Trans fat 263487 225870705 2008-07-15T20:03:32Z Rjwilmsi 203434 gen fixes + link/fix date fields in cite templates (explanation [[User:Rjwilmsi#My_correction_of_citation_templates|here]]) using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] {{Fats}} '''Trans fat''' is the common name for a type of [[unsaturated fat]] with ''trans''- [[Cis-trans isomerism|isomer]] [[fatty acid]](s). Trans fats may be [[monounsaturated fat|monounsaturated]] or [[polyunsaturated fat|polyunsaturated]]. Most trans fats consumed today are created industrially through partial [[hydrogenation]] of plant oils — a process developed in the early 1900s and first commercialized as [[Crisco]] in 1911. The goal of partial hydrogenation is to add [[hydrogen]] atoms to unsaturated fats, making them more [[saturated fat|saturated]]. These more saturated fats have a higher [[melting point]], which makes them attractive for baking and extends their [[shelf-life]]. Another particular class of trans fats, [[vaccenic acid]], occurs naturally in trace amounts in meat and dairy products from [[ruminants]]. Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are neither essential nor [[wiktionary:salubrious|salubrious]]<ref name=p423>{{cite book|last = Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies | title = Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients) | publisher = National Academies Press | date = 2005 | pages = 423 | url = http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309085373/html/423.html}}</ref> and, in fact, the consumption of trans fats increases one's risk of [[coronary heart disease]]<ref name=p504>{{cite book|last = Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies | title = Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients) | publisher = National Academies Press | date = 2005 | pages = 504 | url = http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309085373/html/504.html}}</ref> by raising levels of "bad" [[low-density lipoprotein|LDL]] cholesterol and lowering levels of "good" [[high-density lipoprotein|HDL]] cholesterol. <ref>{{cite web | title = Trans fat: Avoid this cholesterol double whammy | publisher = Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER). | url = http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/trans-fat/CL00032 | accessdate = 2007-12-10 }}</ref> Health authorities worldwide recommend that consumption of trans fat be reduced to trace amounts. Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more deleterious than naturally occurring oils.<ref name=nejmreview>{{cite journal|author= Mozaffarian D, Katan MB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC|title= Trans Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Disease|year=2006|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=354|issue=15|pages=1601–1613|month=April|day=13|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/15/1601|doi= 10.1056/NEJMra054035|pmid= 16611951}} PMID 16611951</ref> Chemically, trans fats are made of the same building blocks as non-trans fats, but have a different arrangement. In trans fatty acid molecules, the hydrogen atoms bonded to pairs of doubly bonded carbon [[atom]]s (characteristic of all unsaturated fats) are in the ''[[Cis-trans isomerism|trans]]'' rather than the ''[[Cis-trans isomerism|cis]]'' arrangement. This results in a straight, rather than kinked, shape for the carbon chain, more like the straight chain of a fully saturated fat. ==History== [[Image:Crisco Cookbook 1912.jpg|thumb|right|Cover of original Crisco cookbook, 1912]] [[Nobel prize|Nobel]] laureate [[Paul Sabatier (chemist)|Paul Sabatier]] worked in the 1890s to develop the chemistry of hydrogenation which enabled the [[margarine]], oil hydrogenation, and synthetic [[methanol]] industries.<ref>{{cite book | title = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry, 1901–1921 | date = 1966 | publisher = Elsevier }} Reprinted online: {{cite web | title = Paul Sabatier, The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1912 | publisher = Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1912/sabatier-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-01-07 }}</ref> While Sabatier only considered hydrogenation of vapours, the [[Germany|German]] [[chemist]] [[Wilhelm Normann]] showed in [[1901]] that liquid oils could be hydrogenated, and [[patent]]ed the process in 1902.<ref>{{patent|de|141029|Process for Converting Unsaturated Fatty Acids or their Glycerides into Saturated Compounds}}</ref><ref>{{patent|gb|190301515|Process for Converting Unsaturated Fatty Acids or their Glycerides into Saturated Compounds}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last =Patterson | first =HBW | title = Hydrogenation | journal = Sci Lecture Papers Series | date = 1998 | url = http://www.soci.org/SCI/publications/2001/pdf/pb97.pdf | accessdate = 2007-01-07 |format=PDF}}</ref> During the years [[1905]] - [[1910]] Normann built a fat hardening facility in the [[Herford]] company. At the same time the invention was extended to a large scale plant in [[Warrington]], [[England]] at ''[[Joseph Crosfield]] & Sons, Limited.'' It took only two years until the hardened fat could be successfully produced in the plant in Warrington, commencing production in the autumn of [[1909]]. The initial year's production was nearly 3000 tonnes.<ref>[http://www.dgfett.de/history/normann/nr_fiedler.htm Normann bio (in German)]</ref> In 1909, [[Procter & Gamble]] acquired the US rights to the Normann patent;<ref>{{cite web | last = Shurtleff | first = William | coauthors = Akiko Aoyagi | title = History of Soybeans and Soyfoods: 1100 B.C. to the 1980s | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20051018105337/http://www.thesoydailyclub.com/SFC/MSPproducts501.asp | url=http://www.thesoydailyclub.com/SFC/MSPproducts501.asp | archivedate = 2005-10-18 }}</ref> in 1911, they began marketing the first hydrogenated [[shortening]], [[Crisco]] (composed largely of partially hydrogenated [[cottonseed oil]]). Further success came from the marketing technique of giving away free cookbooks in which every recipe called for Crisco. Normann's hydrogenation process made it possible to stabilize affordable [[whale oil]] or [[fish oil]] for human consumption, a practice kept secret to avoid consumer distaste.<ref>[http://www.dgfett.de/history/normann/nr_fiedler.htm Wilhelm Normann - Erfinder der Fetthärtung(in German)]</ref> Production of hydrogenated fats increased steadily until the 1960s as processed vegetable fats replaced animal fats in the US and other western countries. At first, the argument was a financial one due to lower costs; however, advocates also said that the unsaturated trans fats of margarine were healthier than the [[saturated fat]]s of butter.<ref name="Harvard">{{cite web | author=Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC| title=Trans fatty acids and coronary heart disease | url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/reviews/transfats.html | accessdate=2006-09-14}}</ref> There were suggestions in the scientific literature as early as 1988 that trans fats could be a cause of the large increase in coronary artery disease.<ref name="Harvard"/><ref name="Booyens">{{cite journal | author=Booyens J, Louwrens CC, Katzeff IE | title=The role of unnatural dietary trans and cis unsaturated fatty acids in the epidemiology of coronary artery disease| journal= Medical Hypotheses | year=1988 | volume=25 | issue=3 | pages= 175–182 | doi=10.1016/0306-9877(88)90055-2}} PMID 3367809</ref> In 1994, it was estimated that trans fats caused 30,000 deaths annually in the US from heart disease.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Willett WC, Ascherio A|title=Trans fatty acids: are the effects only marginal?|journal=American Journal of Public Health|year=1995|volume=85|issue=3|pages=411–412}} PMID 8179036</ref> Prior to 1910, dietary fats primarily consisted of butterfat, beef tallow, and lard. During Napoleon’s reign in France in the early 1800s, a type of margarine was invented to feed the troops using tallow and buttermilk; it did not gain acceptance in the U.S. In the early 1900s, soybeans began to be imported into the U.S. as a source of protein; soybean oil was a by-product. What to do with that oil became an issue. At the same time, there was not enough butterfat available for consumers. The method of hydrogenating fat and turning a liquid fat into a solid one had been discovered, and now the ingredients (soybeans) and the “need” (shortage of butter) were there. Later, the means for storage, the refrigerator, was a factor in trans fat development. The fat industry found that hydrogenated fats provided some special features to margarines, which unlike butter, allowed margarine to be taken out of the refrigerator and immediately spread on a slice of bread. By some minor changes to the chemical composition of hydrogenated fat, they also found such hydrogenated fat provided superior baking properties compared to lard. Margarine made from hydrogenated soybean oil began to replace butterfat. Hydrogenated fat such as Crisco and Spry, sold in England, began to replace lard in the baking of bread, pies, cookies, and cakes in 1920.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kummerow, F.A. |title=Cholesterol Won't Kill You, But Trans Fat Could|journal=Trafford|year=2008}}</ref> In January 2007, faced with the prospect of an outright ban on the sale of their product, Crisco was reformulated to meet the US [[FDA]] definition of "zero grams trans fats per serving" (that is less than one gram per tablespoon) by boosting the saturation and then cutting the resulting solid with oils. Meanwhile, at the [[University of Guelph]], <blockquote>Alejandro Marangoni's research group found a way to mix oil, water, [[monoglycerides]] and fatty acids to form a "cooking fat" that acts the same way as trans and saturated fats — the stuff that makes baked goods taste so good. The big difference here is Marangoni's process works with "healthier" oils like olive, soybean and canola. He's hoping to get food manufacturers interested in the process this year, as the pressure mounts on the makers of commercial foods to dump trans fats.