Tumulus
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2008-06-29T19:23:23Z
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{{for|the folk metal band|Tumulus (band)}}
[[Image:Gamla uppsala.jpg|350px|thumb|The [[Royal mounds]] of [[Gamla Uppsala]] in [[Sweden]] from the 5th and the 6th centuries. Originally, the site had 2000 to 3000 tumuli, but owing to quarrying and agriculture only 250 remain.]]
A '''tumulus''' (plural '''tumuli''') is a [[mound]] of [[Soil|earth]] and [[Rock (geology)|stone]]s raised over a [[Grave (burial)|grave]] or graves. Tumuli are also known as '''barrows''', '''burial mounds''', or '''[[kurgan]]s''', and can be found throughout much of the [[world]]. A tumulus composed largely or entirely of stones is usually referred to as a [[cairn]].
The method of inhumation may involve a [[dolmen]], a [[cist]], a [[mortuary enclosure]], a [[mortuary house]] or a [[chamber tomb]]. Examples of barrows include [[Duggleby Howe]] and [[Maeshowe]].
The word is Latin for 'mound' or 'small hill', from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] root *''teuh<sub>2</sub>-'' with extended zero grade *''tum-'', 'to bulge, swell' also found in ''tumor'', ''thumb'', ''thigh'' and ''thousand''.<ref>Calvert Watkins, ''American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots'', 2000, p. 92.</ref>
[[Image:Sulm valley tumulus.jpg|350px|thumb|One of the [[Hallstatt culture]]-era tumuli in the [[Burgstallkogel (Sulm valley)|Sulm valley necropolis]]]]
"Tumulus" can also refer to a formation caused by the uplift of [[lava]] on a [[pahoehoe]] flow field. The lava pushes up against the recently solidified surface creating tumuli along the surface.
==Tumulus burial accounts==
The funeral of Patroclus is described in book 23 of the ''[[Iliad]]''. Patroclus is burned on a pyre, and his bones are collected into a golden urn in two layers of fat. The barrow is built on the location of the pyre. Achilles then sponsors funeral games, consisting of a [[chariot race]], boxing, wrestling, running, a duel between two champions to the first blood, discus throwing, archery and spear throwing.
Beowulf is taken to Hronesness, where he burned on a funeral pyre. During cremation, the Geats lament the death of their lord, the widow's lament being mentioned in particular, singing dirges as they circumambulate the barrow.
Afterwards, a mound is built on top of a hill, overlooking the sea, and filled with treasure. A band of twelve of the best warriors ride around the barrow, singing dirges in praise of their lord.
Parallels have also been drawn to the account of [[Attila]]'s burial in [[Jordanes]]' ''[[Getica]]''.<ref>Frederick Klaeber, ''Attila's and Beowulf's funeral'', PMLA (1927);
Martin Puhvel, ''The Ride around Beowulf's Barrow'', Folklore (1983).</ref> Jordanes tells that as Attila's body was lying in state, the best horsemen of the Huns circled it, as in circus games.
An Old Irish ''Life of [[Columcille]]'' reports that every funeral procession "halted at a mound called Eala, whereupon the corpse was laid, and the mourners marched thrice solemnly round the spot."
==Types of barrows==
[[Archaeology|Archaeologists]] often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction. See also [[mound]]. Some British types are listed below:
<!-- please don't add more info here. I'm in the process of creating a separate page for each barrow type -->
*[[Bank barrow]]
*[[Bell barrow]]
*[[Bowl barrow]]
*[[D-shaped barrow]] A round barrow with a purposely flat edge at one side often defined by stone slabs
*[[Fancy barrow]] A generic term for any [[Bronze Age]] barrows more elaborate than a simple hemispherical shape.
*[[Long barrow]]
*[[Oval barrow]] A type of [[Neolithic]] long barrow consisting of an elliptical, rather than rectangular or trapezoidal mound.
*[[Platform barrow]] The least common of the recognised types of round barrow, consisting of a flat, wide circular mound, which may be surrounded by a ditch. They occur widely across southern England with a marked concentration in East and West [[Sussex]].
*[[Pond barrow]] a barrow consisting of a shallow circular depression, surrounded by a bank running around the rim of the depression. [[Bronze age]]
*[[Ring barrow]] a bank which encircles a number of burials.
*[[Round barrow]] a circular feature created by the [[Bronze Age]] peoples of Britain and also the later [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Vikings]] and [[Saxons]]. Divided into sub classes such as saucer and bell barrow. The [[Six Hills]] are a rare Roman example.
*[[Saucer barrow]] circular Bronze Age barrow featuring a low, wide mound surrounded by a ditch which may be accompanied by an external bank.
