United Nations
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{{redirect|UN}}
{{Infobox Geopolitical organization
|name = {{Collapsible list
|title = <center> United Nations <center>
|<center> {{lang|ar|'''الأمم المتحدة'''}} {{ar icon}} </center>
<center> {{lang|cn|'''联合国'''}} {{cn icon}} </center>
<center> {{lang|fr|'''Nations Unies'''}} {{fr icon}} </center>
<center> {{lang|ru|'''Объединенные Нации'''}} {{ru icon}} </center>
<center> {{lang|es|'''Naciones Unidas'''}} {{es icon}} </center>}}
|linking_name = |image_flag = Flag of the United Nations.svg
|linking_name = |image_flag = Flag of the United Nations.svg
|image_map = United Nations Members.svg
|map_caption = Map of [[United Nations member states|UN member states]]<br />and their UN-recognized dependencies.
|membership = [[United Nations member states|192 member states]]
|admin_center_type = [[United Nations Headquarters|Headquarters]]
|admin_center = International territory in [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]]
|languages_type = [[Official language]]s
|languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
|leader_title1 = [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]]
|leader_name1 = [[Ban Ki-moon]]
|established_event1 = {{nowrap|[[United Nations Charter]]}}
|established_date1 = [[June 26]] [[1945]]
|official_website = http://www.un.org/
|footnote1 =}}
{{UN portal}}
The '''United Nations''' ('''UN''') is an [[international organization]] whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in [[international law]], [[international security]], [[economic development]], [[Social change|social progress]] and [[human rights]]. The UN was founded in 1945 to replace the [[League of Nations]], to stop wars between nations and to provide a platform for dialogue.
There are now 192 [[United Nations member states|member states]], including almost every recognized independent [[state]]. From its [[United Nations Headquarters|headquarters]] on international territory within [[New York City]], the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year. The [[organization]] is divided into administrative bodies, primarily:
* The [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] (the main [[deliberative assembly]]);
* The [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]] (decides certain resolutions for peace and security);
* The [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|Economic and Social Council]] (assists in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development);
* The [[United Nations Secretariat|Secretariat]] (provides studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN);
* The [[International Court of Justice]] (the primary judicial organ).
Additional bodies deal with the governance of all other [[United Nations System|UN System]] agencies, such as the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) and [[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF). The UN's most visible public figure is the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]], currently [[Ban Ki-moon]] of [[South Korea]].
The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states, and has six official languages: [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Russian language|Russian]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]].
==History==
{{main|History of the United Nations}}
{{details|League of Nations|the United Nation's predecessor organization}}
[[Image:stampogdrprop.jpg|thumb|East German stamp from 1985 commemorating the UN.]]
The United Nations was founded as a successor to the [[League of Nations]], which was widely considered to have been ineffective in its role as an international governing body insofar as it had been unable to prevent World War II.
The term "United Nations" was decided by [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Winston Churchill]]<ref>{{cite web |last=David |first=Wilton |title=United Nations |work=Etymologies & Word Origins: Letter U |publisher=WordOrigins.org |url=http://www.wordorigins.org/index.php/site/comments/united_nations/}}</ref> during [[World War II]], to refer to the Allies. Its first formal use was in the [[1 January]] [[1942]] [[Declaration by United Nations|Declaration by the United Nations]], which committed the Allies to the principles of the [[Atlantic Charter]] and pledged them not to seek a separate peace with the [[Axis powers]]. Thereafter, the Allies used the term "[[Allies of World War II#Declaration by United Nations|United Nations Fighting Forces]]" to refer to their [[alliance]].
The idea for the UN was espoused in declarations signed at the wartime Allied conferences in [[Moscow]], [[Cairo]], and [[Tehran]] in 1943. From August to October 1944, representatives of the [[Republic of China]], the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union met to elaborate the plans at the [[Dumbarton Oaks]] estate in [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref name='UN-History of the UN'> {{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm |title=History of the UN |accessdate=2008-06-01 |last=United Nations |date=2000 |publisher=United Nations }}</ref> Those and later talks produced proposals outlining the purposes of the organization, its membership and organs, and arrangements to maintain international peace and security and international economic and social cooperation.
On [[25 April]] [[1945]], the UN Conference on International Organization began in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. In addition to the governments, a number of [[non-governmental organization]]s were invited to assist in drafting the charter. The 50 nations represented at the conference signed the Charter of the United Nations two months later on [[26 June]]. [[Poland]] had not been represented at the conference, but a place had been reserved for it among the original signatories, and it added its name later. The UN came into existence on [[24 October]] [[1945]], after the Charter had been ratified by the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] — the [[Republic of China]], [[France]], the [[Soviet Union]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]] — and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. That these countries are the permanent members of the Security Council, and have [[United Nations Security Council veto power|veto power]] on any Security Council resolution, reflects that they are the main victors of World War II or their [[succession of states|successor states]]: the [[People's Republic of China]] replaced the [[Republic of China]] in 1971 and [[Russia]] replaced the [[Soviet Union]] in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/aboutun/basicfacts/unorg.htm|title=The United Nations: Organization|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=2007-05-14 }}</ref>
Initially, the body was known as the '''United Nations Organization''', or '''UNO'''. However, by the 1950s, English speakers were referring to it as the United Nations, or the UN. In many other languages it is called '''ONU''' (''Organisation des Nations Unies'' in French, ''Organización de las Naciones Unidas'' in Spanish, ''Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite'' in Italian, ''Organização das Nações Unidas'' in Portuguese, and ''Organizaţia Naţiunilor Unite'' in Romanian).
==Membership==
{{main|United Nations member states}}
With the addition of [[Montenegro]] on [[28 June]] [[2006]], there are 192 [[United Nations member states]], including virtually all internationally-recognized independent [[List of sovereign states|states]].<ref name="members">{{cite web
|url=http://www.un.org/members/
|title=United Nations Member States
|publisher=United Nations
|accessdate=2007-05-05}}</ref>
The [[United Nations Charter]] outlines the rules for membership:
<!--template syntax: {{Quote|Phrase|Somebody|''Source''}}-->
{{Quote|
# Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states which accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations.
