Dani]]
*** Ngalik branch [no data available]: [[Nduga language|Nduga]], [[Silimo language|Silimo]], [[Ninia Yali language|Ninia Yali]], [[Pass Valley Ninia language|Pass Valley Ninia]], [[Angguruk Ninia language|Angguruk Ninia]]
* '''South Bird's Head (South Doberai)''' family
** South Bird's Head proper: [[Barau language|Barau]], [[Weriagar language|Weriagar]] (Kemberano), [[Arandai language|Arandai]], [[Kokoda language|Kokoda]] (Tarof), [[Kais language|Kais]] (Kampong Baru), [[Puragi language|Puragi]], [[Kaburi language|Kaburi]], [[Kasuweri language|Kasuweri]]
** Inanwatan branch: [[Duriankere language|Duriankere]], [[Suabo language|Suabo]] (Inanwatan)
** Konda-Yahadian branch: [[Konda language|Konda]], [[Yahadian language|Yahadian]]
* '''''[[Tanah Merah language|Tanah Merah]]''''' isolate
* '''''[[Mor language|Mor]]''''' isolate
* '''''[[Dem language|Dem]]''''' isolate
* '''''[[Damal language|Damal]] (Uhunduni)''''' isolate
* '''Mek''' family
** Western branch: [[Ketengban language|Ketengban]], [[Sirkai language|Sirkai]], [[Kinome language|Kinome]]
** Eastern branch: [[Una language|Una]] (Goliath), [[Eipomek language|Eipomek]], [[Kosarek Yale language|Kosarek Yale]], [[Korupun language|Korupun]], [[Dagi language|Dagi]], [[Sisibna language|Sisibna]], [[Deibula language|Deibula]], [[Sela language|Sela]], [[Nalca language|Nalca]], [[Nipsan language|Nipsan]]
* ? Kaure-Kapori [Inclusion in TNG tentative. No pronouns can be reconstructed from the available data.]
** '''''[[Kapori language|Kapori]]''''' isolate
** '''Kaure''' family: [[Kaure language|Kaure]], [[Kosadle language|Kosadle]], [[Narau language|Narau]]
* ? '''Pauwasi''' family [Inclusion in TNG tentative. No pronouns can be reconstructed from the available data.]
** Eastern Pauwasi branch: [[Yafi language|Yafi]], [[Emumu language|Emumu]]
** Western Pauwasi branch: [[Dubu language|Dubu]], [[Towei language|Towei]]
* '''Kayagar''' family: [[Atohwaim language|Atohwaim]] (Kaugat), [[Kayagar language|Kayagar]] (Kaygir), [[Tamagario language|Tamagario]]
* '''Kopolom''' family: [[Kimaama language|Kimaama]] (Kimaghana), [[Riantana language|Riantana]], [[Ndom language|Ndom]]
* '''''[[Moraori language|Moraori]]''''' isolate
* Kiwai-Porome [TNG identity of pronouns suspect]
** '''Kiwaian''' family: [[Northeastern Kiwai language|Northeastern Kiwai]], [[Arigibi language|Arigibi]], [[Southern Kiwai language|Southern Kiwai]], [[Bamu language|Bamu]], [[Morigi language|Morigi]], [[Kerewo language|Kerewo]], [[Waboda language|Waboda]]
** '''''[[Porome language|Porome]] (Kibiri)''''' isolate
* '''Marind''' family
** Boazi branch: [[Kuni-Boazi language|Kuni-Boazi]], [[Zimakani language|Zimakani]]
** Marind proper: [[Bian Marind language|Bian Marind]], [[Marind language|Marind]]
** Yaqay branch: [[Warkay-Bipim language|Warkay-Bipim]], [[Yaqay language|Yaqay]]
* Central and South New Guinea (reduced) [Part of the original TNG proposal. Not clear if the pronoun similarities are retentions in separate branches, or shared innovations defining a single branch of TNG. Voorhoeve argues independently for an Awyu-Ok relationship.]