*[[Square barrow]] A burial site, usually of [[Iron Age]] date, consisting of a small, square, ditched enclosure surrounding a central burial, which may also have been covered by a mound
==Excavation==
*[[Thomas Bateman]]
*[[William Copeland Borlase]]
*Sir [[Richard Colt Hoare]]
*[[William Cunnington]]
*Rev. [[Bryan Faussett]]
*Canon [[William Greenwell]]
*[[Llewellyn Jewitt]]
*Rev. [[W. C. Lukis]]
*[[John Robert Mortimer]]
*[[Augustus Pitt Rivers]]
*[[John Thurman]]
*[[Charles Warne]]
==Sites==
{{split|List of tumuli}}
===Eastern Europe, Central Asia ===
{{main|Kurgan}}
The word [[kurgan]] is of [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] origin borrowed from [[Russian language]]. In Ukraine and Russia, there are royal kurgans of [[Varangian]] chieftains, such as the [[Black Grave]] in Ukrainian [[Chernihiv]] (excavated in the 19th century), [[Oleg of Novgorod|Oleg]]'s Grave in Russian [[Staraya Ladoga]], and vast, intricate [[Rurik]]'s Hill near Russian [[Novgorod|Rurikovo gorodische]]. Other important kurgans are found in Ukraine and South Russia and are associated with much more ancient [[steppe]] peoples, notably the [[Scythian]]s (e.g.,Chortomlyk, [[Pazyryk]]) and [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]] (e.g., [[Ipatovo]]) The steppe cultures found in Ukraine and South Russia naturally continue into [[Central Asia]], in particular [[Kazakhstan]].
====Bulgaria====
[[Image:VarnaMemorial.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Memorial of the [[Battle of Varna]] of 1444 carved into an ancient [[Thracians|Thracian]] burial mound. The sign in front is for [[Władysław III of Poland]]]]
Hundreds of [[Thracian]] burial mounds are found throughout Bulgaria, including the [[Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak|Kazanlak]] and [[Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari|Sveshtari]] tombs, [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage]] sites. Located near the ancient Thracian capital cities of [[Seuthopolis]] (of the [[Odrysian kingdom]]) and Daosdava or Helis (of the [[Getae]]), perhaps they represented royal burials. Other tombs contained offerings such as the [[Panagyuriste treasure|Panagyurishte]] and [[Rogozen treasure|Rogozen]] treasures.
====Hungary====
There are many tumuli in the [[Great Hungarian Plain]], the highest is near of the settlement of [[Békésszentandrás]], in [[Békés county]].[http://www.bekesszentandras.hu/turizmus_seta.htm# (see the picture of "Gödény-halom")]
===Western and Central Europe===
====Austria====
*[[Großmugl]]
*[[Niederhollabrunn]] (in [[Niederösterreich]])
*[[Niederfellabrunn]]
*[[Unterzögersdorf]]
*[[Obermalebern]]
*[[Oberhofen am Irrsee]]
*[[Burgstallkogel (Sulm valley)]]
====Belgium====
*Two Tumuli of [[Ambresin]] ([[Liège (province)|Liège]])
*Tumulus of Avernas in [[Hannut]] ([[Liège (province)|Liège]]) : height = 8 m ; circumference = 100 m
*Tumulus of the "champ de la Tombe" in [[Braives]] ([[Liège (province)|Liège]]), 1st century CE Roman tomb.
*Tumulus of [[Court-Saint-Etienne]] ([[Walloon Brabant]]), around 3,000 BCE.
*Tumulus of Glimes in [[Incourt, Belgium|Incourt]] ([[Walloon Brabant]]), [[Gallo-Roman]] period : height = 11 m ; diameter = 50 m
*Tumulus of Hottomont in [[Ramillies, Belgium|Ramillies]] ([[Walloon Brabant]]), tomb of Roman general Otto : height = 11.5 m ; diameter = 50 m
*Tumulus of [[Oleye]] ([[Liège (province)|Liège]])
*Tumulus of [[Pepin of Landen]] in [[Landen]] ([[Flemish Brabant]])
*Tumuli of the [[Sonian Forest]] ([[Flemish Brabant]]), first millennium BCE.
*Three Tumuli of Grimde in [[Tienen]] ([[Flemish Brabant]]), 1st century BCE Gallo-Roman tombs.
*Tumulus of Trou de Billemont in [[Antoing]] ([[Hainaut (province)|Hainaut]]), 6th and 7th-century [[Merovingian]] tombs.
*Tumulus of [[Walhain]] ([[Walloon Brabant]])
*Two Tumuli of [[Waremme]] ([[Liège (province)|Liège]])
*Tumuli of Wéris ([[Luxembourg (province)|Luxembourg]]), 3rd and 4th millennium BCE.
====Britain====
In [[United Kingdom|Britain]], early references to tumuli were made by [[William Camden]], [[John Aubrey]], and [[William Stukeley]]. During the 19th century in [[England]] the excavation of tumuli was a popular [[pastime]] amongst the educated and wealthy middle classes, who became known as "barrow-diggers". This leisure activity played a key role in laying the foundations for the scientific study of the past in Britain but also resulted in untold damage to the sites. Barrows were popularly used to bury the dead from the late [[Neolithic]] until the end of the [[Bronze Age]], 2900-800BC. [[Square barrows]] were occasionally used in the Iron Age (800BC-43AD) in the east of [[England]]. The traditional round barrow experienced a brief resurgence after the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] invasion, as Scandinavian burial practice became popular 500-600AD. These later barrows were often built near older Bronze Age barrows.