# The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.|United Nations Charter, Chapter 2, Article 4|''http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/''}}
[[Image:United Nations Members.svg|thumb|center|500px|A world map showing the members of the UN, ''according to the UN''. Note that [[Antarctica]] has no [[government]]; political control of [[Western Sahara]] is in dispute; and the territories administered by the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) and [[Kosovo]] are considered by the UN to be provinces of the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[Republic of Serbia]], respectively.]]
===Group of 77 (G77)===
[[Image:G77countries.png|thumb|Current member states of G77 in dark and medium green. Former member states in light green.]]
The [[Group of 77]] at the UN is a loose coalition of [[developing country|developing nations]], designed to promote its members' collective [[economy|economic]] interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations. There were 77 founding members of the organization, but the organization has since expanded to 130 member countries. The group was founded on [[15 June]] [[1964]] by the "Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries" issued at the [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] (UNCTAD). The first major meeting was in [[Algiers]] in 1967, where the ''Charter of Algiers'' was adopted and the basis for permanent institutional structures was begun.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.g77.org/doc/ |title=About the G77 |publisher=Group of 77 |accessdate=2007-09-30}}</ref>
==Headquarters==
[[Image:United Nations HQ - New York City.jpg|right|thumb|115px|[[United Nations Headquarters]].]]
{{main|United Nations Headquarters}}
The United Nations headquarters is a [[golden rectangle]]d building in [[New York City]]. It is located in the Turtle Bay neighborhood, on the east side of [[Midtown Manhattan]], on spacious grounds overlooking the [[East River]]. Though the building is in New York City, the land occupied by the United Nations Headquarters is considered international territory. [[Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive|FDR Drive]] passes underneath the Conference Building of the complex. Other major UN agencies are located in [[Palace of Nations|Geneva]], [[Vienna International Centre|Vienna]] and [[UNON|Nairobi]] as well as in [[Rome]], [[The Hague]], [[Addis Ababa]], [[Montreal]], [[Copenhagen]], [[Bonn]], and elsewhere.
==Financing==
{| class="infobox bordered" style="width:20em;text-align:center"
|-
|Major contributors to the regular UN budget for 2006<ref>{{cite web|title=[Report of the Committee
on Contributions (2006)|publisher=United Nations|date=2006-06-30|url=http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/contributors/N0642856.pdf?Open&DS=A/61/11&Lang=E UN Budget:]}}</ref>
|-
| Member Nation (the list is not complete)
| Contribution (% of total UN budget)
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| 22.00%
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| 16.624%
|-
| {{flag|Germany}}
| 8.66%
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| 6.13%
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| 6.03%
|-
| {{flag|Italy}}
| 4.89%
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| 2.81%
|-
| {{flag|Spain}}
| 2.52%
|-
| {{flag|China}}
| 2.667%
|-
| {{flag|Mexico}}
| 1.88%
|-
| {{flag|Australia}}
| 1.59%
|-
| {{flag|Brazil}}
| 1.52%
|}
The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states. The regular two-year budgets of the UN and its specialized agencies are funded by assessments. The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member. This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay, as measured by their [[Gross National Income]] (GNI), with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income.<ref name="fifth-2006">{{cite web |title=Fifth Committee Approves Assessment Scale for Regular, Peacekeeping Budgets, Texts on Common System, Pension Fund, as it Concludes Session (Press Release) |publisher=United Nations |date=2006-12-22 |url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/gaab3787.doc.htm}}</ref>
The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be overly dependent on any one member to finance its operations. Thus, there is a 'ceiling' rate, setting the maximum amount any member is assessed for the regular budget. In December 2000, the Assembly revised the scale of assessments to reflect current global circumstances. As part of that revision, the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25% to 22%. The U.S. is the only member that has met the ceiling. In addition to a ceiling rate, the minimum amount assessed to any member nation (or 'floor' rate) is set at 0.001% of the UN budget. Also, for the least developed countries (LDC), a ceiling rate of 0.01% is applied.<ref name="fifth-2006"/>
The current operating budget is estimated at $4.19 billion<ref name="fifth-2006"/> (refer to table for major contributors).
A large share of UN expenditures addresses the core UN mission of peace and security. The peacekeeping budget for the 2005-2006 fiscal year is approximately $5 billion (compared to approximately $1.5 billion for the UN core budget over the same period), with some 70,000 troops deployed in 17 missions around the world.<ref name="PeaceKeepingOps">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/bnote.htm |title=United Nations Peacekeeping Operations |accessdate=2008-03-24 |date=2007-12-31 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a formula derived from the regular funding scale, but including a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members, who must approve all peacekeeping operations. This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries. As of 1 January 2008, the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were: the [[United States]], [[Japan]], [[Germany]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[Canada]], [[Spain]] and [[South Korea|the Republic of Korea]].<ref>[http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/contributors/financing.html Financing of UN Peacekeeping Operations]<!-- Bot generated title --></ref>
Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget (such as [[United Nations Children's Fund|UNICEF]] and [[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]]) are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments. Most of this is financial contributions, but some is in the form of agricultural [[commodity|commodities]] donated for afflicted populations.
==Languages==
The six official [[language]]s of the United Nations, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.<ref>"Basic Facts About The United Nations", By United Nations (2004) ISBN 9211009367 </ref><ref>{{cite web | title = What are the official languages of the United Nations? | publisher = United Nations | date = December 2002 | url = http://www.un.org/Depts/DGACM/faq_languages.htm | accessdate = 2008-04-14}}</ref> The Secretariat uses two working languages, [[English language|British English]] and [[French language|French]].
Five of the official languages were chosen when the UN was founded (the languages of the permanent members of the Security Council, plus Spanish, which was the official language of the largest number of nations at the time). Arabic was added in 1973; the number of Arabic-speaking member states had increased substantially since 1945, and the [[1973 oil crisis]] provided the catalyst for the addition. A "documentary language" status was granted for use of the [[German language]] in 1974, allowing for translation of important documents (funded, however, by the German-speaking member countries.