** '''[[Asmat-Kamoro language|Asmat-Kamoro]]''' family [a recent expansion along the south coast]: [[Casuarina Coast Asmat language|Casuarina Coast Asmat]], [[Yaosakor Asmat language|Yaosakor Asmat]], [[Asmat language|Central Asmat]], [[North Asmat language|North Asmat]], [[Buruwai language|Buruwai]] (Asienara), [[Citak language|Citak]], [[Tamnim Citak language|Tamnim Citak]], [[Diuwe language|Diuwe]], [[Kamberau language|Kamberau]] (Iria), [[Kamoro language|Kamoro]], [[Sempan language|Sempan]]
** '''Awyu-Dumut''' family:
*** ''[[Sawi language|Sawi]] (Sawuy)'' language
*** Awyu branch: [[Aghu language|Aghu]]-[[Tsakwambo language|Tsakwambo]] (Kotogut), [[South Awyu language|South Awyu]] (Siagha), [[Central Awyu language|Central Awyu]], [[Jair Awyu language|Jair Awyu]], [[Edera Awyu language|Edera Awyu]], [[Asue Awyu language|Asue Awyu]] (Pisa), [[North Awyu language|North Awyu]]
*** Dumut branch: [[Atas Mandobo language|Atas Mandobo]] (Kaeti), [[Bawah Mandobo language|Bawah Mandobo]], [[Kombai language|Kombai]], [[Wambon language|Wambon]], [[Wanggom language|Wanggom]]
*** unclassified: [[Korowai language|Korowai]], [[North Korowai language|North Korowai]], [[Ketum language|Ketum]]
** '''Mombum''' family: [[Koneraw language|Koneraw]], [[Mombum language|Mombum]]
** '''Ok''' family
*** [[Tangko language]]
*** Western branch: [[Burumakok language|Burumakok]], [[Kwer language|Kwer]], [[Kopkaka language|Kopkaka]]
*** Lowland branch: [[Iwur language|Iwur]], [[North Muyu language|North Muyu]] (Northern Kati), [[South Muyu language|South Muyu]] (Southern Kati), [[Ninggerum language|Ninggerum]], [[Yonggom language|Yonggom]]
*** Mountain branch: [[Bimin language|Bimin]], [[Faiwol language|Faiwol]], [[Kauwol language|Kauwol]], [[Mian language|Mian]], [[Nakai language|Nakai]], [[Setaman language|Setaman]], [[Suganga language|Suganga]], [[Ngalum language|Ngalum]], [[Tifal language|Tifal]], [[Telefol language|Telefol]], [[Urapmin language|Urapmin]]
* '''''[[Oksapmin language|Oksapmin]]''''' isolate
* '''Gogodala-Suki''' family
** ''[[Suki language|Suki]]'' language
** Gogodala branch: [[Gogodala language|Gogodala]], [[Ari language|Ari]], [[Waruna language|Waruna]]
* '''Tirio''' family: [[Tirio Papuan language|Tirio]] (Makayam, Aturu), [[Bitur language|Bitur]] (Mutum), [[Baramu language|Baramu]], [[Were language|Were]]
* '''Eleman''' family
** ? ''[[Purari language|Purari]] isolate''
** ''[[Kaki Ae language|Kaki Ae]] (Tate) isolate'' (links Eleman proper with TNG)
** Eleman proper: [[Keuru language|Keuru]], [[Opao language|Opao]], [[Orokolo language|Orokolo]], [[Toaripi language|Toaripi]], [[Tairuma language|Tairuma]] (Uaripi)
* '''Inland Gulf''' family
** ''[[Ipiko language]]'' (quite distinct)
** Minanibai branch: [[Minanibai language|Minanibai]], [[Tao language|Tao]], [[Mubami language|Mubami]], [[Karami language|Karami]], [[Mahigi language|Mahigi]]
* '''Turama-Kikorian''' family
** ''[[Rumu language|Rumu]] (Kairi)'' isolate (links Turuma to TNG)
** Turama branch: [[Omati language|Omati]], [[Ikobi language|Ikobi]], [[Mena language|Mena]])
* ? '''Teberan''' family [inclusion in TNG tentative]: [[Dadibi language|Dadibi]], [[Folopa language|Folopa]] (Podopa)
* '''''[[Pawaia language|Pawaia]]''''' isolate [has proto–TNG vocabulary, but inclusion questionable]
* '''Angan''' family:
** ''[[Angaatiha language]]''
** Angan proper
***A (pronouns ''ni, ti):'' [[Hamtai language|Hamtai]] (Kapau), [[Kamasa language|Kamasa]], [[Kawatsa language|Kawatsa]], [[Menya language|Menya]], [[Yagwoia language|Yagwoia]]
***B: [[Akoye language|Akoye]] (Lohiki), [[Baruya language|Baruya]], [[Safeyoka language|Safeyoka]], [[Simbari language|Simbari]], [[Susuami language|Susuami]], [[Tainae language|Tainae]] (Ivori)
* '''West Kutubu''' family [has proto–TNG vocabulary, but inclusion somewhat questionable]: [[Fasu language|Fasu]], [[Some language|Some]], [[Namumi language|Namumi]]
* '''East Kutubu''' family [has proto–TNG vocabulary, but inclusion somewhat questionable]: [[Fiwaga language|Fiwaga]], [[Foe language|Foe]]
* '''Duna-Pogaya''' family: [[Bogaya language|Bogaya]], [[Duna language|Duna]]
* '''Awin-Pa''' family: [[Aekyowm language|Aekyowm]] (Awin), [[Pare language|Pare]] (Pa)
* '''East Strickland''' family: [[Fembe language|Fembe]] (Agala), [[Gobasi language|Gobasi]] (Nomad), [[Kubo language|Kubo]], [[Odoodee language|Odoodee]] (Tomu), [[Konai language|Konai]], [[Samo language|Samo]]
* '''Bosavi''' family: [[Aimele language|Aimele]] (Kware), [[Kaluli language|Kaluli]], [[Beami language|Beami]], [[Dibiyaso language|Dibiyaso]] (Bainapi), [[Edolo language|Edolo]], [[Kasua language|Kasua]], [[Onobasulu language|Onobasulu]], [[Sonia language|Sonia]]
* '''''[[Kamula language|Kamula]]''''' isolate
* '''Engan''' family
** North Engan: [[Enga language|Enga]], [[Ipili language|Ipili]], [[Lembena language|Lembena]], [[Bisorio language|Bisorio]] (Iniai)
** Sount Engan: [[Huli language|Huli]], [[Angal language|Angal]], [[Samberigi language|Samberigi]] (Sau), [[Kewa language|Kewa]], [[Mendi language|Mendi]]
* '''''[[Wiru language|Wiru]]''''' isolate (lexical similarities with Engan)
* '''Chimbu-Wahgi''' family [not Ross's classification]
** Chimbu branch: [[Chuave language|Chuave]], [[Dom language|Dom]], [[Golin language|Golin]], [[Kuman New Guinea language|Kuman]], [[Nomane language|Nomane]], [[Salt-Yui language|Salt-Yui]], [[Sinasina language|Sinasina]]
** Hagen branch
*** [[Melpa language|Melpa]] (Medlpa) language
*** Kaugel languages: [[Imbo Ungu language|Imbo Ungu]], [[Mbo-Ung language|Mbo-Ung]], [[Umbu-Ungu language|Umbu-Ungu]]
** Jimi branch: [[Maring language|Maring]], [[Narak language|Narak]], [[Kandawo language|Kandawo]]
** Wahgi branch: [[Nii language|Nii]], [[Wahgi language|Wahgi]], [[North Wahgi language|North Wahgi]]
* Kainantu-Goroka [also known as East Highlands; first noticed by Capell 1948]
** '''Goroka''' family
*** ''[[Isabi language|Isabi]]'' language
*** ''[[Gende language|Gende]]'' language
*** Gahuku branch: [[Dano language|Dano]] (Upper Asaro), [[Alekano language|Alekano]] (Gahuku), [[Tokano language|Tokano]] (Lower Asaro)
*** Siane branch: [[Siane language|Siane]], [[Yaweyuha language|Yaweyuha]]
*** South Goroka [[linkage]]
**** ''[[Benabena language|Benabena]]'' language
**** Fore branch: [[Fore language|Fore]], [[Gimi language|Gimi]]
**** Kamono-Yagaria branch: [[Kamono language|Kamono]], [[Kanite language|Kanite]], [[Keyagana language|Ke’yagana]], [[Yagaria language|Yagaria]]
** '''Kainantu''' family
*** [[Binumarien language|Binumarien]]
*** [[Tairoa language|Tairoa]]
*** [[Waffa language|Waffa]]
*** Gauwa branch: [[Agarabi language|Agarabi]], [[Awiyaana language|Awiyaana]], [[Awa Papuan language|Awa]], [[Gadsup language|Gadsup]], [[Usarufa language|Usarufa]]
* Madang