====Czechia====
During the early [[Middle Ages]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] tribesmen inhabiting what is now the Czech Republic used to bury their dead under barrows. This practice has been widespread in southern and eastern [[Bohemia]] and some neighboring regions, like [[Upper Austria]] and [[Lusatia]], which at that time have been also populated with Slavic people. However, there are no known Slavic barrows in central part of the country (around [[Prague]]), neither they are found in [[Moravia]]. This has led some of the archaeologists to speculations about at least three distinct waves of Slavic settlers, which have colonized Czech lands separately from each other, each wave bringing its customs with it (including burial rituals).
At places where barrows have been constructed, they are usually found in groups (10 to 100 together), often forming several clearly distinct lines going from the west to the east. Only a few of them have been studied scientifically so far; in them, both burials by fire (with burnt ashes) and unburned skeletons have been found, even on the same site. It seems that builders of the barrows have at some time switched from burials by fire to burying of unburned corpses; however, the reason for such change is unknown. The barrows date too far back in history (700 AD to 800 AD) to contain any [[Christian]] influences - it is almost certain that all people buried in them were [[pagans]].
As Czech barrows usually served for burials of poor villagers, only a few objects are found in them except for cheap pottery. Only one Slavic barrow is known to have contained gold.
Most of the Czech burial barrows have been damaged or destroyed by intense [[agriculture]] in the densely populated region. Those which remain are usually located in forests, especially at hilltops in remote places. Therefore there is no general knowledge about burial barrows in the Czech population.
The best Slavic barrow sites can be found near to [[Vitín]], a small village close to [[České Budějovice]]. There are two groups of barrows close to Vitín, each containing about 80 barrows ordered in lines. Some of the barrows are as much as 2 meters high.
There are also some [[prehistoric]] burial barrows in Czechia, built by unknown people. Unlike Slavic barrows, they can be found all across the country, though they are scarce. Distinguishing them from Slavic ones is not an easy task for the unskilled eye.
====Germany====
{| class="prettytable sortable"
!Name
!Place
!Region
!Bundesland
!Type
!Date
!Era
|-
|[[Auleben#History|Auleben]]([[Auleben grave-hill field]])
|[[Auleben]]
|[[Nordhausen]]
|[[Thuringia]]
|Grave-hill field
|ca. 1500 - 1200 BCE
|[[Bronze Age]], [[Young Stone Age]]
|-
|[[Benther Berg]]([[Benther mound]])
|[[Badenstedt]]
|[[Region Hannover]]
|[[Lower Saxony]]
|Hilly-grave
|ca. 1800 - 1100 BCE
|[[Nordic Old Bronze Age]]
|-
|[[Pöckinger Gemeindegebiet]]([[Pöcking local community area]])
|[[Pöcking]]
|[[Region München]]
|[[Bavaria]]
|grave-hill field
|ca. 750 - 500 BCE
|[[Hallstatt Age]]
|-
|[[Kreuzlinger Forst/Mühltal]]
|[[Gauting]]
|[[Region München]]
|[[Bavaria]]
|Hilly-grave
|ca. 2000 - 1500 BCE
|[[Bronze Age]]
|-
|[[Germanengrab (Itzehoe)]]([[Germans Grave (Itzehoe)]])
|[[Itzehoe]]
|[[Kreis Steinburg]]
|[[Schleswig-Holstein]]
|Hilly-grave
|ca. 1500 - 1300 BCE
|[[Bronze Age]]
|-
|[[Giesen (village)]]
|[[Giesen (village)]]
|[[Landkreis Hildesheim]]
|[[Lower Saxonia]]
|Hilly-grave
|ca. 1600 - 1200 BCE
|[[Bronze Age]]
|-
|[[Glauberg]]
|[[Glauburg]]
|[[Wetteraukreis]]
|[[Hesse]]
|Kings graves
|5. Century BCE
|Early Celtic Age
|-
|[[Gräberhügelfeld von Bonstorf]]([[Grave-hill field of Bonstorf]])
|[[Bonstorf]]
|[[Landkreis Celle]]
|[[Lower Saxony]]
|grave-hill field
|ca. 1500 - 1200 BCE
|[[Bronze Age]], [[Young Stone Age]]
|-
|[[Lahnberge#History|Lahnberge]]
|[[Marburg]]
|[[Landkreis Marburg-Biedenkopf]]
|[[Hesse]]
|>200 Hilly-graves
|ca. 1600 - 5th Century BCE