The UN standard for English language documents (''United Nations Editorial Manual'') follows [[British English|British usage]] and [[Oxford spelling]] (en-gb-oed). The UN standard for [[Chinese writing system]] changed when the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) was succeeded by the [[People's Republic of China]] in 1971. From 1945 until 1971 [[traditional Chinese character|traditional characters]] were used, and since 1972 [[simplified Chinese character|simplified characters]] have been used. [[Standard Mandarin]], which is the official speaking system of both the ROC and PRC, has been used since 1945.
==Organizational structure==
{{main|United Nations System}}
The United Nations system is based on five principal organs (formerly six - the [[United Nations Trusteeship Council|Trusteeship Council]] suspended operations in 1994);<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/org1436.doc.htm|title=Membership of Principal United Nations Organs in 2005|publisher=United Nations|date=[[2005-03-15]]}}</ref> the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice.
===General Assembly===
[[Image:Unpicture.jpg|thumb|UN General Assembly.]]
{{main|United Nations General Assembly}}
The General Assembly is the main [[deliberative assembly]] of the United Nations. Composed of all [[United Nations member states]], the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions under a president elected from among the member states. Over a two-week period at the start of each session, all members have the opportunity to address the assembly. Traditionally, the Secretary-General makes the first statement, followed by the president of the assembly. The first session was convened on [[10 January]] [[1946]] in the [[Westminster Central Hall]] in London and included representatives of 51 nations.
When the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include: recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and, budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under Security Council consideration.
Conceivably, the [[representation (politics)|one state, one vote]] power structure could enable states comprising just eight percent of the world population to pass a resolution by a two-thirds vote.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} However, as no more than recommendations, it is difficult to imagine a situation in which a recommendation by member states constituting just eight percent of the world's population, would be adhered to by the remaining ninety-two percent of the population, should they object.
===Security Council===
[[Image:UN security council 2005.jpg|thumb|Interior of the Security Council chambers.]]
{{main|United Nations Security Council}}
{{see|Reform of the United Nations Security Council}}
The [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]] is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries. While other organs of the United Nations can only make 'recommendations' to member [[government]]s, the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member governments have agreed to carry out, under the terms of [[United Nations Charter|Charter]] Article 25.<ref name="ChapterV">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/chapter5.htm |title=UN Charter: Chapter V |accessdate=2008-03-24 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> The decisions of the Council are known as [[United Nations Security Council resolution]]s.
The Security Council is made up of 15 member states, consisting of five permanent seats and ten temporary seats. The permanent five are [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[France]], [[Russia]], the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]]. These members hold [[United Nations Security Council veto power|veto power]] over [[Resolution (law)#Substantive and procedural|substantive but not procedural resolutions]] allowing a permanent member to block adoption but not to block the debate of a resolution unacceptable to it. The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms with member states voted in by the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] on a regional basis. The presidency of the Security Council is rotated alphabetically each month.<ref name="CouncilMembers">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/sc/members.asp |title=UN Security Council Members |accessdate=2008-03-24 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref>
The Security Council has been [[United Nations Security Council#Criticisms of the Security Council|criticised]] for being unable to act in a clear and decisive way when confronted with a crisis.
===Economic and Social Council===
{{main|United Nations Economic and Social Council}}
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, all of whom are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC. ECOSOC meets once a year in July for a four-week session. Since 1998, it has held another meeting each April with finance ministers heading key committees of the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF). Viewed separate from the specialized bodies it coordinates, ECOSOC's functions include information gathering, advising member nations, and making recommendations. In addition, ECOSOC is well-positioned to provide policy [[Coherence (cognitive science)|coherence]] and coordinate the overlapping functions of the UN’s subsidiary bodies and it is in these roles that it is most active.
===Secretariat===
{{main|United Nations Secretariat}}
The United Nations Secretariat is headed by the [[United Nations Secretary-General|Secretary-General]], assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the UN Security Council, the UN General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies. The United Nations Charter provides that the staff be chosen by application of the "highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity," with due regard for the importance of recruiting on a wide geographical basis.
The Charter provides that the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any authority other than the UN. Each UN member country is enjoined to respect the international character of the Secretariat and not seek to influence its staff. The Secretary-General alone is responsible for staff selection.
The Secretary-General's duties include helping resolve international disputes, administering peacekeeping operations, organizing international conferences, gathering information on the implementation of Security Council decisions, and consulting with member governments regarding various initiatives. Key Secretariat offices in this area include the Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian Affairs and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter that, in his or her opinion, may threaten international peace and security.
===International Court of Justice===
[[Image:International Court of Justice.jpg|thumb|[[Peace Palace]], seat of the ICJ. The Hague, Netherlands.]]
{{main|International Court of Justice}}
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]], is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. Established in 1945 by the United Nations Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]]. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icj-cij.org/documents/index.php?p1=4&p2=2&p3=0 |title=Statute of the International Court of Justice |publisher=International Court of Justice |accessdate=2007-08-31}}</ref>
It is based in the [[Peace Palace]] in [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]], sharing the building with the [[Hague Academy of International Law]], a private centre for the study of international law. Several of the Court's current judges are either alumni or former faculty members of the Academy. Its purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The court has heard cases related to war crimes, illegal state interference and ethnic cleansing, among others, and continues to hear cases.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?p1=1&PHPSESSID=26e84ff7b1a8f1f3edf82cf94f3a7d68 |title=The Court |publisher=International Court of Justice |accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref>
A related court, the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC), began operating in 2002 through international discussions initiated by the General Assembly. It is the first permanent international court charged with trying those who commit the most serious crimes under international law, including war crimes and genocide. The ICC is functionally independent of the UN in terms of personnel and financing, but some meetings of the ICC governing body, the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute, are held at the UN. There is a "relationship agreement" between the ICC and the UN that governs how the two institutions regard each other legally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/pressrelease_details&id=47&l=en.html|title=Agreement Between the International Criminal Court and the United Nations|date=2004-10-04|publisher=International Criminal Court}}</ref>
==Secretary-General==
[[Image:Bankimoon.jpg|thumb|upright|Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]].]]