** Southern Adelbert Range–Kowan
*** '''Kowan''' family: [[Korak language|Korak]], [[Waskia language|Waskia]]
*** Southern Adelbert Range
**** Josephstaal
***** '''''[[Osum language|Osum]] (Utarmbung)''''' isolate
***** '''''[[Wadaginam language|Wadaginam]]''''' isolate
***** '''Sikan''' family: [[Mum language|Mum]] (Katiati), [[Sileibi language|Sileibi]]
***** '''Pomoikan''' family: [[Anam language|Anam]] (Pondoma), [[Anamgura language|Anamgura]] (Ikundun), [[Moresada language|Moresada]]
**** Wanang
***** '''''[[Paynamar language|Paynamar]]''''' isolate
***** '''Atan''' family: [[Atemble language|Atemble]], [[Nend language|Nend]] (Angaua)
***** '''Emuan''' family: [[Apali language|Apali]] (Emerum), [[Musak language|Musak]]
**** '''''[[Faita language|Faita]]''''' isolate
** Rai Coast–Kalam
*** '''Rai Coast''' family
**** Mindjim branch: [[Anjam language|Anjam]] (Bom), [[Bongu language|Bongu]], [[Male language|Male]], [[Pulabu language|Pulabu]]<!--Yes, Pulabu-->, [[Sam language|Sam]] (Songum)
**** Yaganon branch: [[Ganglau language|Ganglau]], [[Saep language|Saep]], [[Yabong language|Yabong]]
**** Kow-Usino: [[Asas language|Asas]], [[Sinsauru language|Sinsauru]], [[Sop language|Sop]] (Usino)
**** Erima-Duduela: [[Duduela language|Duduela]], [[Ogea]] (Erima)
**** ''[[Jilim language|Jilim]]''
**** ''[[Wasembo language|Wasembo]]''
**** Sub-Rai [includes much of the old [[Brahman languages|Brahman]] family]: [[Arawum language|Arawum]], [[Biyom language|Biyom]], [[Danaru language|Danaru]], [[Dumpu language|Dumpu]], [[Kesawai language|Kesawai]], [[Kolom language|Kolom]], [[Kwato language|Kwato]], [[Lemio language|Lemio]], [[Rerau language|Rerau]], [[Sausi language|Sausi]], [[Siroi language|Siroi]], [[Sumau language|Sumau]], [[Tauya language|Tauya]], [[Urigina language|Urigina]], [[Uya language|Uya]] (Usu), [[Yangulam language|Yangulam]]
*** '''Kalam''' family (perhaps part of Rai Coast): [[Gants language|Gants]], [[Kalam language|Kalam]]-[[Kobon language|Kobon]], [[Tai Papuan language|Tai]]
** Croisilles [[linkage]] (few branches retain traditional families)
***Dimir-Malas: [[Dimir language|Dimir]], [[Malas language|Malas]]
***Kaukombar: [[Bargam language|Bargam]] (Mugil), [[Mala language|Mala]] (Pay), [[Miani language|Miani]] (Tani), [[Maia language|Maia]] (Pila, Saki)
***Kumil: [[Brem language|Brem]] (Bunabun), [[Bepour language|Bepour]], [[Mauwake language|Mauwake]] (Ulingan), [[Moere language|Moere]], [[Musar language|Musar]]
***Tibor-Omosa: [[Pal language|Pal]] (Abasakur), [[Kobol language|Kobol]] (Koguman), [[Kowaki language|Kowaki]], [[Mawak language|Mawak]], [[Pamosu language|Pamosu]] (Hinihon), [[Wanambre language|Wanambre]]
*** '''''[[Amaimon language|Amaimon]]''''' isolate
***Numugen-Mabuso
****'''Numugen''' family: [[Bilakura language|Bilakura]], [[Parawen language|Parawen]], [[Ukuriguma language|Ukuriguma]], [[Usan language|Usan]] (Wanuma), [[Yaben language|Yaben]], [[Yarawata language|Yarawata]]
****'''Mabuso''' family [Ross does not subclassify except to separate Kare]
***** ''[[Kare language|Kare]]'' isolate
***** Kokon: [[Girawa language|Girawa]], [[Munit language|Munit]], [[Kein language|Kein]] (Bemal)
***** Gum: [[Amele language|Amele]], [[Bau language|Bau]], [[Gumalu language|Gumalu]], [[Isebe language|Isebe]], [[Panim language|Panim]], [[Sihan language|Sihan]]
***** Hanseman: [[Baimak language|Baimak]], [[Bagupi language|Bagupi]], [[Gal language|Gal]], [[Nobonob language|Nobonob]] (Garuh), [[Garus language|Garus]], [[Mawan language|Mawan]], [[Matepi language|Matepi]], [[Mosimo language|Mosimo]], [[Murupi language|Murupi]], [[Nake language|Nake]], [[Rempi language|Rempi]], [[Rapting language|Rapting]], [[Saruga language|Saruga]], [[Samosa language|Samosa]], [[Utu language|Utu]], [[Wamas language|Wamas]], [[Silopi language|Silopi]], [[Yoidik language|Yoidik]], [[Wagi language|Wagi]] (Kamba)
* Finisterre-Huon [part of the original TNG proposal. Has verbs which are [[suppletion|suppletive]] per the person & number of the object.]