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/health/fitness-blog/2007/01/trans_fats_headed_for_the_exit.html CBC ''Trans Fats Headed for the Exit'']</ref><ref>[http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/ChemScience/Volume/2007/02/trans_fat_free_future.asp ''Trans fat free future'']</ref></blockquote> ==Chemistry== {{Refimprove|section|date=September 2007}} [[Image:Wilhelm Normann.jpg|thumb|right|[[Wilhelm Normann]] patented the hydrogenation of liquid oils in 1902]] Chemically, [[fat]]s are large molecules consisting of three [[fatty acid]] groups connected to a single [[glycerol]] derivative. The term ''trans fat'' generally refers to a fat that contains one or more ''trans fatty acid'' groups. Fatty acid molecules are essentially long-chain [[hydrocarbons]] with a terminal [[carboxyl group]]. Fatty acids are characterized as ''saturated'' or ''unsaturated'' based on the number of [[hydrogen]] atoms in the acid. If the molecule contains the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms, it is said to be saturated; otherwise, it is unsaturated to some degree.<ref> {{cite book |title=Food lipids: chemistry, nutrition, and biotechnology |pages=1-2 |isbn=0824707494 }}</ref><ref>[http://goldbook.iupac.org/F02330.html "fatty acid"] ''IUPAC Gold book'' International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</ref> Carbon atoms are [[tetravalent]], forming four [[covalent bond]]s with other atoms, while hydrogen atoms bond with only one other atom. In saturated fatty acids, each carbon atom is connected to its two neighbour carbon atoms as well as two hydrogen atoms (see structure diagram, below). In unsaturated fatty acids the carbon atoms that are missing a hydrogen atom are joined by [[double bonds]] rather than single bonds (see structure graphic below) so that each carbon atom participates in four bonds. [[Hydrogenation]] of an unsaturated fatty acid refers to the addition of hydrogen atoms to the acid, causing [[double bond]]s to become single ones as carbon atoms acquire new hydrogen partners (to maintain four bonds per carbon atom). Full hydrogenation results in a molecule containing the maximum amount of hydrogen (in other words the conversion of an unsaturated fatty acid into a saturated one). Partial hydrogenation results in the addition of hydrogen atoms at some of the empty positions, with a corresponding reduction in the number of double bonds. Commercial hydrogenation is typically partial in order to obtain a [[malleable]] fat that is [[solid]] at [[room temperature]], but melts upon baking (or consumption). In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bonds of the carbon chain (''[[Cis-trans isomerism|cis]]'' configuration — meaning "on the same side" in Latin). However, partial hydrogenation reconfigures most of the double bonds that do not become chemically saturated, twisting them so that the hydrogen atoms end up on different sides of the chain. This type of configuration is called ''[[Cis-trans isomerism|trans]]'', which means "across" in Latin.<ref>Hill, John W. ; Kolb, Doris K. "Chemistry for Changing Times" Pearson / Prentice Hall, 2007.:</ref> The trans conformation is the lower energy form, and is favored in the hydrogenation process. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" align=center !colspan=3|Diagram of the molecular structure of different fatty acids |- !Saturated fat !''Cis''-unsaturated fatty acid !''Trans''-unsaturated fatty acid |- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" |valign=top|[[Image:Fat-Conformation-Sat.gif|center|200px]] |valign=top|[[Image:Fat-Conformation-Cis.gif|center|200px]] |valign=top|[[Image:Fat-Conformation-Trans.gif|center|200px]] |- |saturated carbon atoms (each with 2 hydrogens) joined by a single bond |unsaturated carbon atoms (each with 1 hydrogen) joined by a double bond. ''Cis'' configuration. |unsaturated carbon atoms (each with 1 hydrogen) joined by a double bond. ''Trans'' configuration. |} The same molecule, containing the same number of atoms, with a double bond in the same location, can be either a ''trans'' or a ''cis'' fatty acid depending on the conformation of the double bond. For example, [[oleic acid]] and [[elaidic acid]] are both unsaturated fatty acids with the [[chemical formula]] C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>17</sub>C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>17</sub>O<sub>2</sub>.<ref name="Taylor" /> They both have a double bond located midway along the carbon chain. It is the conformation of this bond that sets them apart. The conformation has implications for the [[physical chemistry|physical-chemical]] properties of the molecule. The ''trans'' configuration is straighter, while the ''cis'' configuration is noticeably kinked as can be seen from the following three-dimensional representation. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" align=center !width="300"|[[Oleic acid]] !width="300"|[[Elaidic acid]] |- | Oleic acid is a ''cis'' unsaturated fatty acid that comprises 55–80% of olive oil. | Elaidic acid is a ''trans'' unsaturated fatty acid often found in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils. |- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" | [[Image:Oleic-acid-3D-vdW.png|center|300px]] | [[Image:Elaidic-acid-3D-vdW.png|center|300px]] |- bgcolor="#FFFFFF" | [[Image:Oleic-acid-skeletal.svg|center|300px]] | [[Image:Elaidic-acid-2D-skeletal.png|center|300px]] |- |colspan=2 | These fatty acids are [[geometric isomer]]s (chemically identical except for the arrangement of the double bond). |} The trans fatty acid elaidic acid has different chemical and physical properties owing to the slightly different bond configuration. Notably, it has a much higher melting point, 45 [[celsius|°C]] rather than oleic acid's 13.4 °C, due to the ability of the trans molecules to pack more tightly, forming a solid that is more difficult to break apart.<ref name="Taylor"> {{cite book | title = Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | url = http://www.hbcpnetbase.com | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | edition = 88th | series = 2007-2008 | year = 2007 | publisher = Taylor and Francis Group, LLC | chapter = Section 7: Biochemistry | chapterurl = http://www.hbcpnetbase.com.proxy.library.vcu.edu/articles/07_05_86.pdf}} </ref> It is notably a solid at human body temperatures. In food production, the goal is not to simply change the configuration of double bonds while maintaining the same ratios of hydrogen to carbon. Instead, the goal is to decrease the number of double bonds and increase the amount of hydrogen in the fatty acid. This changes the consistency of the fatty acid and makes it less prone to [[rancidity]] (in which [[free radicals]] attack double bonds). Production of trans fatty acids is therefore a side-effect of partial hydrogenation. Researchers at the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] have investigated whether hydrogenation can be achieved without the side effect of trans fat production. They varied the [[pressure]] under which the chemical reaction was conducted — applying 1400&nbsp;[[Pascal (unit)|kPa]] (200&nbsp;[[pound-force per square inch|psi]]) of pressure to soybean oil in a 2&nbsp;litre vessel while heating it to between 140&nbsp;°C and 170&nbsp;°C. The standard 140&nbsp;kPa (20&nbsp;psi) process of hydrogenation produces a product of about 40% trans fatty acid by weight, compared to about 17% using the high pressure method. Blended with unhydrogenated liquid soybean oil, the high pressure processed oil produced margarine containing 5 to 6% trans fat. Based on current U.S. labelling requirements (see below) the manufacturer could claim the product was free of trans fat.<ref>{{cite journal | author=FJ Eller | title=Preparation of spread oils meeting U.S. Food and Drug Administration Labeling requirements for trans fatty acids via pressure-controlled hydrogenation | journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | year=2005 | volume=53 | issue=15 | pages= 5982&ndash;5984 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16028984 | pmid=16028984 | doi=10.1021/jf047849 | doi_brokendate=2008-06-19}}</ref> The level of trans fat may also be altered by modification of the temperature and the length of time during hydrogenation. Trans fat levels may be measured. Measurement techniques include [[chromatography]] (by [[silver ion chromatography]] on [[thin layer chromatography]] plates, or small [[high performance liquid chromatography]] columns of [[silica gel]] with bonded phenylsulfonic acid groups whose hydrogen atoms have been exchanged for [[silver]] ions). The role of silver lies in its ability to form complexes with unsaturated compounds. [[Gas chromatography]] and mid-[[infrared spectroscopy]] are other methods in use. ==Presence in food== [[Image:SalersBreed Cow 5.JPG|thumb|right|[[Salers (cattle)|Salers]] Cow. Milk and meat from cows and other ruminants contains naturally occurring trans fats in small quantities.]] A type of trans fat occurs naturally in the milk and body fat of [[ruminant]]s (such as [[cattle]] and [[sheep]]) at a level of 2–5% of total fat.