{{Main|United Nations Secretary-General}}
The ''Secretary-General of the United Nations'' is the head of the [[United Nations Secretariat|Secretariat]], one of the principal organs of the United Nations, and acts as the de facto spokesman and leader of the United Nations.
===Selection===
The UN Charter provides little guidance for the selection of the Secretary General. The Charter states that "the Secretary-General shall be appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council". Over the years the process has changed, but always requires bartering and negotiation on the part of the five veto holding members of the Security Council.<ref name="una-usa-fact">{{cite web | url=http://www.unausa.org/atf/cf/%7B49C555AC-20C8-4B43-8483-A2D4C1808E4E%7D/SG%20Reform%20Fact%20Sheet-fina-logol.pdf |title=An Historical Overview on the Selection of United Nations Secretaries-General | publisher=UNA-USA | access-date=2007-09-30}}</ref>
In practice, a few details have remained consistent:<ref name="una-usa-fact"/>
* the Secretary-General is appointed for a renewable five year term;
* no Secretary-General has served more than two terms;
* candidates are selected using geographic rotation;
* no candidate has been elected from the country of a permanent member of the Security Council; and
* the General Assembly has never rejected a candidate recommended by the Security Council.
===List of Secretaries-General===
{| class="wikitable"
! No. !! Name !! Country of Origin !! Since !! Prior !! Note
|-
| 1 || [[Trygve Lie]] || {{flagicon|Norway}} [[Norway]] || [[2 February]] [[1946]] || [[10 November]] [[1952]] ||Resigned
|-
| 2 || [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] || {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Sweden]] || [[10 April]] [[1953]] || [[18 September]] [[1961]] || Died in a plane crash while over [[Africa]]
|-
| 3 || [[U Thant]] || {{flagicon|Burma|1948}} [[Burma]] || [[30 November]] [[1961]] || [[1 January]] [[1972]] || First Secretary General from [[Asia]]
|-
| 4 || [[Kurt Waldheim]] || {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Austria]] || [[1 January]] [[1972]] || [[1 January]] [[1982]] ||
|-
| 5 || [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]] || {{flagicon|Peru}} [[Peru]] || [[1 January]] [[1982]] || [[1 January]] [[1992]] || First Secretary General from [[South America]]
|-
| 6 || [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] || {{flagicon|Egypt}} [[Egypt]] || [[1 January]] [[1992]] || [[1 January]] [[1997]] || First Secretary General from [[Africa]]
|-
| 7 || [[Kofi Annan]] || {{flagicon|Ghana}} [[Ghana]] || [[1 January]] [[1997]] || [[1 January]] [[2007]]||
|-
| 8 || [[Ban Ki-moon]] || {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[South Korea]] || [[1 January]] [[2007]] ||||
|}
==Peace and security==
[[Image:United Nations peacekeeping missions 2008.png|thumb|UN peacekeeping missions. Light blue indicates current missions, while dark blue represents former missions.]]
The 1945 UN Charter envisaged a system of regulation that would ensure "the least diversion for armaments of the world's human and economic resources". The advent of [[nuclear weapon]]s came only weeks after the signing of the Charter and provided immediate impetus to concepts of arms limitation and [[disarmament]]. In fact, the first [[Resolution (policy debate)|resolution]] of the first meeting of the General Assembly ([[24 January]] [[1946]]) was entitled "The Establishment of a Commission to Deal with the Problems Raised by the Discovery of Atomic Energy" and called upon the commission to make specific proposals for "the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/1/ares1.htm |title=Resolutions Adopted by the General Assembly During its First Session|accessdate=2008-03-24 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref>
===Disarmament===
{{main|General Assembly First Committee}}
The UN has established several forums to address multilateral disarmament issues. The principal ones are the First Committee of the General Assembly, the UN Disarmament Commission, and the [[Conference on Disarmament]]. Items on the agenda include consideration of the possible merits of a [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty|nuclear test ban]], [[Outer Space Treaty|outer-space arms control]], efforts to ban [[chemical warfare|chemical weapons]] and [[Ottawa Treaty|land mines]], nuclear and conventional disarmament, [[Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone|nuclear-weapon-free zones]], reduction of [[List of countries by military expenditures|military budgets]], and measures to strengthen [[international security]]. The UN Office for Disarmament Affairs [http://disarmament.un.org] promotes the goal of nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation and the strengthening of the disarmament regimes in respect to other weapons of mass destruction, chemical and biological weapons. It also promotes disarmament efforts in the area of conventional weapons, especially land mines and small arms, which are the weapons of choice in contemporary conflicts.
===Peacekeeping===
{{main|Peacekeeping|List of United Nations peacekeeping missions}}
[[Image:Monuc peacekeepers.jpg|thumb|left|Peacekeepers in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].]]
UN peacekeepers are sent to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased (or paused) to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states of the UN. All UN peacekeeping operations must be approved by the Security Council.
The founders of the UN had envisaged that the UN would act to prevent conflicts between nations and make future wars impossible. Those hopes have not been fully realized. During the [[Cold War]] (from about 1945 until 1991), the division of the world into hostile camps made peacekeeping agreement extremely difficult. Following the end of the Cold War, there were renewed calls for the UN to become the agency for achieving world peace, as there are several dozen [[ongoing conflicts]] that continue to rage around the globe.
The UN Peace-Keeping Forces (called the Blue Helmets) received the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1988. In 2001, the UN and Secretary General [[Kofi Annan]] won the Nobel Peace Prize "for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world.";<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelpeaceprize.org/eng_lau_list.html|publisher=The Norwegian Nobel Institute|title=Nobel Peace Prize Laureates|accessdate=2007-05-05}}</ref>
The UN maintains a series of [[United Nations Medal]]s awarded to military service members who enforce UN accords. The first such decoration issued was the [[United Nations Service Medal]], awarded to UN forces who participated in the [[Korean War]]. The [[NATO Medal]] is designed on a similar concept and both are considered [[international decoration]]s instead of [[military decoration]]s.