** '''Finisterre''' family (internal classification difficult)
*** ''[[Abaga language|Abaga]]'' language
*** Erap branch: [[Finongan language|Finongan]], [[Gusan language|Gusan]], [[Mamaa language|Mamaa]], [[Munkip language|Munkip]], [[Nakama language|Nakama]], [[Nimi language|Nimi]], [[Nuk language|Nuk]], [[Nek language|Nek]], [[Numanggang language|Numanggang]], [[Sauk Papuan language|Sauk]], [[Uri language|Uri]]
*** Gusap-Mot branch: [[Madi language|Madi]] (Gira), [[Iyo language|Iyo]] (Nahu), [[Neko language|Neko]], [[Nekgini language|Nekgini]], [[Ngaing language|Ngaing]], [[Rawa language|Rawa]], [[Ufim language|Ufim]]
*** Uruwa branch: [[Nukna language|Nukna]] (Komutu), [[Sakam language|Sakam]], [[Som language|Som]], [[Weliki language|Weliki]], [[Yau language|Yau]]
*** Wantoat branch: [[Awara language|Awara]], [[Tuma-Irumu language|Tuma-Irumu]], [[Wantoat language|Wantoat]] (Yagawak, Bam)
*** Warup branch: [[Asaro'o language|Asaro'o]] (Morafa), [[Bulgebi language|Bulgebi]], [[Degenan language|Degenan]], [[Forak language|Forak]], [[Guya language|Guya]] (Guiarak), [[Gwahatike language|Gwahatike]] (Dahating), [[Muratayak language|Muratayak]] (Asat), [[Yagomi language|Yagomi]]
*** Yupna branch: [[Bonkiman language|Bonkiman]], [[Domung language|Domung]], [[Gabutamon language|Gabutamon]], [[Ma language|Ma]] (Mebu), [[Nankina language|Nankina]], [[Yopno language|Yopno]] (Kewieng, Wandabong, Nokopo, Isan)
** '''Huon''' family (internal classification difficult)
*** ''[[Kovai language|Kovai]]'' language
*** Eastern Huon branch: [[Dedua language|Dedua]], [[Kube language|Kube]], [[Kâte language|Kâte]], [[Borong language|Borong]] (Kosorong), [[Mape language|Mape]], [[Migabac language|Migabac]], [[Momare language|Momare]], [[Sene language|Sene]]
*** Western Huon branch: [[Burum language|Burum]] (Mindik), [[Kinalakna language|Kinalakna]], [[Komba language|Komba]], [[Kumokio language|Kumokio]], [[Mese language|Mese]], [[Nabak language|Nabak]], [[Nomu language|Nomu]], [[Ono language|Ono]], [[Sialum language|Sialum]], [[Selepet language|Selepet]], [[Timbe language|Timbe]], [[Tobo language|Tobo]]
* ? '''Goilalan''' family [inclusion in TNG tentative]: [[Fuyug language|Fuyug]], [[Tauade language|Tauade]], [[Biangai language|Biangai]]-[[Kunimaipa language|Kunimaipa]]-[[Weri language|Weri]]
* Southeast Papuan (Bird's Tail) [these families have not been demonstrated to be related to each other, but have in common ''ya'' for 'you[plural]' instead of proto-TNG ''*gi.''