|[[Middle Bronze Age]] ([[Hügelgräber Culture]]), [[Late Bronze Age]] ([[Urnfeld Culture]]), [[Iron Age]] ([[Hallstatt Culture]])
|-
|[[Hohmichele]]
|[[Hundersingen]]
|[[Landkreis Sigmaringen]]
|[[Baden-Württemberg]]
|Kings graves
|ca. 600 - 450 BCE
|[[Hallstatt Age]]
|-
|[[Keltenmuseum Hochdorf|Grave-hill of Hochdorf]]
|[[Hochdorf an der Enz]]
|[[Landkreis Ludwigsburg]]
|[[Baden-Württemberg]]
|Hilly-grave
|5. Century BCE
|[[Hallstatt Age]]
|-
|[[Grabau|Grabauer Gräberfeld(Grave fields)]]
|[[Grabau (Stormarn)]]
|[[Kreis Stormarn]]
|[[Schleswig-Holstein]]
|9 grave-hills
|6500 - 5500 BCE
|[[Young Stone Age]]
|-
|[[Beckdorf#Hügelgräber|Beckdorf]]
|[[Beckdorf]]
|[[Landkreis Stade]]
|[[Lower Saxony]]
|Hilly-grave
|
|
|-
|[[Schwalmstadt#Sonstiges|Heidelberg]]
|[[Schwalmstadt|Wiera]]
|[[Schwalm-Eder-Kreis]]
|[[Hesse]]
|Hill-grave
|
|[[Bronze Age]]
|-
|[[Schlaitdorf#Sonstiges|Lehbühl]]
|[[Schlaitdorf]]
|[[Landkreis Esslingen]]
|[[Baden-Württemberg]]
|Hill-grave
|ca. 600 - 400 BCE
|[[Hallstatt Age]]
|-
|[[Willhofer Berg]] ([[Wilhof mountain]])
|[[Altendorf (Landkreis Schwandorf)|Willhof]]
|[[Landkreis Schwandorf]]
|[[Bavaria]]
|Hilly-grave
|ca. 1516 BCE
|[[Middle Bronze Age]], early [[La Tene Age]]
|-
|[[Lemsahl-Mellingstedt#History|Mellingstedt]]
|[[Lemsahl-Mellingstedt]]
|[[Hamburg-Wandsbek]]
|[[Hamburg]]
|Hilly-grave
|
|[[Bronze Age]]
|-
|[[Daxberg (Mömbris)|Daxberg]]
|[[Daxberg (Mömbris)]]
|[[Landkreis Aschaffenburg]]
|[[Bavaria]]
|Hilly-grave field
|ca. 2000 - 800 BCE
|[[Iron Age]]
|-
|[[Daxberg (Erkheim)|Daxberg]]
|[[Daxberg (Erkheim)]]
|[[Landkreis Unterallgäu]]
|[[Bavaria]]
|Hilly-grave field
|8. Century BCE
|[[Iron Age]]
|-
|[[Höltinghausen]]
|[[Höltinghausen]]
|[[Landkreis Cloppenburg]]
|[[Lower Saxony]]
|Hilly-grave field
|
|
|-
|[[Hohenfelde]]
|[[Hohenfelde (Mecklenburg)]]
|[[Landkreis Bad Doberan]]
|[[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]]
|7 Hilly-graves
|ca. 1700 BCE
|[[Bronze Age]]
|-
|[[Plankenheide]]
|[[Nettetal]]
|[[Kreis Viersen]]
|[[North Rhine-Westphalia]]
|Hill-grave
|
|
|-
|[[Kranzberger Forst]]
|[[Kranzberg]]
|[[Landkreis Freising]]
|[[Bavaria]]
|19 Hilly-graves
|
|[[Bronze Age]]
|-
|[[Wasdow#History|Neu Quitzenow]]
|[[Wasdow|Neu Quitzenow]]
|[[Landkreis Güstrow]]
|[[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]]
|2 Hilly-graves
|ca. 1800 - 600 BCE
|
|-
|Maaschwitz
|[[Zschadraß|Maaschwitz]]
|[[Muldentalkreis]]
|[[Saxony]]
|Hilly-graves
|
|
|-
|[[Königsgrab von Seddin]]
|[[Groß Pankow (Prignitz)|Seddin]]
|[[Landkreis Prignitz]]
|[[Brandenburg]]
|Kings graves
|8. Century BCE
|[[Bronze Age]]
|-
|[[Pestruper Gräberfeld]] ([[Pestrup Grave fields]])
|[[Wildeshausen]]
|[[Landkreis Oldenburg]]
|[[Lower Saxony]]
|~ 500 grave-hills
|ca. 900 - 200 BCE
|[[Bronze Age]]
|-
|[[Plaggenschale]]
|[[Merzen|Plaggenschale]]
|[[Landkreis Osnabrück]]
|[[Lower Saxony]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[Groß Berßen#History|Mansenberge]]
|[[Groß Berßen]]
|[[Landkreis Emsland]]
|[[Lower Saxony]]
|Great stone grave
|2000 BCE
|[[Megalith Culture]]
|-
|[[Magdalenenberg]]
|[[Villingen]]
|[[Schwarzwald-Baar-Kreis]]
|[[Baden-Württemberg]]
|Kings grave
|ca. 616 BCE
|[[Hallstatt Age]]
|-
|[[Nennig#History|Tumulus von Nennig]]
|[[Nennig]]
|[[Landkreis Merzig-Wadern]]
|[[Saarland]]
|Grave-hill
|
|[[Bronze Age]]
|-
|[[Wagengrab von Bell]] ([[Wagon grave of Bell]])
|[[Bell (Hunsrück)]]
|[[Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis]]
|[[Rhineland-Palatinate]]
|Wagon-grave
|500 BCE
|[[Hallstatt Age]]
|-
|[[Winckelbarg]]
|
|[[Landkreis Stade]]
|[[Lower Saxony]]
|
|
|
|-
|[[Naturschutzgebiet Schweinert]]([[Schweinert Nature reserve]])
|[[Falkenberg (Elster)|Falkenberg]]
|[[Landkreis Elbe-Elster]]
|[[Brandenburg]]
|The [[Great Hill-Grave Field of Middle Europe]] (642 Hills)
|ca. 1000 BCE
|
|-
|[[Breitenfeld]]
|[[Neuhausen ob Eck]]
|[[Landkreis Tuttlingen]]
|[[Baden-Württemberg]]
|21 grave-hills
|ca. 700 BCE - 450 CE
|[[Hallstatt Age]]
|-
|}
====Ireland====