===Successes in security issues===
[[Image:UNVehicleBovington.jpg|thumb|upright|UN [[peacekeeping]] light armed mechanised vehicle in [[Bovington Tank Museum]], [[Dorset]].]]
The [[Human Security Report 2005]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.humansecurityreport.info/|author=Human Security Centre|title=The Human Security Report 2005|accessdate=2007-02-08}}</ref> produced by the Human Security Centre at the [[University of British Columbia]] with support from several governments and foundations, documented a dramatic, but largely unrecognized, decline in the number of wars, genocides and human rights abuses since the end of the [[Cold War]]. Statistics include:
* a 40% drop in violent conflict;
* an 80% drop in the most deadly conflicts; and
* an 80% drop in [[genocide]] and [[policide]].
The report argued that international activism — mostly spearheaded by the UN — has been the main cause of the post–Cold War decline in armed conflict, though the report indicated the evidence for this contention is mostly circumstantial.
In the area of Peacekeeping, successes include:
* A 2005 RAND Corp study found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts. It also compared UN nation-building efforts to those of the U.S., and found that of eight UN cases, seven are at peace, whereas of eight U.S. cases, four are at peace.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2005/RAND_MG304.sum.pdf|author=RAND Corporation|title=The UN's Role in Nation Building: From the Congo to Iraq|format=PDF|409 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 418936 bytes -->}}</ref>
===Reluctance in security issues===
In many cases UN members have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions. Such issues stem from the UN's intergovernmental nature — in many respects it is an association of 192 member states who must reach consensus, not an independent organization.
Other serious security failures include:
* Failure to prevent the 1994 [[Rwandan Genocide]], which resulted in the killings of nearly a million people, due to the refusal of Security Council members to approve any military action.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hrw.org/community/bookreviews/melvern.htm|publisher=Human Rights Watch|title=Book Review: A People Betrayed, the Role of the West in Rwanda's Genocide}}</ref>
* Failure by [[United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo|MONUC]] ([[United Nations Security Council|UNSC]] Resolution 1291) to effectively intervene during the [[Second Congo War]], which claimed nearly five million people in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), 1998-2002, and in carrying out and distributing [[humanitarian aid]]. {{Fact|date=November 2007}}
* Failure to intervene in the 1995 [[Srebrenica massacre]]: despite the fact that the UN designated Srebrenica a "safe haven" for refugees and assigned 600 [[Netherlands|Dutch]] peacekeepers to protect it, the peacekeeping force was not authorised to use force. {{Fact|date=November 2007}}
* Failure to successfully deliver food to starving people in [[Somalia]]; the food was instead usually seized by local warlords. A U.S./UN attempt to apprehend the warlords seizing these shipments resulted in the 1993 [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|Battle of Mogadishu]]. {{Fact|date=November 2007}}
* Failure to implement provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolutions related to the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]. {{Fact|date=November 2007}}
* Failed to prevent or help sufficiently in the area of Darfur genocide: a crisis still exists in that area.
===Peace enforcement===
{{main article|Peace enforcement}}
The UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also occasionally intervened in armed conflicts, the first of which was the [[Korean War]] (1950-1953). More recently, the UN authorized the [[Gulf War|intervention in Iraq]] after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990.
==Human rights and humanitarian assistance==
{{further|[[United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery]] and [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]]}}
The pursuit of [[human rights]] was a central reason for creating the UN. World War II atrocities and [[genocide]] led to a ready consensus that the new organization must work to prevent any similar tragedies in the future. An early objective was creating a legal framework for considering and acting on complaints about human rights violations.
The UN Charter obliges all member nations to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights" and to take "joint and separate action" to that end. The [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], though not legally binding, was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948 as a common standard of achievement for all. The Assembly regularly takes up human rights issues.
The UN and its agencies are central in upholding and implementing the principles enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A case in point is support by the UN for countries in transition to [[democracy]]. Technical assistance in providing free and fair elections, improving judicial structures, drafting constitutions, training human rights officials, and transforming armed movements into [[political party|political parties]] have contributed significantly to democratization worldwide. The UN has helped run elections in countries with little democratic history, including recently in [[Afghanistan]] and East Timor.
The UN is also a forum to support the right of women to participate fully in the political, economic, and social life of their countries. The UN contributes to raising consciousness of the concept of human rights through its covenants and its attention to specific abuses through its General Assembly, Security Council resolutions, or [[International Court of Justice]] rulings.
===Human Rights Council===
{{Main|United Nations Human Rights Council}}
The purpose of the Human Rights Council is to address human rights violations. The Council is the successor to the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]], which was often criticised for the high-profile positions it gave to member states that did not guarantee the human rights of their own citizens<ref name="nytimeseditorial">{{cite news
| title = The Shame of the United Nations
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The [[United Nations General Assembly]] established the Human Rights Council on [[15 March]] [[2006]].<ref name="UN_ARES60251">{{UN document |docid=A-RES-60-251 |type=Resolution |body=General Assembly |session=60 |resolution_number=251 |accessdate=2007-09-19|date=[[15 March]] [[2006]]}}</ref> The council has 47 members distributed by region, which each serve three year terms, and may not serve three consecutive terms.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.un.org/ga/61/elect/hrc/ | title=UN Human Rights Council Elections | publisher=United Nations | accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> A candidate to the body must be approved by a majority of the General Assembly. In addition, the council has strict rules for membership, including a universal human rights review. While some members with questionable human rights records have been elected, it is fewer than before with the increased focus on each member state's human rights record.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.opensocietypolicycenter.org/news/article.php?docId=110 | title=Successful UN Human Rights Council Elections Demonstrate UN Members are Taking Reform Effort Seriously. | publisher=Open Society Policy Center |date=2006-05-09}}</ref>
===Indigenous rights issues===
On 17 September 2007 the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted a declaration outlining the rights of some 370 million [[indigenous peoples]] around the world.<ref name = "UN-indigenous">[http://www.un.org/ga/61/news/news.asp?NewsID=23794&Cr=indigenous&Cr1= UN General Assembly - 61st session - United Nations adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Following two decades of debate, the "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples" was approved. The Declaration outlines the individual and collective rights to culture, language, education, identity, employment and health, thereby addressing post-colonial issues which had confronted Indigenous peoples for centuries. The Declaration aims to maintain, strengthen and encourage the growth of Indigenous institutions, cultures and traditions. It also prohibits discrimination against Indigenous peoples and promotes their active participation in matters which concern their past, present and future.<ref name = "UN-indigenous"/>
The declaration was approved when 143 [[United Nations member states|member states]] voted in its favour. Eleven member states abstained and four voted against the text: [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United States]].