<ref name=Canada>{{cite paper | author = Trans Fat Task Force | title = TRANSforming the Food Supply | date = June 2006 | url = http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/gras-trans-fats/tf-ge/tf-gt_rep-rap_e.html | accessdate = 2007-01-07 }}</ref> Natural trans fats, which include [[conjugated linoleic acid]] and [[vaccenic acid]], originate in the [[rumen]] of these animals. Animal-based fats were once the only trans fats consumed, but by far the largest amount of trans fat consumed today is created by the processed food industry as a side-effect of partially hydrogenating unsaturated plant fats (generally vegetable oils). These partially hydrogenated fats have displaced natural solid fats and liquid oils in many areas, notably in the fast food, [[snack food]], fried food and baked good industries. Partially hydrogenated oils have been used in food for many reasons. Partial hydrogenation increases product [[shelf life]] and decreases refrigeration requirements. Because baking often requires semi-solid fats to suspend solids at room temperature, partially hydrogenated oils can replace the animal fats traditionally used by bakers (such as [[butter]] and [[lard]]). They are also an inexpensive alternative to other semi-solid oils such as [[palm oil]]. Because partially hydrogenated plant oils can replace animal fats, the resulting products can be consumed (barring other ingredient and preparation violations) by adherents to [[Kashrut]] (kosher) and [[Halal]], as well as by adherents to [[vegetarianism in Buddhism]], [[ahimsa]] in [[Jainism]] and [[Hinduism]], [[veganism]], and other forms of [[vegetarianism]]. Foods containing artificial trans fats formed by partially hydrogenating plant fats may contain up to 45% trans fat compared to their total fat.<ref name=Canada/> Baking shortenings generally contain 30% trans fats compared to their total fats, while animal fats from ruminants such as butter contain up to 4%. Those margarines not reformulated to reduce trans fats may contain up to 15% trans fat by weight.<ref name=Hunter>{{cite journal |last=Hunter |first=JE |year=2005|title= Dietary levels of trans fatty acids" basis for health concerns and industry efforts to limit use|journal=Nutrition Research |volume=25 |pages=499–513|doi= 10.1016/j.nutres.2005.04.002 }}</ref> It has been established that trans fats in [[breast milk|human milk]] fluctuate with maternal consumption of trans fat, and that the amount of trans fats in the bloodstream of breastfed infants fluctuates with the amounts found in their milk. Reported percentages of trans fats (compared to total fats) in human milk range from 1% in Spain, 2% in France, 4% in Germany, and 7% in Canada.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Innis, Sheila M and King, D Janette | title=trans fatty acids in human milk are inversely associated with concentrations of essential all-cis n-6 and n-3 fatty acids and determine trans, but not n-6 and n-3, fatty acids in plasma lipids of breast-fed infants | journal= American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | year=1999 | volume=70 | issue=3 | pages= 383&ndash;390 | url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/70/3/383 | pmid=10479201 }} PMID 10479201</ref> Trans fats are also found in shortenings commonly used for deep frying in restaurants. In the past, the decreased rancidity of partially hydrogenated oils meant that they could be reused for a longer time than conventional oils. Recently, however, non-hydrogenated vegetable oils have become available that have lifespans exceeding that of the frying shortenings.<ref>{{cite web | last = NYC Board of Health | title = Board of Health Approves Regulation to Phase Out Artificial Trans Fat: FAQ | url = http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/cardio/cardio-transfat-healthcode-faq.shtml | accessdate = 2007-01-07 }}</ref> As fast food chains routinely use different fats in different locations, trans fat levels in products can have large variation. For example, an analysis of samples of [[McDonald's]] french fries collected in 2004 and 2005 found that fries served in [[New York City]] contained twice as much trans fat as in [[Hungary]], and 28 times as much trans fat as in [[Denmark]] (where trans fats are restricted). At KFC, the pattern was reversed with Hungary's product containing twice the trans fat of the New York product. Even within the US there was variation, with fries in New York containing 30% more trans fat than those from [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]].<ref>{{cite news | title = What's in that french fry? Fat varies by city | publisher = [[MSNBC]] | date = 2006-04-12 | url = http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12287818/ | accessdate = 2007-01-07}} AP story concerning PMID 16611965</ref> ==Nutritional guidelines== The [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] (NAS) advises the United States and Canadian governments on nutritional science for use in Public policy and product labeling programs. Their 2002 ''Dietary reference intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids''<ref>{{cite book|last = Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies | title = Dietary Reference Intakes for [[Energy]], [[Carbohydrate]], [[Fiber]], [[Fat]], [[Fatty Acid]]s, [[Cholesterol]], [[Protein]], and [[Amino Acid]]s (Macronutrients) | publisher = National Academies Press | date = 2005 | pages = i | url = http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309085373/html/R1.html}}</ref> contains their findings and recommendations regarding consumption of trans fat ([http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309085373/html/423.html summary]). Their recommendations are based on two key facts. First, "trans fatty acids are not essential and provide no known benefit to human health",<ref name=p423/> whether of animal or plant origin.<ref>{{cite book|last = Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies | title = Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients) | publisher = National Academies Press | date = 2005 | pages = 447 | url = http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309085373/html/447.html}}</ref> Second, while both saturated and trans fats increase levels of [[LDL cholesterol]] (so-called bad cholesterol), trans fats also lower levels of [[HDL cholesterol]] (good cholesterol);<ref name=p504/> thus increasing the risk of [[coronary heart disease]] (CHD). The NAS is concerned "that dietary trans fatty acids are more deleterious with respect to CHD than saturated fatty acids".<ref name=p504/> This analysis is supported by a 2006 [[New England Journal of Medicine]] (NEJM) scientific review that states "from a nutritional standpoint, the consumption of trans fatty acids results in considerable potential harm but no apparent benefit."<ref name=nejmreview/> Because of these facts and concerns, the NAS has concluded there is no safe level of trans fat consumption. There is no adequate level, recommended daily amount or tolerable upper limit for trans fats. This is because any incremental increase in trans fat intake increases the risk of coronary heart disease.<ref name=p504/> Despite this concern, the NAS dietary recommendations have not recommended the elimination of trans fat from the diet. This is because trans fat is naturally present in many animal foods in trace quantities, and therefore its removal from ordinary diets might introduce undesirable side effects and nutritional imbalances if proper nutritional planning is not undertaken. The NAS has therefore "recommended that trans fatty acid consumption be as low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet".<ref>{{cite book|last = Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies | title = Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients) | publisher = National Academies Press | date = 2005 | pages = 424 | url = http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309085373/html/424.html}}</ref> Like the NAS, the [[World Health Organization]] has tried to balance public health goals with a practical level of trans fat consumption, recommending in 2003 that trans fats be limited to less than 1% of overall energy intake.<ref name=Canada/> The US National Dairy Council has asserted that the trans fats present in animal foods are of a different type than those in partially hydrogenated oils, and do not appear to exhibit the same negative effects.<ref name=dairy>{{cite paper | author = National Dairy Council | title = comments on 'Docket No. 2003N-0076 Food Labeling: Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling' | date = 2004-06-18 | url = http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dailys/04/June04/062304/03N-0076-emc00228-01.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = 2007-01-07 }}</ref> While a recent scientific review agrees with the conclusion (stating that "the sum of the current evidence suggests that the Public health implications of consuming trans fats from ruminant products are relatively limited") it cautions that this may be due to the relatively low consumption of trans fats from animal sources compared to artificial ones. <ref name=nejmreview/> ==Health risks== Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils have been an increasingly significant part of the human diet for about 100 years (particularly so in the latter half of the [[twentieth century|20th century]]), and some deleterious effects of trans fat consumption are scientifically accepted, forming the basis of the health guidelines discussed above. The exact [[biochemistry|biochemical]] methods by which trans fats produce specific health problems are a topic of continuing research. The most prevalent theory is that the human lipase enzyme is specific to the cis configuration. A lipase is a water-soluble enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ester bonds in water–insoluble, lipid substrates[1]. Lipases thus comprise a subclass of the esterases. Lipases perform essential roles in the digestion, transport and processing of dietary lipids (e.g. triglycerides, fats, oils) in most- if not all- living organisms. The human lipase enzyme is ineffective with the trans configuration, so trans fat remains in the blood stream for a much longer period of time and is more prone to arterial deposition and subsequent plaque formation. While the mechanisms through which trans fats contribute to [[coronary heart disease]] are fairly well understood, the mechanism for trans fat's effect on diabetes is still under investigation. ===Coronary heart disease=== The primary health risk identified for trans fat consumption is an elevated risk of [[coronary heart disease]] (CHD).