A tumulus can be found close to the [[Grianán of Aileach]] in [[County Donegal]]. It has been suggested by historians such as [[George Petrie (artist)|George Petrie]], who surveyed the site in the early nineteenth century, that the tumulus may predate the [[ringfort]] of Aileach by many centuries possibly to the neolithic age. Stones surrounded it which were laid horizontally and converged towards the centre. In Petrie’s time, the mound had been excavated but nothing to explain its meaning was discovered. It was subsequently destroyed but its former position is marked by a heap of broken stones. Similar mounds can be found at The [[Hill of Tara]] and there are several prominent tumuli at [[Brú na Bóinne]] in County Meath.
====Italy====
Some big tumulus tombs can be found especially in the Etruscan culture. Smaller barrows are dated to the Villanova period (9th - 8th century BC) but the biggest were used in the following centuries (from the 7th century afterwards) by the Etruscan aristocracy.
[[Image:Dolmen Outeiro de Gregos3.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Tumulus at Outeiro de Gregos, Baião, Portugal (V or IV millennium BC)]]
The Etruscan tumuli were normally family tombs that were used for many generation of the same noble family, and the deceased were buried with many precious objects that had to be the "grave goods" or the furnishings for these "houses" in the Afterlife.
Many tombs also hold paintings, that in many cases represent the funeral or scenes of real life.
The most important graveyards (necropolises) with tumulus tombs are Veio, Cerveteri, Vetulonia, Populonia. Many isolated big barrows can be found in the whole Etruscan territory (mostly in Central Italy).
====Portugal====
In Portugal occurred one of the most dense manifestations of the megalithic phenomenon in Europe. In the north of Portugal there are more than 1000 late prehistoric barrows. They generally occur in clusters, forming a necropolis. The method of inhumation usually involves a [[dolmen]]. The tumulus, dated from c. 4450 to 1900 BC, are up to 3 meters high, with diameters from 6 to 30 meters. Most of them are mounds of earth and stones but the more recent ones are composed largely or entirely of stones (cairns). In [[Portugal]], barrows are called ''mamoas'', from the Latin ''mammulas'', given to them by the romans because of their shape, similar to the breast of a woman.
===Scandinavia===
[[Image:180px-Ottar03.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Ohthere]]'s mound'' in [[Vendel]], [[Sweden]] from the early 6th century.]]
Burial mounds were in use until the 11th century in Scandinavia and figure heavily into [[Norse paganism]]. In their undamaged state they appear as small, man-made hillocks, though many examples have been damaged by [[ploughing]] or deliberately damaged so that little visible evidence remains.
By burning the deceased, it was believed that the person was transferred to [[Valhalla]] by the consuming force of the fire. The fire could reach temperatures of 1500 °C. The remains were covered with cobblestones and then a layer of gravel and sand and finally a thin layer of turf.
{{Quote|Thus he ([[Odin]]) established by law that all dead men should be burned, and their belongings laid with them upon the pile, and the ashes be cast into the sea or buried in the earth. Thus, said he, every one will come to Valhalla with the riches he had with him upon the pile; and he would also enjoy whatever he himself had buried in the earth. For men of consequence a mound should be raised to their memory, and for all other warriors who had been distinguished for manhood a standing stone; which custom remained long after Odin's time. [...] It was their faith that the higher the smoke arose in the air, the higher he would be raised whose pile it was; and the richer he would be, the more property that was consumed with him|[[Ynglinga saga]]}}
[[Image:Hågahögen.jpg|thumb|left|200px|King Björn's barrow in Håga.]]