===Treaty bodies===
The United Nations linked human rights treaty bodies are committees of independent experts that monitor implementation of the core [[international human rights instruments|international human rights treaties]]. There are now seven UN-linked human rights treaty bodies, including the [[Human Rights Committee]] and the [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]]. Secretariat services are provided regarding all of those by the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]].
===Humanitarian assistance===
In conjunction with other organizations such as the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]], the UN provides food, drinking water, shelter and other humanitarian services to populaces suffering from [[famine]], displaced by war, or afflicted by other disasters. Major humanitarian branches of the UN are the [[World Food Programme]] (which helps feed more than 100 million people a year in 80 countries), the office of the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|High Commissioner for Refugees]] with projects in over 116 countries, as well as peacekeeping projects in over 24 countries.
At times, UN relief workers have been [[attacks on humanitarian workers|subject to attacks]].
==Social and economic development==
The UN is involved in supporting [[economic development|development]], e.g. by the formulation of the [[Millennium Development Goals]]. The [[United Nations Development Programme|UN Development Programme]] (UNDP) is the largest multilateral source of grant technical assistance in the world. Organizations like the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), [[Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS|UNAIDS]], and [[The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria]] are leading institutions in the battle against [[disease]]s around the world, especially in poor countries. The UN Population Fund is a major provider of reproductive services. It has helped reduce infant and maternal [[death|mortality]] in 100 countries.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
The UN also promotes human development through various related agencies. The [[World Bank Group]] and [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), for example, are independent, specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework, according to a 1947 agreement. They were initially formed as separate from the UN through the [[Bretton Woods system|Bretton Woods]] Agreement in 1944.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,contentMDK:20040610~menuPK:41691~pagePK:43912~piPK:44037,00.html|title= About Us - United Nations|accessdate=2007-08-02|date=[[2003-06-30]]|publisher=The World Bank}}</ref>
The UN annually publishes the [[Human Development Index]] (HDI), a comparative measure [[List of countries by Human Development Index|ranking countries]] by [[poverty]], [[literacy]], [[education]], [[life expectancy]], and other factors.
===Millennium Development Goals===
The [[Millennium Development Goals]] are eight goals that all 192 United Nations member states have agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ | title=The UN Millennium Development Goals | publisher=United Nations | accessdate= 2007-05-04}}</ref> The [[United Nations Millennium Declaration]], signed in September 2000, commits the states to:
# eradicate extreme poverty and [[hunger]];
# achieve universal [[primary education]];
# promote [[gender equality]] and empower women;
# reduce [[child mortality]];
# improve [[maternal health]];
# combat HIV/[[AIDS]], [[malaria]], and other [[disease]]s;
# ensure environmental [[sustainability]]; and
# develop a global partnership for [[International development|development]].
==Reform==
{{main|Reform of the United Nations|United Nations Parliamentary Assembly|Reform of the United Nations Security Council}}
Since its founding, there have been many calls for reform of the United Nations. But there is little clarity, let alone consensus, about how to reform it. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, others want its role reduced to humanitarian work. There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council's membership to be increased to reflect the current geo-political state, for different ways of electing the UN's [[United Nations Secretary-General|Secretary-General]], and for a [http://www.unpacampaign.org/ United Nations Parliamentary Assembly].
===Reform program===
An official reform programme was begun by former [[United Nations Secretary-General]] [[Kofi Annan]] soon after starting his first term in 1997. [[Reform of the United Nations Security Council|Reforms mentioned]] include changing the permanent membership of the [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]] (which currently reflects the power relations of 1945); making the bureaucracy more transparent, accountable and efficient; making the UN more democratic; and imposing an international [[tariff]] on [[List of modern armament manufacturers|arms manufacturers]] worldwide.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}
In September 2005, the UN convened a [[2005 World Summit|World Summit]] that brought together the heads of most member states, calling the summit "a once-in-a-generation opportunity to take bold decisions in the areas of development, security, human rights and reform of the United Nations."<ref>{{cite web|title=The 2005 World Summit: An Overview|url=http://www.un.org/ga/documents/overview2005summit.pdf|publisher=United Nations|format=PDF|78.0 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 79964 bytes -->}}</ref> Kofi Annan had proposed that the summit agree on a global "grand bargain" to reform the UN, revamping international systems for peace and security, human rights and development, to make them capable of addressing the extraordinary challenges facing the UN in the 21st century.
World leaders agreed on a compromise text,<ref>{{cite web|title=2005 World Summit Outcome|publisher=United Nations|url=http://www.un.org/summit2005/presskit/fact_sheet.pdf|format=PDF|82.9 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 84923 bytes -->}}</ref> including the following notable items:
* the creation of a [[Peacebuilding Commission]] to provide a central mechanism to help countries emerging from conflict;
* an agreement that the international community has a "[[responsibility to protect]]" - the duty to intervene in when national governments fail to fulfill their responsibility to protect their citizens from atrocious crimes;
* a [[United Nations Human Rights Council|Human Rights Council]] (established in 2006);
* an agreement to devote more resources to [[United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services|UN's Office of Internal Oversight Services]] (OIOS);
* several agreements to spend billions more on achieving the [[Millennium Development Goals]];
* a clear and unambiguous condemnation of [[terrorism]] "in all its forms and manifestations";
* a democracy fund;
* an agreement to wind up the [[United Nations Trusteeship Council|Trusteeship Council]] due to the completion of its mission.