<ref name=TRANSformingApx9>{{cite paper | author = Trans Fat Task Force | title = TRANSforming the Food Supply (Appendix 9iii)| date = June 2006 | url = http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/gras-trans-fats/tf-ge/tf-gt_app9iii_e.html | accessdate = 2007-01-09 }} (Consultation on the health implications of alternatives to trans fatty acids: Summary of Responses from Experts)</ref> A comprehensive review of studies of trans fats was published in 2006 in the [[New England Journal of Medicine]] reports a strong and reliable connection between trans fat consumption and CHD, concluding that "On a per-calorie basis, trans fats appear to increase the risk of CHD more than any other macronutrient, conferring a substantially increased risk at low levels of consumption (1 to 3 percent of total energy intake)".<ref name=nejmreview/> This study estimates that between 30,000 and 100,000 cardiac deaths per year in the United States are attributable to the consumption of trans fats. <ref name="pmid16611951">{{cite journal |author=Mozaffarian D, Katan MB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC |title=Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=354 |issue=15 |pages=1601–13 |year=2006 |pmid=16611951 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra054035}}</ref> The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CHD comes from the [[Nurses' Health Study]] (NHS) — a [[cohort study]] that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the NHS [[statistical population|population]] during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CHD risk roughly doubled ([[relative risk]] of 1.94, [[confidence interval|CI]]: 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, it takes more than a 15% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) to produce a similar increase in risk. Eating non-trans unsaturated fats instead of carbohydrates reduces the risk of CHD rather than increasing it.<ref name=nhs97>{{cite journal |last=Hu |first=FB |coauthors=Stampfer, MJ, Manson, JE, Rimm, E, Colditz, GA, Rosner, BA, Hennekens, CH, Willett, WC|year=1997|title= Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in women|journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=337 |issue=21 |pages=1491–1499 | url = http://content.nejm.org/cgi/reprint/337/21/1491.pdf|doi= 10.1056/NEJM199711203372102|pmid= 9366580 |format=PDF}} PMID 9366580.</ref> {{Clarifyme|date=March 2008}} Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of [[food energy]] from trans fat with non-trans unsaturated fats more than halves the risk of CHD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans unsaturated fats reduces the risk of CHD by 43%.<ref name=nhs97/> Another study considered deaths due to CHD, with consumption of trans fats being linked to an increase in mortality, and consumption of polyunsaturated fats being linked to a decrease in mortality.<ref name=TRANSformingApx9/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Oh |first=K |coauthors=Hu, FB, Manson, JE, Stampfer, MJ, Willett, WC|year=2005|title= Dietary fat intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women: 20 years of follow-up of the nurses' health study|journal=American Journal of Epidemiology |volume=161 |issue=7 |pages=672–679|doi= 10.1093/aje/kwi085|pmid= 15781956 }} PMID 15781956</ref> There are two accepted tests that measure an individual's risk for coronary heart disease, both [[blood test]]s. The first considers [[ratio]]s of two types of [[cholesterol]], the other the amount of a cell-signalling [[cytokine]] called [[C-reactive protein]]. The ratio test is more accepted, while the cytokine test may be more powerful but is still being studied.<ref name=TRANSformingApx9/> The effect of trans fat consumption has been documented on each as follows: *Cholesterol ratio: This ratio compares the levels of [[low-density lipoprotein|LDL]] (so-called "bad" cholesterol) to [[High density lipoprotein|HDL]] (so-called "good" cholesterol). Trans fat behaves like [[saturated fat]] by raising the level of LDL, but unlike saturated fat it has the additional effect of decreasing levels of HDL. The net increase in LDL/HDL ratio with trans fat is approximately double that due to saturated fat.<ref>{{cite journal | author=A Ascherio | title=Trans fatty acids and coronary heart disease | journal=New England Journal of Medicine | year=1999 | volume=340 | issue=25 | pages= 1994&ndash;1998 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&DB=pubmed | doi=10.1056/NEJM199906243402511 | pmid=10379026 }}</ref> (Higher ratios are worse.) One randomized [[crossover study]] published in 2003 comparing the [[postprandial]] effect on blood lipids of (relatively) cis and trans fat rich meals showed that [[cholesteryl ester]] transfer (CET) was 28% higher after the trans meal than after the cis meal and that lipoprotein concentrations were enriched in [[apolipoprotein]](a) after the trans meals.<ref name="gatto"> {{cite journal |last=Gatto |first=Lissa M | coauthors=Sullivan,David R, Samman, Samir| title=Postprandial effects of dietary trans fatty acids on apolipoprotein(a) and cholesteryl ester transfer | journal=Am J Clin Nutr| year=2003 | volume=77 | issue= | pages= 1119&ndash;1124 | url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/77/5/1119.pdf }}</ref> *C-reactive protein (CRP): A study of over 700 nurses showed that those in the highest [[quartile]] of trans fat consumption had blood levels of CRP that were 73% higher than those in the lowest quartile.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lopez-Garcia |first=Esther |title=Consumption of Trans Fatty Acids Is Related to Plasma Biomarkers of Inflammation and Endothelial Dysfunction | journal=The Journal of Nutrition | year=2005 | volume=135 | issue=3 | pages= 562&ndash;566 | url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/135/3/562 | pmid=15735094}}</ref> ===Other effects=== There are suggestions that the negative consequences of trans fat consumption go beyond the cardiovascular risk. In general, there is much less scientific consensus that eating trans fat specifically increases the risk of other chronic health problems: *[[Cancer]]: There is no scientific consensus that consumption of trans fats significantly increases [[cancer]] risks across the board.<ref name=TRANSformingApx9/> The American Cancer Society states that a relationship between trans fats and cancer "has not been determined."<ref>{{cite web | last = American Cancer Society | title = Common questions about diet and cancer | url = http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ped/content/ped_3_2x_common_questions_about_diet_and_cancer.asp | accessdate = 2007-01-09 }}</ref> However, one recent study has found connections between trans fat and prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Chavarro | last = Jorge | coauthors = Meir Stampfer, Hannia Campos, Tobias Kurth, Walter Willett & Jing Ma | title = A prospective study of blood trans fatty acid levels and risk of [[prostate cancer]] | journal = Proc. Amer. Assoc. Cancer Res. | volume = 47 | publisher = American Association for Cancer Research | date = 2006 | url = http://www.aacrmeetingabstracts.org/cgi/content/abstract/2006/1/943 | accessdate = 2007-01-09}}</ref> An increased intake of trans-fatty acids may raise the risk of breast cancer by 75 per cent, suggest the results from the French part of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition.<ref>{{cite pressrelease |url=http://www.iarc.fr/ENG/Press_Releases/pr184a.html |title=Breast cancer: a role for trans fatty acids?}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Chajès V, A. Thiébaut CM, Rotival M, Gauthier E, Maillard V; Boutron-Ruault MC, Joulin V, Lenoir GM, Clavel-Chapelon F |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/kwn069 |title=Serum trans-monounsaturated fatty acids are associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in the E3N-EPIC Study |journal=Am. J. Epidemiol |year=2008 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwn069 |volume=167 |pages=1312 |pmid=18390841}}</ref> *[[Diabetes]]: There is a growing concern that the risk of [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]] increases with trans fat consumption.<ref name=TRANSformingApx9/> However, consensus has not been reached.<ref name=nejmreview/> For example, one study found that risk is higher for those in the highest [[quartile]] of trans fat consumption.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hu FB, van Dam RM, Liu S |year=2001 |title=Diet and risk of Type II diabetes: the role of types of fat and carbohydrate |journal=Diabetologia |volume=44 |issue=7 |pages=805–817 |pmid=11508264 |doi=10.1007/s001250100547}}</ref> Another study has found no diabetes risk once other factors such as total fat intake and BMI were accounted for.