** '''Koiarian''' family
*** Koiaric branch: [[Grass Koiari language|Grass Koiari]], [[Mountain Koiari language|Mountain Koiari]], [[Koitabu language|Koitabu]]
*** Baraic branch: [[Barai language|Barai]], [[Ese language|Ese]] (Managalasi), [[Namiae language|Namiae]], [[Ömie language|Ömie]]
** '''Kwalean''' family: [[Humene language|Humene]], [[Uare language|Uare]] (Kwale), [[Mulaha language|Mulaha]]
** '''Manubaran''' family: [[Doromu language|Doromu]], [[Maria language (Papua New Guinea)|Maria]]
** '''Yareban''' family: [[Aneme Wake language|Aneme Wake]] (Abia), [[Bariji language|Bariji]], [[Moikodi language|Moikodi]] (Doriri), [[Nawaru language|Nawaru]] (Sirio), [[Yareba language|Yareba]]
** '''Mailuan''' family: [[Bauwaki language|Bauwaki]], [[Binahari language|Binahari]], [[Domu language|Domu]], [[Laua language|Laua]], [[Mailu language|Mailu]] (Magi), [[Morawa language|Morawa]]
** '''Dagan''' family: [[Daga language|Daga]], [[Ginuman language|Ginuman]], [[Dima language|Dima]] (Jimajima), [[Mapena language|Mapena]], [[Maiwa language|Maiwa]], [[Onjob language|Onjob]], [[Kanasi language|Kanasi]] (Sona), [[Turaka language|Turaka]], [[Umanakaina language|Umanakaina]] (Gwedena)
* Binanderean [a recent expansion from the north]
** '''''[[Guhu-Semane language|Guhu-Semane]]''''' isolate
** '''Binandere''' family: [[Ambasi language|Ambasi]], [[Aeka language|Aeka]], [[Binandere language|Binandere]], [[Baruga language|Baruga]], [[Doghoro language|Doghoro]], [[Ewage language|Ewage]] (Notu), [[Gaina language|Gaina]], [[Hunjara language|Hunjara]], [[Korafe language|Korafe]], [[Mawae language|Mawae]], [[Orokaiva language|Orokaiva]], [[Suena language|Suena]], [[Yega language|Yega]], [[Yekora language|Yekora]], [[Zia language|Zia]]
====Wurmian TNG languages left unclassified by Ross====
Although Ross based his classification on pronoun systems, many languages in New Guinea are too poorly documented for even this to work. Thus there are several isolates that were placed in TNG by Wurm but which cannot be addressed by Ross's classification.
* ''[[Kenati language|Kenati]]'' isolate
* ''[[Komyandaret language|Komyandaret]]'' isolate
* ''[[Massep language|Massep]]'' isolate
* ''[[Molof language|Molof]]'' isolate
* '''Momuna''' family: [[Momina language|Momina]], [[Momuna language|Momuna]] (Somahai)
* ''[[Samarokena language|Samarokena]]'' isolate
* ''[[Tofamna language|Tofamna]]'' isolate
* ''[[Usku language|Usku]]'' isolate
====Wurmian TNG languages moved to other families by Ross====
Ross removed 95 languages from TNG. These are small families with no pronouns in common with TNG languages, but which are typologically similar, perhaps due to long periods of contact with TNG languages.
* Border and Morwap (Elseng), as an independent [[Border languages (New Guinea)|Border]] family (15)
* ''[[Isirawa language|Isirawa]] (Saberi),'' as a language isolate
* Lakes Plain, as an independent [[Lakes Plain languages|Lakes Plain]] family (19)
* Mairasi, as an independent [[Mairasi languages|Mairasi]] family (4)
* Nimboran, as an independent [[Nimboran languages|Nimboran]] family (5)
* Piawi, as an independent [[Piawi languages|Piawi]] family (2)
* Senagi, as an independent [[Senagi languages|Senagi]] family (2)
* Sentani (4 languages), within an [[East Bird's Head-Sentani languages|East Bird's Head-Sentani]] family
* Tor and Kwerba, joined as a [[Tor-Kwerba languages|Tor-Kwerba]] family (17)
* Trans-Fly–Bulaka River is broken into five groups: three remaining in TNG (Kiwaian, Moraori, Tirio), plus the independent [[South-Central Papuan languages|South-Central Papuan]] and [[Eastern Trans-Fly languages|Eastern Trans-Fly]] families (22 and 4 languages).