As the old Scandinavians worshiped their ancestors, the mounds were also places of worship.
Of note is King Björn's barrow in Håga ([[Old Norse]] name: ''Haug'') near [[Uppsala]]. This location has a very strong connection with [[Björn at Haugi]]. First, the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] barrow gave its name to the location ''Håga'' ("the barrow"), which became part of the cognomen of the king, ''at Haugi'' ("at the barrow"), and interestingly, the mound was later named after the king.
In [[Norse mythology]], the [[draugr]] was an undead creature that haunted burial mounds.
===Αegean and Near East===
====Macedonia====
{{Cleanup-section|date=May 2007}}
Some of the world's most prominent Tumuli, the Macedonian tombs and a cist-grave at [[Vergina]], tomb of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] (359-336 B.C) of Macedonia and father of [[Alexander the Great]] (336-323). Speculation that the other grave found there is that of [[Alexander IV]] is controversial. His corpse was allegedly buried in Memphis during the turmoil of the Diadochi after his death in 323 BC{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
[[Aigai]] is the ancient capital of Macedonia{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, homeland of Phillip II. During the 19th century, the tomb of Philip II was discovered in Vergina, northern Greece. The Monumental Palace is lavishly decorated with painted stuccoes and mosaics accompanying a burial ground with as many as 300 tumuli. Some tumuli date from the 11th century B.C. However, the most renowned is the royal tomb of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, who manage to unite by force many Greek cities, architect of the Hellenistic expansion.
This city lies on the northern slopes of the Pierian Mountains; Aigai has been identified as the capital of the Kingdom of Lower Macedonia{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. The site was inhabited continuously form the Bronze Age. By the 11th – 8th century BC it was a densely populated and rich centre. The 7th-6th centuries BC saw the premium point of its prosperity and popularity; this continued into the 5th century BC. Traditional sanctuaries were established, as were the seats of the Macedonian Kings. Royal tombs were known in antiquity to be opulent.
[[Image:Trizna 1899.jpg|thumb|200px|Burial of [[Oleg of Novgorod]] in a tumulus in 912. Painting by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]].]]
Excavations were first undertaken at this site by 19th century. Archaeologists [[L. Heuzy]] of France and [[K. Rhomaios]] of Greece began but were stalled by the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second]] World Wars and excavations were not resumed until approximately 1952{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. In the 1960s [[M. Andronicos]] was director of the excavations and the cemetery of the tumuli was investigated. The Palace of Philip II was excavated by a team from [[Thessaloniki University]] along with part of the necropolis being investigated by the Ministry of Culture. 1977 was the pivotal date that M. Andronicos brought to the attention of the world, the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus of Vergina, (ΜεγάΛα) tomb. Unfortunately, the townspeople of Vergina have put a halt to any more excavations for the time being, under the auspices of preserving their beautiful surroundings and heritage{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
====Anatolia====
On the [[Anatolian]] peninsula, there are several sites where one can find the biggest specimens of these artificial mounds throughout the world. Three of these sites are especially important. Bin Tepeler (and other [[Lydian]] mounds of the Aegean inland), [[Phrygia]]n mounds in [[Gordium]] (Central Anatolia) and the famous [[Commagene]] tumulus on the Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] (Southeastern Anatolia).
This is the most important of the enumerated sites with the number of specimens it has and with the dimensions of certain among them. It is in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] inland of Turkey. The site is called "Bin Tepeler" (a thousand mounds in Turkish) and it is in the northwest of [[Salihli]] district of [[Manisa Province|Manisa]] province. The site is very close to the southern shoreline of [[Lake Marmara]] (Lake Gyges or Gygaea). Bin Tepeler is a [[Lydian]] [[necropolis]] which dates back to 7th and 6th centuries B.C. These mounds are called "the pyramids of Anatolia" as there is even a giant specimen among them which attains 355 meters in diameter, 1115 meters in perimeter and 69 meters of height. According to the accounts drawn up by [[Herodotus]], this giant tumulus belongs to the famous Lydian King [[Alyattes II]] who ruled between 619-560 B.C. There is also another mound belonging to King [[Gyges of Lydia|Gyges]]. The Gyges mound was excavated but the burial chamber hasn't been found yet. In this site, there are 75 tumuli dating back to Lydian period which belong to the nobility. A large number of smaller artificial mounds can also be observed in the site. There are other Lydian tumuli sites around [[Eşme]] district of [[Uşak Province|Uşak]] province. Certain mounds in these sites had been plundered by raiders in the late 1960s and the Lydian treasures found in their burial chambers had been smuggled to United States which later had to cede them to Turkish authorities after a series of negotiations. These artifacts are now exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Uşak.