<ref>{{cite journal |author=van Dam RM, Stampfer M, Willett WC, Hu FB, Rimm EB |year=2002 |title= Dietary fat and meat intake in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes in men |journal=Diabetes care |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages= 417–424 |pmid=11874924 |doi= 10.2337/diacare.25.3.417}} </ref> *[[Obesity]]: Research indicates that trans fat may increase weight gain and abdominal fat, despite a similar caloric intake.<ref>{{cite news | last = Gosline | first = Anna | title = Why fast foods are bad, even in moderation | work = [[New Scientist]] | date = 2006-06-12 | url = http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn9318&feedId=online-news_rss20 | accessdate = 2007-01-09 }}</ref> A 6-year experiment revealed that monkeys fed a trans-fat diet gained 7.2% of their body weight, as compared to 1.8% for monkeys on a mono-unsaturated fat diet.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.newscientist.com/channel/health/mg19025565.000-six-years-of-fastfood-fats-supersizes-monkeys.html |title=Six years of fast-food fats supersizes monkeys |journal=New Scientist |issue=2556 |date=2006-06-17 |pages=21}}</ref> Although obesity is frequently linked to trans fat in the popular media,<ref>e.g. {{cite news |url=http://www.hhs.gov/news/speech/2003/030709.html |title=Trans Fat Press Conference |author=Thompson Tommy G}}, US Secretary of health and human services</ref> this is generally in the context of eating too many calories; there is no scientific consensus connecting trans fat and obesity. *[[Liver function|Liver Dysfunction]]: Trans fats are metabolized differently by the [[liver]] than other fats and interfere with delta 6 [[desaturase]]. Delta 6 desaturase is an [[enzyme]] involved in converting essential fatty acids to [[arachidonic acid]] and [[prostaglandin]]s, both of which are important to the functioning of cells.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mahfouz M |title=Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on the delta 5, delta 6 and delta 9 desaturases of rat liver microsomes in vivo |journal=Acta biologica et medica germanica |year=1981 |volume=40 |issue=12 |pages=1699–1705 |pmid=7345825}}</ref> *[[Infertility]]: One 2007 study found, "Each 2% increase in the intake of energy from trans unsaturated fats, as opposed to that from carbohydrates, was associated with a 73% greater risk of ovulatory infertility…".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chavarro Jorge E, Rich-Edwards Janet W, Rosner Bernard A and Willett Walter C |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/85/1/231 |title=Dietary fatty acid intakes and the risk of ovulatory infertility |journal=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=85 |number=1 |pages=231–237 |date=2007-01 |pmid=17209201}}</ref> ==Public response and regulation== ===International=== The international trade in food is standardized in the [[Codex Alimentarius]]. Hydrogenated oils and fats come under the scope of Codex Stan 19.<ref>[http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/74/CXS_019e.pdf CODEX STAN 19-1999]</ref> Non-dairy fat spreads are covered by Codex Stan 256-2007.<ref>[http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/10742/CXS_256e.pdf CODEX STAN 256 – 2007 Standard for Fat Spreads and Blended Spreads]</ref>. ===Australia=== The Australian federal government has indicated that it wants to actively pursue a policy of reducing trans fats from fast foods. The former federal assistant health minister, Christopher Pyne, asked fast food outlets to reduce their trans fat usage. A draft plan was proposed, with a September 2007 timetable, in order to reduce reliance on trans fats and saturated fats.<ref>{{cite news | title=Fast food outlets asked to cut down trans fat usage | date=[[March 12]], [[2007]] | publisher=ABC |url=http://abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200703/s1869810.htm | accessdate = 2007-03-12 }}</ref> Currently, Australia's food labeling laws do not require trans fats to be shown separately from the total fat content. However, margarine in Australia has been free of trans fat since 1996.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Trans fatty acids in adipose tissue and the food supply are associated with myocardial infarction | month=apr | year = 2004 | author = Peter M. Clifton, Jennifer B. Keogh, and Manny Noakes | journal=The Journal of Nutrition | pages=874–879 | volume=134 | publisher=Amer Inst Nutrition | issn=0022-3166 | url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/abstract/134/4/874 | accessdate=[[26 December]], 2007 | pmid=15051840}}</ref> ===Canada=== In November 2004, an [[opposition day]] motion seeking a ban similar to Denmark's was introduced by [[Jack Layton]] of the [[New Democratic Party]], and passed through the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]] by an overwhelming 193-73 vote.<ref> {{cite web | title=The motion and the vote in the Canadian House of Commons on November 23, 2004 | url=http://www.bantransfats.com/canadamotion.htm | accessdate=2007-06-07 }}</ref> Like all Commons motions, it served as an expression of the views of the House but was not binding on the government and has no force under the law. Since December 2005, [[Health Canada]] has required that food labels list the amount of trans fat in the nutrition facts section for most foods. Products with less than 0.2 grams of trans fat per serving may be labeled as free of trans fats.<ref>[http://canadagazette.gc.ca/partII/2003/20030101/pdf/g2-13701.pdf#page=399 Canadian Regulations]</ref> These labelling allowances are not widely known, but as an awareness of them develops, controversy over truthful labelling is growing. In Canada, trans fat quantities on labels include naturally occurring trans fats from animal sources.<ref> {{cite web | last = Canadian Food Inspection Agency | title = Information letter: Labelling of trans fatty acids | url = http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/inform/20050914e.shtml | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> In June 2006, a task force co-chaired by Health Canada and the [[Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada]] recommended a limit of 5% trans fat (of total fat) in all products sold to consumers in Canada (2% for tub margarines and spreads).<ref name=Canada/> The amount was selected such that "most of the industrially produced trans fats would be removed from the Canadian diet, and about half of the remaining trans fat intake would be of naturally occurring trans fats". This recommendation has been endorsed by the [[Canadian Restaurant and Foodservices Association]]<ref> {{cite web | last = Canadian Restaurant and foodservices association | title = Restaurant industry commits to Trans Fat Task Force recommendations | url = http://www.crfa.ca/issues/2006/restaurant_industry_commits_to_trans_fat_recommendations.asp | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> and [[Food & Consumer Products of Canada]] has congratulated the task force on the report,<ref>{{cite pressrelease | last = Food & Consumer Products of Canada | title = Food industry congratulates trans fat task force on report | url = http://www.fcpc.ca/mediaroom/releases/2006/Trans%20Fat%20Report%20News%20release%20June%2028%2006.pdf | format = PDF | date = 2006-06-08 | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> although it did not recommend delaying implementation to 2010 as they had previously advocated.<ref> {{cite news | last = | publisher = CBC News | title = Cut trans fats from food supply, health groups tell Ottawa | url = http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2007/04/05/trans-fats.html | accessdate = 2007-06-21 }}</ref> Ten months after submitting their report the [[Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada]] and Toronto [[Public Health]] issued a plea to the government of Canada: "to act immediately on the task force's recommendations and to eliminate harmful trans fat from Canada's food supply."<ref> {{cite news | last = | publisher = CBC News | title = In Depth - Trans fats | url = http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/fats/transfats.html | accessdate = 2007-06-07 }}</ref> On [[June 20]], [[2007]], the federal government announced its intention to regulate trans fats to the June 2006 standard unless the food industry voluntarily complied with these limits within two years.<ref> {{cite web | last=Health Canada | title = Canada's New Government Calls on Industry to Adopt Limits for Trans Fat | url = http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/media/nr-cp/2007/2007_74_e.html | accessdate = 2007-06-20 }}</ref><ref> {{cite news | last= | publisher = CBC News | title = Health Canada delays trans fat regulations | url = http://www.cbc.ca/consumer/story/2007/06/21/trans-fats.html | accessdate = 2007-06-21 }}</ref> On January 1, 2008, [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] became the first city in Canada to ban trans fats from restaurants and fast food chains. Trans fats present in cooking oils may not exceed 2% of the total fat content.<ref> {{cite news | last= | publisher = CBC News | title = Calgary moves against trans fats | url = http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2007/12/29/calgary-fats.html | date = 2007-12-29 | accessdate = 2008-01-13 }}</ref> ===Denmark=== [[Denmark]] became the first country to introduce laws strictly regulating the sale of many foods containing trans fats in [[March 2003]], a move which effectively [[ban (law)|bans]] partially hydrogenated oils. The limit is 2% of fats and oils destined for human consumption. It should be noted that this restriction is on the ''ingredients'' rather than the final products. This regulatory approach has made Denmark the only country in which it is possible to eat "far less" than 1 g of industrially produced trans fats on a daily basis, even with a diet including prepared foods.