===Foley===
As of 2003, [[William Foley]] accepted the core of TNG: "The fact, for example, that a great swath of languages in New Guinea from the Huon Peninsula to the highlands of Irian Jaya mark the object of a transitive verb with a set of verbal prefixes, a first person singular in /n/ and second person singular in a [[velar stop]], is overwhelming evidence that these languages are all genetically related; the likelihood of such a system being borrowed vanishingly small."[http://www.arts.usyd.edu.au/research_projects/delp/papuan.php] He considered the relationship between the Finisterre-Huon, Eastern Highlands (Kainantu-Gorokan), and Irian Highlands (Dani-Paniai Lakes) families (and presumably some other smaller ones) to be established, and said that it is "highly likely" that the Madang family belongs as well. He considered it possible but not yet demonstrated that the Enga, Chimbu, Binandere, Angan, Ok, Awyu, Asmat (perhaps closest to Ok and Awyu), Mek, and the small language families of the tail of Papua New Guinea (Koiarian, Goilalan, etc., which he does not believe have been shown to be related to each other) may belong to TNG as well.
==Phonology==
Proto-Trans-New Guinea is reconstructed with a typical simple Papuan inventory: five vowels, {{IPA|/i e a o u/}}, three phonations of stops at three places, {{IPA|/p t k, b d ɡ, m n ŋ/}} ([[Andrew Pawley]] reconstructs the voiced series as prenasalized {{IPA|/mb nd ŋɡ/}}), plus a palatal affricate {{IPA|/dʒ ~ ndʒ/}}, the fricative {{IPA|/s/}}, and the approximants {{IPA|/l j w/}}. Syllables are typically (C)V, with CVC possible at the ends of words. Many of the languages have [[word tone]].
==Pronouns==
Ross reconstructs the following pronominal paradigm for Trans–New Guinea, with ''*a~*i'' [[ablaut]] for singular~non-singular:
:{| class=wikitable
|-
| '''I''' || ''*na'' || '''we''' || ''*ni''
|-
| '''thou''' || ''*ga'' || '''you''' || ''*gi''
|-
| '''s/he''' || ''*(y)a, *ua'' || '''they''' || ''*i''
|}
There is a related but less commonly attested form for 'we', ''*nu'', as well as a ''*ja'' for 'you', which Ross speculates may have been a polite form. In addition, there were [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] suffixes ''*-li'' and ''*-t'', and a plural suffix ''*-nV'', (i.e. n plus a vowel) as well [[collective number]] suffixes ''*-pi-'' (dual) and ''*-m-'' (plural) which functioned as [[Clusivity|inclusive we]] when used in the first person. (Reflexes of the collective suffixes, however, are limited geographically to the central and eastern highlands, and so might not be as old as proto–Trans–New Guinea.)
==See also==
*[[Papuan languages]]
*[[Indo-Pacific languages]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last = Pawley | first = Andrew | authorlink = Andrew Pawley | year = 1998 | chapter = The Trans New Guinea Phylum hypothesis: A reassessment | editor = Jelle Miedema, Cecilia Odé, Rien A.C. Dam, eds. | title = Perspectives on the Bird's Head of Irian Jaya, Indonesia | location = Amsterdam | publisher = Rodopi | pages = pp. 655–90 | isbn = 9789042006447 | oclc = 41025250 }}
* {{cite book | last = Pawley | first = Andrew | authorlink = Andrew Pawley | year = 2005 | chapter = The chequered career of the Trans New Guinea hypothesis: recent research and its implications | editor = [[Andrew Pawley]], Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide, Jack Golson, eds. | title = Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples | location = Canberra | publisher = Pacific Linguistics | pages = 67–107 | isbn = 0858835622 | oclc = 67292782 }}
{{Malcolm Ross Pronouns}}
{{Refend}}
[[Category:Proposed language families]]
[[Category:Languages of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Trans-New Guinea languages| ]]
[[Category:Papuan languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Papua New Guinea]]
[[br:Yezhoù Treuzginea-nevezek]]
[[de:Trans-Neuguinea-Sprachen]]
[[es:Lenguas trans nueva guinea]]
[[fr:Langues de Trans-Nouvelle Guinée]]
[[ko:트랜스뉴기니어족]]
[[lij:Lengue Trans-Neuva Guinea]]
[[pl:Języki nowogwinejskie]]
[[ru:Трансновогвинейские языки]]
[[zh:跨新几内亚语系]]