====Management Reform====
The UN has been accused of bureaucratic inefficiency and waste. During the 1990s the United States, currently the largest contributor to the UN, gave this inefficiency as a reason for withholding their dues. The repayment of the dues was made conditional on a major reforms initiative. In 1994 the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog.<ref>{{cite web |last=Reddy |first=Shravanti |date=2002-10-29 |url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/ngos/ngo-un/rest-un/2002/1029watchdog.htm |title=Watchdog Organization Struggles to Decrease UN Bureaucracy |publisher=Global Policy Forum |language=English |accessdate=2006-09-21 }}</ref> Further management reforms have been proposed through the World Summit, including changes to the OIOS, the establishment of an ethics office, and a review of UN mandates that are older than five years.
The Office of Internal Oversight Services is being restructured to more clearly define its scope and mandate. It will receive more resources. In addition, to improve the oversight and auditing capabilities of the General Assembly, an Independent Audit Advisory Committee (IAAC) is being created. In June 2007, the Fifth Committee created a draft resolution for the [[terms of reference]] of this committee.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.centerforunreform.org/node/226 |author=Irene Martinetti |title=Reforming Oversight and Governance of the UN Encounters Hurdles |date=1 December 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.centerforunreform.org/node/31 |title=Oversight and Governance |publisher=Center for UN Reform Education}}</ref>
An ethics office was established in 2006, responsible for administering new financial disclosure and [[whistleblower]] protection policies. Working with the OIOS, the ethics office also plans to implement a policy to avoid fraud and corruption.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.centerforunreform.org/node/32 |title=Ethics Office |publisher=Center for UN Reform Education}}</ref>
The Secretariat is in the process of reviewing all UN mandates that are more than five years old. The review is intended to determine which duplicative or unnecessary programmes should be eliminated. Not all member states are in agreement as to which of the over 7000 mandates should be reviewed. The dispute centres on whether mandates that have been renewed should be examined. As of September 2007, the process is ongoing.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.centerforunreform.org/node/30 |title=Mandate Review |publisher=Center for UN Reform Education}}</ref>
==Personnel policy==
The UN and its agencies are immune to the laws of the [[country|countries]] where they operate, safeguarding UN's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries. This independence allows agencies to implement [[human resources]] policies that may even be contrary to the laws of a host - or a member country. {{Fact|date=April 2008}}
Despite their independence in matters of human resources policy, the UN and its agencies voluntarily apply the [[law]]s of member states regarding [[same-sex marriage]]s, allowing decisions about the status of employees in a same-sex partnership to be based on nationality. The UN and its agencies recognize same-sex marriages only if the employees are citizens of countries that recognize the marriage. This practice is not specific to the recognition of same-sex marriage but reflects a common practice of the UN for a number of human resources matters. It has to be noted though that some agencies provide limited benefits to [[domestic partnership|domestic partners]] of their staff and that some agencies do not recognise same-sex marriage or domestic partnership of their staff.
==Specialized organizations==
{{Splitsection}}
There are many UN organizations and agencies that function to work on particular issues.
===International Atomic Energy Agency===
[[Image:Flag of IAEA.svg|thumb|IAEA flag.]]
{{main|International Atomic Energy Agency}}
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical cooperation in the field of [[nuclear power|nuclear]] technology. It seeks to promote the peaceful use of [[nuclear energy]] and to inhibit its use for [[nuclear weapon|military purposes]]. The IAEA was set up as an autonomous organization in [[29 July]] [[1957]]. Prior to this, in 1953, [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] envisioned the creation of this international body to control and develop the use of atomic energy, in his "''[[Atoms for Peace]]''" speech before the UN General Assembly.<ref>[http://www.iaea.org/About/history.html About IAEA: History<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The organization and its Director General, [[Mohamed ElBaradei]], were jointly awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] announced on [[7 October]] [[2005]]. Its current membership is 144 countries.<ref>[http://www.iaea.org/About/by_the_numbers.html About IAEA: By the Numbers<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
===International Civil Aviation Organization===
[[Image:Flag of ICAO.svg|thumb|ICAO flag.]]
{{main|International Civil Aviation Organization}}
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) was founded in 1947. It codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of international [[airline|air transport]] to ensure safe and orderly growth. Its headquarters are located in the [[Quartier international de Montréal]] of [[Montreal]], [[Canada]].
The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation, prevention of unlawful interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international [[civil aviation]]. In addition, the ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the [[Convention on International Civil Aviation]], commonly known as the [[Convention on International Civil Aviation|Chicago Convention]].
===International Fund for Agricultural Development===
{{main|International Fund for Agricultural Development}}
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) was established as an international financial institution in 1977, as one of the major outcomes of the 1974 World Food Conference and a response to the situation in the [[Sahel]]. IFAD is dedicated to eradicating rural poverty in developing countries. Its headquarters are in [[Rome]], [[Italy]].
===International Labour Organization===
{{main|International Labour Organization}}
The International Labour Organization (ILO) deals with [[labour (economics)|labour]] issues. Its headquarters are in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]. Founded in 1919, it was formed through the negotiations of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], and was initially an agency of the [[League of Nations]]. It became a member of the UN system after the demise of the League and the formation of the UN at the end of World War II. Its Constitution, as amended to date, includes the [[Declaration of Philadelphia]] on the aims and purposes of the Organization. Its secretariat is known as the International Labour Office.
===International Maritime Organization===
{{main|International Maritime Organization}}
The International Maritime Organization (IMO), formerly known as the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), was established in 1948 through the United Nations to coordinate international maritime safety and related practices. However the IMO did not enter into full force until 1958.