<ref>{{cite journal| last =Stender | first = Steen | coauthors = Jørn Dyerberg, Anette Bysted, Torben Leth & Arne Astrup | title = A ''trans'' world journey | journal =Atherosclerosis Supplements | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 47–52 | publisher = Elsevier | date = May 2006 | doi = 10.1016/j.atherosclerosissup.2006.04.011 | accessdate = 2007-01-09 }}</ref> It is hypothesized that the Danish government's efforts to decrease trans fat intake from 6g to 1g per day over 20 years is related to a 50% decrease in deaths from ischemic heart disease. <ref name="pmid14679314">{{cite journal |author=Stender S, Dyerberg J |title=Influence of trans fatty acids on health |journal=Ann. Nutr. Metab. |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=61–6 |year=2004 |pmid=14679314 |doi=10.1159/000075591}}</ref> ===Switzerland=== [[Switzerland]] followed Denmark's trans fats ban, and implemented its own beginning in April 2008.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-wellbeing/healthy-living/deadly-fats-why-are-we-still-eating-them-843400.html |title=Deadly fats: why are we still eating them? |date=2008-06-10 |publisher=The Independent |accessdate=2008-06-16}}</ref> ===European Union=== The [[European Food Safety Authority]] was asked to produce a scientific opinion on trans fats.<ref>{{cite journal | last = European Food Safety Authority | title = Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies on a request from the Commission related to the presence of trans fatty acids in foods and the effect on human health of the consumption of trans fatty acids | journal = The EFSA Journal | volume = 81 | pages = 1–49 | date = 2004 | url = http://www.efsa.europa.eu/science/nda/nda_opinions/588_en.html | accessdate = 2007-01-18 | format = {{dead link|date=June 2008}} &ndash; <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3AEuropean+Food+Safety+Authority+intitle%3AOpinion+of+the+Scientific+Panel+on+Dietetic+Products%2C+Nutrition+and+Allergies+on+a+request+from+the+Commission+related+to+the+presence+of+trans+fatty+acids+in+foods+and+the+effect+on+human+health+of+the+consumption+of+trans+fatty+acids&as_publication=The+EFSA+Journal&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup> }}</ref> ===United Kingdom=== In October 2005, the [[Food Standards Agency]] (FSA) asked for better labelling in the UK.<ref>{{cite news | first=Richard | last=Gray | title=Forced to own up to the killer fat in our food | date=[[February 5]], [[2006]] | publisher=Scotsman.com |url=http://news.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=183932006 | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> In the [[July 29]], [[2006]] edition of the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'', an editorial also called for better labelling.<ref>{{cite news | title = Call to label hidden fats in food | publisher = BBC | date = 2006-07-20 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/5218240.stm | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }} reporting on {{cite journal | last = Clarke | first = Robert | coauthors = Lewington, Sarah | title = Trans fatty acids and coronary heart disease | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 333 | issue = 7561 | pages = 214 | date = 2006-07-29 | url = http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/333/7561/214 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.333.7561.214 | accessdate = 2007-01-18 | pmid = 16873835 }}</ref> In January 2007, the British Retail Consortium announced that major UK retailers, including [[ASDA]], [[Boots]], [[Co-op]], [[Iceland (supermarket)|Iceland]], [[Marks and Spencer]], [[Sainsbury's]], [[Tesco]] and [[Waitrose]] intend to cease adding trans fatty acids to their own products by the end of 2007.<ref>{{cite news | title=Retailers to stop trans-fat use | date=[[January 31]], [[2007]] | publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6314753.stm | accessdate = 2007-01-31 }}</ref> [[Sainsbury's]] became the first UK major retailer to ban all trans fat from all their [[own brand]] foods. On [[13 December]] 2007, the [[Food Standards Agency]] issued news releases stating that voluntary measures to reduce trans fats in food had already resulted in safe levels of consumer intake.<ref>[[Food Standards Agency]] [http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2007/dec/trans Board recommends voluntary approach for trans fats] [[13 December]] 2007</ref><ref>[[Food Standards Agency]] [http://www.food.gov.uk/news/pressreleases/2007/dec/boardtransfatadvice FSA Board to advise the Department of Health to maintain successful voluntary approach for trans fats in food] [[13 December]] 2007</ref> ===United States=== [[Image:Nyc-trans-poster.gif|frame|right|Poster from [[New York City]]'s board of health encouraging consumers to limit trans fat consumption.]] Before 2006, consumers in the [[United States]] could not directly determine the presence (or quantity) of trans fats in food products. This information could only be inferred from the ingredient list, notably from the partially hydrogenated ingredients. According to the FDA, the average American consumes 5.8 grams of trans fat per day (2.6% of calories.) <ref>[http://www.fda.gov/FDAC/features/2003/503_fats.html "Revealing 'Trans' Fats"] US Food and Drug Administration</ref> On [[July 11]], [[2003]], the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) issued a regulation requiring manufacturers to list trans fat on the Nutrition Facts panel of foods and some dietary supplements.<ref>Regulation: [[21 CFR]] 101.9 (c)(2)(ii). {{cite web | last = Food and Drug Administration | title =21 CFR Part 101. Food Labeling; Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling; Consumer Research to Consider Nutrient Content and Health Claims and Possible Footnote or Disclosure Statements; Final Rule and Proposed Rule | publisher = National Archives and Records Administration | date = 2003-07-11 | url = http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~acrobat/fr03711a.pdf | accessdate = 2007-01-18 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=FDA Acts to Provide Better Information to Consumers on Trans Fats | work=Food and Drug Administration | url=http://www.fda.gov/oc/initiatives/transfat/ | accessdate=2005-07-26 }}</ref> The new labeling rule became mandatory across the board, even for companies that petitioned for extensions, on [[January 1]], [[2008]]. However, unlike many other countries trans fat levels of less than 0.5 grams per serving can be listed as 0 grams trans fat on the food label. Though this is a small amount, multiple servings can exceed recommended levels. According to a study published in the Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, without an interpretive footnote or further information on recommended daily value, many consumers do not know how to interpret the meaning of trans-fat content on the Nutrition Facts panel. In fact, without specific prior knowledge about trans fat and its negative health effects, consumers, including those at risk for heart disease, may misinterpret nutrient information provided on the panel.<ref>[http://newswise.com/articles/view/541842/ Newswise: Most Consumers Misinterpret Meaning of Trans-Fat Information on Nutrition Facts Panel] Retrieved on June 19, 2008.</ref> The FDA did not approve nutrient content claims such as "trans fat free" or "low trans fat", as they could not determine a "recommended daily value", however the agency is planning a consumer study to evaluate the consumer understanding of such claims and perhaps consider a regulation allowing their use on packaged foods.<ref>{{cite web | last = Food and Drug Administration | title = FDA Food Labeling: Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling; Consumer Research to Consider Nutrient Content and Health Claims and Possible Footnote or Disclosure Statements, page 41059 | date = 2003-07-11 | url = http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/fr03711b.html | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> However, there is no requirement to list trans fats on institutional food packaging, thus bulk purchasers like schools, hospitals, and cafeterias are unable to evaluate the trans fat content of commercial food items. <ref>{{cite web | last = American Public Health Association| title =Restricting trans Fatty Acids in the Food Supply| url=http://www.apha.org/advocacy/policy/policysearch/default.htm?id=1366 | accessdate = 2008-02-28}}</ref> The FDA defines trans fats as containing one or more ''trans'' linkage that are not in a [[conjugated system]]. This is an important distinction, as it distinguishes non-conjugated synthetic trans fats from naturally occurring fatty acids with conjugated trans double bonds, such as [[conjugated linoleic acid]]. Critics of the plan, including FDA advisor Dr. Carlos Camargo, have expressed concern that the 0.5 gram per serving threshold is too high to refer to a food as free of trans fat. This is because a person eating many servings of a product, or eating multiple products over the course of the day may still consume a significant amount of trans fat.<ref>{{cite news | last = Shockman | first = Luke | title = Trans fat: 'Zero' foods add up | publisher = Toledo Blade | date = 2005-12-05 | url = http://toledoblade.