[[Gordium]] is the capital of the [[Phrygia]]n Kingdom. Its ruins are in the immediate vicinity of [[Polatlı]] district of the Turkish capital [[Ankara]]. In this site, there are approximately 80-90 tumuli which date back to Phrygian, [[History of Persia|Persian]] and [[Hellenistic]] periods. Only 35 tumuli were excavated so far. The mounds had been built between 8th century B.C. and 3rd or 2nd century B.C. The biggest tumulus in the site is believed to belong to the famous Phrygian King [[Midas]]. This mound had been excavated in 1957 and several [[bronze]] artifacts were collected from the wooden burial chamber. Among these artifacts, "omphalos bowls" and famous "Phrygian [[fibula]]e" (hooked needles which were used by the Phryigians to bond the clothes they wore) are especially important.
The Mount [[Nemrut (mountain)|Nemrut]] is 86 km in the east of [[Adıyaman]] province of [[Turkey]]. It is very close to [[Kahta]] district of the same province. The mountain has, at its peak, 3050 meters of height above the sea level. A tumulus which dates back to the 1st century B.C. is situated at the peak of the mountain. This artificial mound has 150 meters of diameter and a height of 50 meters which was originally 55 meters. It belongs to the [[Commagene]] King [[Antiochus I Theos of Commagene]] who ruled between 69-40 B.C. The most interesting thing about the tumulus is that it is made of broken stone pieces which renders the excavation attempts almost impossible. The tumulus is surrounded by ceremonial terraces in the east, west and north. The east and west terraces have tremendous statues (reaching 8 to 10 meters of height) and bas reliefs of gods and goddesses from the Commagene [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]] where divine figures used to embody the [[Persian mythology|Persian]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] perceptions together.
====Levant====
[[Image:JerusalemTumulus2.jpg|thumb|200px|Jerusalem Tumulus #2 in 2004.]] Near the western city limits of modern [[Jerusalem]] in [[Israel]], 19 tumuli have been documented (Amiran, 1958). Though first noticed in the 1870s by early surveyors, the first one to be formally documented was Tumulus #2 in 1923 by [[William Foxwell Albright]], and the most recent one (Tumulus #4) was excavated by [[Gabriel Barkay]] in 1983. Since 21 kings reigned in [[Jerusalem]] during the [[Israelite]] monarchy from [[David]] to [[Zedekiah]] (who was conquered and humiliated by the [[Chaldea]]n king, [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]]), it is not unreasonable to suspect that these mounds were the locations of ceremonies to mourn/honor them after they had already received proper burial in the royal tombs (probably located in the heart of the city where they could be continuously guarded). See [[2 Chronicles]] 16:14, 21:19 (which states that King [[Jehoram of Judah|Jehoram]] was not given this honor), 32:33, the [[book of Jeremiah]] 34:5 (a conditional promise for [[Zedekiah]] that he did not earn), and [[Biblical archaeology]]. [[Gabriel Barkay]] popularized this theory after studying tumuli near Salamis in [[Cyprus]].
*More than half of these ancient Israeli structures have now been threatened or obliterated by modern construction projects, including Tumulus #4, which was excavated hastily in a salvage operation. The most noteworthy finds from this dig were two [[LMLK seal]] impressions and two other handles with associated Concentric Circle incisions, all of which suggests this tumulus belonged to either King [[Hezekiah]] (Barkay, 2003, p. 68) or his son [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]] (Grena, 2004, p. 326).
*When comparing the number of these tumuli to the total number of Israelite kings (northern and southern), note that [[Saul the King|Saul]] never ruled in [[Jerusalem]], and [[Athaliah]] was never crowned. She took the throne by force ([[Books of Kings|2Kings]] 11:1-3), and would certainly not have been honored with a tumulus ceremony following her brutal assassination.
*The northern kings did not reign over the southern kingdom, and they would certainly not have been honored with a tumulus ceremony in [[Jerusalem]]; if any ceremonies were held for them, they would have transpired in the north (near [[Bethel (Israel)|Bethel]], [[Tirzah]], or [[Samaria]]).
*The association of these tumuli with the Judean kings who ruled [[Jerusalem]] does not substantiate Biblical history since it is mere speculation. No inscriptions naming any specific Judean king have been excavated from a tumulus.
===East Asia===
====Japan====
[[Image:KofunTumulus.JPG|thumb|200px|Noge-Ōtsuka [[Kofun]] tumulus, [[Tokyo]], early 5th century.]] In [[Japan]], powerful leaders built tumuli known as ''kofun''. The [[Kofun]] period of Japanese history takes its name from these burial mounds. The largest is over 400 meters in length. In addition to other shapes, kofun include a keyhole shape.
====Korea====
[[Image:Burial-Mounds-at-GyeongJu.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Burial mounds of the Silla kings in Korea.]]
The first burial mounds in Korea were [[dolmens]] which contained the material culture of the first millennium CE, such as bronze-ware, pottery, and other symbols of the elite of society.