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051205/NEWS32/512030320 | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> Despite this, the FDA estimates that by 2009, trans fat labeling will have prevented from 600 to 1,200 cases of coronary heart disease and 250 to 500 deaths each year. This benefit is expected to result from consumers choosing alternative foods lower in trans fats as well as manufacturers reducing the amount of trans fats in their products. The [[American Public Health Association]] adopted a new policy statement regarding trans fats in 2007. These new guidelines, entitled Restricting Trans Fatty Acids in the Food Supply, recommend that the government require nutrition facts labeling of trans fats on all commercial food products. They also urge federal, state, and local governments to ban and monitor use of trans fats in restaurants. Furthermore, the APHA recommends barring the sales and availability of foods containing significant amounts of trans fat in public facilities including universities, prisons, and day care facilities etc. <ref>{{cite web | last = American Public Health Association| title =Restricting trans Fatty Acids in the Food Supply| url=http://www.apha.org/advocacy/policy/policysearch/default.htm?id=1366 | accessdate = 2008-02-28}}</ref> ====Local regulation==== Some US cities are acting to reduce consumption of trans fats. In May 2005, [[Tiburon, California|Tiburon]], [[California]], became the first American city where all restaurants voluntarily cook with trans fat-free oils.<ref>{{cite web | last = BanTransFats.com, Inc. | title = Project Tiburon: America's First Trans Fat-Free City!!! | url = http://www.bantransfats.com/projecttiburon.html | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> [[Montgomery County, Maryland|Montgomery County]], [[Maryland]] approved a ban on partially hydrogenated oils, becoming the first county in the nation to restrict trans fats.<ref>{{cite news | title = Montgomery Bans Trans Fats in Restaurants, Markets | publisher = The Washington Post | date = 2007-05-16 | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/15/AR2007051501387.html | accessdate = 2007-06-28 }}</ref> [[New York City]] has embarked on a campaign to reduce consumption of trans fats, noting that heart disease is the primary cause of resident deaths. This has included a Public education campaign (see [http://home2.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/cardio/cardio-transfat-brochure.pdf trans fat pamphlet]) and a request to restaurant owners to voluntarily eliminate trans fat from their offerings.<ref>{{cite press release | title = Health department asks restaurateurs and food suppliers to voluntarily make an oil change and eliminate artificial trans fat | publisher = City of New York | date = 2005-08-10 | url = http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/pr/pr083-05.shtml | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> Finding that the voluntary program was not successful, New York City's Board of Health has solicited public comments on a proposal to ban artificial trans fats in restaurants.<ref>{{cite press release | title = Health department proposes two changes to city's health code for Public comment | publisher = City of New York | date = 2006-09-26 | url = http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/pr2006/pr093-06.shtml | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> The board voted to ban trans fat in restaurant food on [[December 5]], [[2006]]. New York is the first large US city to strictly limit trans fats in restaurants. Restaurants were barred from using most frying and spreading fats containing artificial trans fats above 0.5 g per serving on [[July 1]], [[2007]], and will have to meet the same target in all of their foods by July 1, 2008.<ref>{{cite press release | title = Board of health votes to phase out artificial trans fat from New York City's restaurants | publisher = City of New York | date = 2006-12-05 | url = http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/pr2006/pr114-06.shtml | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> [[Philadelphia]] also recently passed a ban on trans fats. Philadelphia's City Council voted unanimously to pass a ban on [[February 8]], [[2007]], which was signed into law on [[February 15]], [[2007]], by Mayor [[John F. Street]].<ref>{{cite news | last = Kerkstra | first = Patrick and Julie Stoiber | title = Ban gives Phila. a healthy lead in trans-fat fight | work = Philadelphia Inquirer | date = 2007-02-09 | url = http://www.phelly.com/mld/inquirer/news/local/states/pennsylvania/counties/philadelphia_county/philadelphia/16657321.htm | accessdate = 2007-02-23 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last = McCaffrey | first = Jim | title = Street Signs Trans-Fat Ban Bill | publisher = The Evening Bulletin | date = 2007-02-16 | url = http://www.thebulletin.us/site/news.cfm?newsid=17860199&BRD=2737&PAG=461&dept_id=576361&rfi=6 | accessdate = 2007-02-23 }}</ref> By [[September 1]], [[2007]], eateries must cease frying food in trans fats. A year later, trans fat must not be used as an ingredient in commercial kitchens. The law does not apply to prepackaged foods sold in the city. On October 10, 2007, the Philadelphia City Council approved the use of trans-fats by small bakeries throughout the city. <ref>{{cite press release | title = Amending Section 6-307 of The Philadelphia Code, entitled "Foods Containing Artificial Trans Fats," by exempting certain bakeries from the provisions prohibiting the use of artificial trans fats, under certain terms and conditions | publisher = Philadelphia City Council | date = 2007-10-10 | url=http://webapps.phila.gov/council/detailreport/?key=7421 | accessdate = 2007-10-11}}</ref> [[Albany County, New York|Albany County]] of New York passed a ban on trans fats. The ban was adopted after a unanimous vote by the county legislature on [[May 14]], [[2007]]. The decision was made after New York City's decision, but no plan has been put into place. Legislators received a letter from Rick J. Sampson, president and CEO of the New York State Restaurant Association, calling on them to "delay any action on this issue until the full impact of the New York City ban is known." [[San Francisco]] officially asked its restaurants to stop using trans fat in January 2008. The voluntary program will grant a city decal to restaurants that comply and apply for the decal.<ref>{{cite news | title = San Francisco restaurants asked to ban trans fats | publisher = The Union Tribune| date = 2008-02-02 | url = http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/state/20080130-0805-ca-transfatban.html | accessdate = 2008-02-02 }}</ref> Legislators say the next step will be a mandatory ban. [[Chicago]] also considered a ban on oils containing trans fats for large chain restaurants, and finally settled on a partial ban on oils and posting requirements for fast food restaurants.<ref>{{cite web | title = No more trans fat | work = Chicago Sun-Times | date = 2007-07-02 | url = http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=11A232ACF4521AA0&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM | accessdate = 2008-02-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Davey | first = Monica | title = Chicago Weighs New Prohibition: Bad-for-You Fats | work = New York Times | date = 2006-07-18 | url = http://travel2.nytimes.com/2006/07/18/us/18chicago.html | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> On [[December 19]], [[2006]], [[Massachusetts]] state representative [[Peter Koutoujian]] filed the first state level legislation that would ban restaurants from preparing foods with trans fats.<ref>{{cite web | title = Lawmaker wants to ban trans fats from Mass. restaurants | work = Boston Globe | date = 2006-12-19 | url = http://www.boston.com/business/ticker/2006/12/lawmaker_wants.html | accessdate = 2007-03-20 }}</ref> Similarly, [[Maryland]], [[California]], and [[Vermont]] are also considering statewide bans of trans fats.<ref>{{cite web | title = Trans Fat Ban Considered in Maryland | work = Associated Press | date = 2007-03-08 | url = http://www.news8.net/news/stories/0307/403770.html | accessdate = 2007-03-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Trans fat ban bill proposed in Senate | work = Daniel Barlow Vermont Press Bureau | date = 2007-03-10 | url = http://www.timesargus.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070310/NEWS02/703100328 | accessdate = 2007-03-20 }}</ref> [[King County]] of [[Washington]] passed a ban on artificial trans fats effective [[February 1]], [[2009]].<ref>{{cite web | last = Black | first = Cherie | title = King County restaurants told to phase out trans fats | work = Seattle P-I date = 2007-06-19 | url = http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/324410_transfats20.html | accessdate = 2007-07-16}}</ref> ==Food industry response== ===Manufacturer response=== [[The J.M. Smucker Company]], American manufacturer of [[Crisco]] (the original partially hydrogenated vegetable shortening), in 2004 released a new formulation made from solid [[saturated]] [[palm oil]] cut with [[soybean oil]] and [[sunflower oil]]. This blend yielded an equivalent shortening much like the previous partially hydrogenated Crisco, and was labelled zero grams of trans fat per 1 [[tablespoon]] serving (as compared with 1.5 grams per tablespoon of original Crisco).<ref>{{cite web | last = Crisco | title = Crisco 0 Grams Trans Fat Per Serving All-Vegetable Shortening | url = http://www.crisco.com/about/prod_info.asp?groupID=17&catId=63&FlavorId=344 | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> As of [[January 24]], [[2007]], Smucker claims that all Crisco shortening products in the US have been reformulated to contain less than one gram of trans fat per serving while keeping saturated fat content less than butter.<ref name="crisco">"[http://crisco.com/about/shortening_0gramstransfat_faq.asp Crisco Frequently Asked Questions]." ''[[Crisco]].'' Retrieved on [[September 13]], [[2007]].</ref> The separately marketed trans-fat free version introduced in 2004 was discontinued. On [[May 22]][[2004]], [[Unilever]], the corporate descendant of [[Joseph Crosfield]] & Sons (the original producer of [[Wilhelm Normann]]'s hydrogenation hardened oils) announced that they have eliminated transfats from all their margarine products in [[Canada]], including their flagship Becel brand.<ref name="canlist">[http://www.fcpc.ca/issues/hal/transfat.html "List of Canadian industry actions to reduce transfats"]. ''[http://www.fcpc.ca/ Food & Consumer Products of Canada (FCPC)].'' Retrieved on [[September 13]], [[2007]].</ref> Agribusiness giant [[Bunge Limited]], through their Bunge Oils division are now producing and marketing an ''NT'' product line of non-hydrogenated oils, margarines and shortenings, made from corn, canola, and soy oils www.transfatsolutions.com .<ref>[http://www.transfatsolutions.com Bunge Oils]</ref> ===Major users' response=== <!-- please don't add text like "Foo industries just removed trans fat from their fried snorbits" unless that manufacturer's action is notable in the larger context of trans fat. List that information on the company's own Wikipedia entry instead. See talk page. --> Some major food chains have chosen to remove or reduce trans fats in their products. In some cases these changes have been voluntary. In other cases, however, food vendors have been targeted by legal action that has generated a lot of media attention. In May 2003, BanTransFats.com Inc., a U.S. non-profit corporation, filed a lawsuit against the food manufacturer [[Kraft Foods]] in an attempt to force Kraft to remove trans fats from the [[Oreo]] cookie. The lawsuit was withdrawn when Kraft agreed to work on ways to find a substitute for the trans fat in the Oreo. In November 2006, Arby's announced<ref>{{cite news | last = Turner | first = Dorie | title = Arby's Announces Trans Fat Reduction | work = USA Today | publisher = Associated Press | date = 2006-11-29 | url = http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/2006-11-29-arbys-transfat_x.htm | accessdate = 2007-12-13 }}</ref> that by May 2007, it would be eliminating trans fat from its french fries and reducing it in other products. Similarly, in 2006, the [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] sued [[KFC]] over its use of trans fats in fried foods.<ref> {{cite press release | title = KFC Sued for Fouling Chicken with Partially Hydrogenated Oil: Lawsuit Aimed at Eliminating, or Disclosing Use of Artery-Clogging Frying Oil | publisher = [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] | date = 2006-06-12 | url = http://www.cspinet.org/new/200606121.html | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> concerning their class action complaint.<ref> {{cite web | title = Class action complaint | date = 2006-06-12 | url = http://www.cspinet.org/new/pdf/final_complaint.pdf | accessdate = 2007-01-18 |format=PDF}}</ref> KFC reviewed alternative oil options, saying "there are a number of factors to consider including maintaining KFC's unique taste and flavor of [[Colonel Sanders]]' Original Recipe".<ref>{{cite news | last = Burros | first = Marian | title = KFC Is Sued Over the Use of Trans Fats in Its Cooking | work = New York Times | date = 2006-06-14 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/14/us/14fat.html?ex=1307937600&en=01d0b7b6b5c00eb6&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> On [[October 30]], [[2006]], KFC announced that it will replace the partially hydrogenated soybean oil it currently uses with a zero-trans-fat low linolenic soybean oil in all restaurants in the US by April 2007, although its biscuits will still contain trans-fats.<ref> {{cite press release | title = KFC announces switch to zero trans fat cooking oil following two-year test for same great taste | publisher = [[KFC]] | date = 2006-10-30 | url = http://www.kfc.com/about/pressreleases/103006.asp | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> Despite the US-specific nature of the lawsuit, KFC is making changes outside of the US as well; in Canada, KFC's brand owner is switching to trans-fat free Canadian canola oil by early 2007.<ref> {{cite press release | title = KFC Canada phasing in zero grams trans fat menu in all 786 restaurants nationally early in the new year | publisher = KFC Canada | date = 2006-10-30 | url = http://www.cnw.ca/en/releases/archive/October2006/30/c5869.html | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> [[Wendy's]] announced in June 2006 plans to eliminate trans-fats from 6,300 restaurants in the United States and Canada, starting in August 2006.<ref> {{cite press release | title = Wendy's Significantly Cuts Trans Fats — Switch to New Cooking Oil Under Way | publisher = Wendy's | date = 2006-06-08 | url = http://www.wendys.com/about_us/news/index.jsp?news=5 | accessdate = 2007-01-18 }}</ref> In November 2006, Taco Bell made a similar announcement, pledging to remove Trans Fat from many of their menu items by switching to canola oil. By April 2007, 15 Taco Bell menu items were completely free of Trans Fat. In January 2007, [[McDonald's]] announced they will start phasing out the trans fat in their fries after years of testing and several delays.<ref name="McDs">[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16873869/ McDonald’s finally picks trans-fat-free oil. ''[[MSNBC]].'' [[January 30]], [[2007]]. Retrieved on [[September 13]], [[2007]]]</ref> This can be partially attributed to New York's recent ban, with the company stating they would not be selling a unique oil just for New York customers but would implement a nationwide change. In response to a [[May 2007]] law suit from the [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]], [[Burger King]] announced that its 7,100 US restaurants will begin the switch to zero trans-fat oil by the end of 2007.<ref> {{cite press release | title = Burger King to Use Trans-Fat-Free Oil | author = Adrian Sainz | publisher = AP | date = 2006-07-06 | url = http://www.physorg.com/news102934980.html | accessdate = 2007-07-06 }}</ref> The [[Walt Disney Company]] announced that they will begin getting rid of trans fats in meals at US theme parks by the end of [[2007]], and will stop the inclusion of trans fats in licensed or promotional products by [[2008]].<ref> {{cite press release | title = The Walt Disney Company Introduces New Food Guidelines To Promote Healthier Kids' Diets | publisher = [[Walt Disney Company]] | date = 2006-10-16 | url = http://www.magicalmountain.net/WDWNewsDetail.asp?page=24&NewsID=1341&type=1&tag= | accessdate = 2007-09-12 }}</ref> The [[Girl Scouts of America]] announced in November 2006 that all of their cookies will contain less than 0.5g trans fats per serving, thus meeting or exceeding the FDA guidelines for the "zero trans fat" designation.<ref> {{cite press release | title = Statement from GSUSA CEO Kathy Cloninger: Girl Scout Cookies Now Have Zero Trans Fats | date= 2006-11-13 | url = http://www.girlscouts.org/news/news_releases/2006/gs_cookies_now_have_zero_trans_fats.asp | accessdate =2008-02-26 }}</ref> Health Canada's monitoring program, which tracks the changing amounts of TFA and SFA in fast and prepared foods shows considerable progress in TFA reduction by some industrial users while others lag behind. In many cases, SFAs are being substituted for the TFAs.<ref>[http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/gras-trans-fats/tfa-age_e.html Health Canada. ''Trans Fat Monitoring Program'']</ref><ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2007/12/20/transfats-monitoring.html CBC News ''Trans-fat levels dropping, though Burger King in the hot seat'' [[2007-12-20]] accessed [[2007-12-21]]]</ref> == See also == *[[Diet and Heart Disease]] *[[Interesterified fat]] == References == {{reflist|2}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Dijkstra Albert, Hamilton Richard J., Hamm Wolf (eds.) |title=Trans Fatty Acids |publisher=Blackwell |year=2008 |isbn=9781405156912}} *{{cite journal| url=http://members.ift.org/NR/rdonlyres/27B49B9B-EA63-4D73-BAB4-42FEFCD72C68/0/crfsfsv4n1p00220030ms20040577.pdf |format=PDF |author=Jang ES, Jung MY, Min DB |title=Hydrogenation for Low Trans and High Conjugated Fatty Acids |journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety |volume=1 |year=2005}} *{{cite book |author=Fred A. Kummerow|title=Cholesterol Won't Kill You, But Trans Fat Could|publisher=Trafford |year=2008 |isbn=142513808}} == External links == *[http://www.bantransfat.com Ban Trans Fat] *[http://www.voicemagazine.org/articles/articledisplay.php?ART=5145 "Ban the Trans: These Sorry Lipids Should Go Away"] *[http://www.cspinet.org/transfat/ Center for Science in the Public Interest Trans Fat Page] *[http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/fattyacids.html Chemical Structure of Fats and Fatty Acids] *[http://www.notrans.org.my/index.php No Trans Club Malaysia] *[http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/%7Elrd/fr03711a.html Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling] {{Lipids}} [[Category:Lipids]] [[Category:Nutrition]] [[Category:Fatty acids|#]] [[Category:Carboxylic acids]] [[zh-min-nan:Tùi-hoán-pêng lâ-sng]] [[ca:Àcid gras trans]] [[da:Transfedtsyre]] [[de:Transfettsäuren]] [[es:Ácido graso trans]] [[fr:Acide gras trans]] [[ko:트랜스지방]] [[it:Acidi grassi trans]] [[he:חומצת טראנס]] [[hu:Transz-zsírsav]] [[nl:Transvet]] [[ja:トランス脂肪酸]] [[no:Transfett]] [[pl:Trans tłuszcze]] [[pt:Gordura trans]] [[ru:Транс-жиры]] [[simple:Trans fat]] [[fi:Transrasva]] [[sv:Transfett]] [[zh-yue:反式脂肪]] [[zh:反式脂肪]]