The most famous tumulii in Korea, dating around 300 AD, are those left behind by the Korean [[Baekje]], [[Goguryeo]]([[Kogyuro]]/[[Koguryo]]), [[Silla]], and [[Gaya]] states and are clustered around ancient capital cities in modern-day [[Pyongyang]], [[Seoul]], [[Ji'an]], and [[Gwangju]]. The Goguryeo tombs, shaped like pyramids, are famous for the well-preserved wall murals like the ones at [[Anak Tomb No.3]] which depict the culture and artistry of the people. The base of the tomb of King [[Gwanggaeto]] is 85 meters on each side, half of the size of the Great Pyramids.[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0521407834&id=sANORB_MSRUC&vq=korean+tombs&dq=korean+tombs&lpg=PA214&pg=PA213&sig=1H5DNJ77lxjt8wlBxZCUKJcw7yY] Goguryeo Silla tombs are most noted for the fabulous offerings that have been excavated such as delicate golden crowns and glassware and beads that probably made their way to Korea via the [[Silk Road]].
Many indigenous Korean artifacts and culture were transmitted to the tomb builders of early Japan, such as horsetrappings, bronze mirrors, paintings and iron-ware.
===North America===
{{main|Mound builder (people)}}
[[Image:LAnse Amour burial mound.jpg|200px|right|thumb|The 7,500-year-old, rock-covered burial mound of a Maritime Archaic boy at L'Anse Amour, Newfoundland and Labrador.]]Human settlement in [[L'Anse Amour, Newfoundland and Labrador|L'anse Amour]] dates back at least 7,500 years as evidenced by the burial mound of a Maritime Archaic boy here. His body was wrapped in a shroud of bark or hide and placed face down with his head pointed to the west. The site was first excavated in the 1970s.
The Augustine Mound is an important [[Mi'kmaq]] burial site in New Brunswick.
Mound building was a central feature of the public [[architecture]] of many [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] cultures from Chile to Minnesota. Thousands of mounds in the USA have been destroyed as a result of farming, pot-hunting, amateur and professional archaeology, road-building and construction. Surviving mounds are still found in river valleys, especially along the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], [[Tennessee River|Tennessee]] and [[Ohio River|Ohio]] Rivers.
[[Mound]]s were used for burial, to support residential and religious structures, to represent a shared [[cosmology]], and to unite and demarcate community. Common forms include conical mounds, ridge-top mounds, [[platform mound]]s, and animal [[effigy mound]]s, but there are many variations. Mound building in the USA is believed to date back to at least 3400 BC in the Southeast (see [[Watson Brake]]). The [[Adena culture|Adena]] and [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian]] cultures are principally known for their mounds. The largest mound site north of [[Mexico]] is [[Cahokia]], a vast [[World Heritage Site]] located just east of St. Louis, Missouri. The most visually impressive mound site (due to the area being free of trees) is in [[Moundville, Alabama]]. The largest conical burial mound can be found in [[Moundsville, West Virginia]].
[[Image:Serpent mound 8438.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Serpent Mound]] – an ancient [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ceremonial structure in Ohio.]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
* Knight, Peter, Ancient Stones of Dorset, 1996.
* {{cite journal | author=Albright, William F. | year=1923 | title=Interesting finds in tumuli near Jerusalem | journal=[http://www.asor.org/pubs/basor/basor.html Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research] | volume=10 | issue=April | pages=1–3 | doi=10.2307/1354763}}
* {{cite journal | author=Amiran, Ruth | year=1958 | title=The tumuli west of Jerusalem, Survey and Excavations, 1953 | journal=[http://www.hum.huji.ac.il/ies/iej.htm Israel Exploration Journal] | volume=8 | issue=4 | pages=205–27}}
* {{cite journal | author=Barkay, Gabriel | year=2003 | title=Mounds of mystery: where the kings of Judah were lamented | journal=[http://www.bib-arch.org/ Biblical Archaeology Review] | volume=29 | issue=3 | pages=32–9, 66, 68}}
* {{cite book | author=Grena, G.M. | year=2004 | title=LMLK--A Mystery Belonging to the King vol. 1 | location=Redondo Beach, California | publisher=4000 Years of Writing History | id=ISBN 0-9748786-0-X}}
*Grinsell, L.V., 1936, ''The Ancient Burial-mounds of England''. London: Methuen.
* {{cite book | author=Nelson, Sarah Milledge | year=1993 | title=The Archaeology of Korea | location=New York: Cambridge University Press. | isbn=0-521-40783-4}}
==See also==
{{commonscat|Tumulus}}
* [[Avebury]]
* [[Long barrow]]
* [[Seven Barrows]]
* [[Waylands Smithy]]
* [[West Kennet Long Barrow]]
* [[East Cambridgeshire]]
==External links==
*[http://www.eng-h.gov.uk/mpp/mcd/intro2.htm English Heritage Monument Class Descriptions]
* [http://www.congleton-cheshire.co.uk/barrows_of_congleton.htm? Congletons barrows and burial mounds]
* [http://www.barrowdiggers.50g.com The Victorian Barrow Diggers of Wales]
[[Category:Barrows| ]]
[[Category:European archaeology]]
[[Category:Archaeology of the Americas]]
[[Category:Asian archaeology]]
[[Category:Mound builders]]
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