Headquartered in [[London]], the IMO promotes cooperation among governments and the shipping industry to improve maritime safety and to prevent marine pollution. IMO is governed by an Assembly of members and is financially administered by a Council of members elected from the Assembly. The work of IMO is conducted through five committees and these are supported by technical sub-committees. Member organizations of the UN organizational family may observe the proceedings of the IMO. Observer status may be granted to qualified non-governmental organizations.
The IMO is supported by a permanent secretariat of employees who are representative of its members. The secretariat is composed of a Secretary-General who is periodically elected by the Assembly, and various divisions including, ''inter alia'', marine safety, environmental protection, and a conference section.
===International Telecommunication Union===
[[Image:Flag of ITU.svg|thumb|ITU flag.]]
{{main|International Telecommunication Union}}
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) was established to standardize and regulate international radio and [[telecommunication]]s. It was founded as the International Telegraph Union in [[Paris]] on [[17 May]] [[1865]]. Its main tasks include [[standardization]], allocation of the [[radio]] spectrum, and organizing interconnection arrangements between different countries to allow international phone calls — in which regard it performs for telecommunications a similar function to what the UPU performs for postal services. It has its headquarters in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], next to the main United Nations campus.
===Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)===
{{main|Food and Agriculture Organization}}
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO's mandate is to raise levels of nutrition, improve agricultural productivity, better the lives of rural populations and contribute to the growth of the world economy. FAO is the largest of UN agencies and its headquarters are in [[Rome]], [[Italy]].
===United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)===
[[Image:Flag of UNESCO.svg|thumb|UNESCO flag.]]
{{main|UNESCO}}
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1945. Its stated purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and the human rights and fundamental freedoms proclaimed in the UN Charter.
===United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)===
[[Image:Unido logo.png|thumb|150px|right|UNIDO logo]]
{{main|United Nations Industrial Development Organization}}
The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), French/Spanish acronym ONUDI, is a specialized agency in the United Nations system, headquartered in Vienna, Austria. The Organization's primary objective is the promotion and acceleration of industrial development in developing countries and countries with economies in transition and the promotion of international industrial cooperation.
UNIDO believes that competitive and environmentally sustainable industry has a crucial role to play in accelerating economic growth, reducing poverty and achieving the [[Millennium Development Goals]]. The Organization therefore works towards improving the quality of life of the world's poor by drawing on its combined global resources and expertise in the following three interrelated thematic areas:
* Poverty reduction through productive activities;
* Trade capacity-building; and
* Energy and environment.
===Universal Postal Union (UPU)===
{{main|Universal Postal Union}}
The Universal Postal Union, headquartered in [[Berne]], [[Switzerland]], coordinates postal policies between member nations, and hence the world-wide postal system. Each member country agrees to the same set of terms for conducting international postal duties.
===World Bank===
{{main|World Bank Group}}
The World Bank, a part of the World Bank Group (WBG), makes loans to developing countries for development programmes with the stated goal of reducing poverty. The World Bank differs from the World Bank Group in that the former only comprises the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Development Association, while the latter incorporates these entities in addition to three others.
===World Health Organization (WHO)===
[[Image:Flag of WHO.svg|thumb|WHO flag.]]
{{main|World Health Organization}}
The World Health Organization (WHO) acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, and headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health Organization, which had been an agency of the League of Nations.
===World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)===
{{main|World Intellectual Property Organization}}
The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) (French: Organisation mondiale de la propriété intellectuelle or OMPI) is a specialized agency of the United Nations created in 1967 and headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. Its purpose is to encourage creative activity and to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world. The organisation administers several treaties concerning the protection of [[intellectual property]] rights.
===World Meteorological Organization (WMO)===
[[Image:Flag of the World Meteorological Organization.svg|thumb|WMO flag.]]
{{main|World Meteorological Organization}}
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) originated from the International Meteorological Organization (IMO), which was founded in 1873. Established in 1950, WMO became the specialized agency of the United Nations for meteorology (weather and climate), operational hydrology and related geophysical sciences. It has its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
==Other activities==
===Decolonization===
Conferences and international observances (see [[#UN international observances|below]]) are other activities of the United Nations. Over the lifetime of the UN, [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust2.htm over 80] colonies have attained independence. The General Assembly adopted the [[Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples]] in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers. Through the [[Special Committee on Decolonization|UN Committee on Decolonization]],<ref>[http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/special_committee_main.htm the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization - Official Website]</ref> created in 1962, the UN has focused considerable attention on [[decolonization]]. It has also supported the new states that have arisen as a result self-determination initiatives. The committee has overseen the decolonization of every country larger than 20,000 km² and removed them from the [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories]], besides [[Western Sahara]], a country larger than the UK only relinquished by Spain in 1975.
===Conferences===
[[Image:Knut IMG 8095.jpg|thumb|The [[Berlin]] born [[polar bear]] [[Knut (polar bear)|Knut]] will be the official mascot animal for the Conference on [[biodiversity]] to be held in [[Bonn]] 2008. He is the symbol figure of global [[climate change]].]]
When an issue is considered particularly important, the General Assembly may convene an international conference to focus global attention and build a consensus for consolidated action. Examples include:
* International Conference on Assistance to Refugees in Africa ([[Icara 2|ICARA 2]]) 1984;
* The UN Conference on Environment and Development (the 1992 [[Earth Summit]]) in [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil discussed issues including [[climate change]], [[biodiversity]], and [[sustainable development]] and led to the creation of the [[Commission on Sustainable Development|UN Commission on Sustainable Development]];
* The [[International Conference on Population and Development]], held in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]] in 1994, approved a programme of action to address the critical challenges between population and sustainable development over the next 20 years;
* The [[Fourth World Conference on Women]], held in [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] in 1995, sought to accelerate implementation of the historic agreements reached at the Third World Conference on Women;
* The Second UN Conference on Human Settlements ([[Habitat II]]), convened in 1996 in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]], considered the challenges of human settlement development and management in the 21st century; and
* In 1998, the General Assembly called a conference to establish an [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC), where it adopted the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|"Rome Statute"]]. The ICC became operational in 2002 and began its first case in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/about/ataglance/establishment.html|title=Establishment of the Court|publisher=International Criminal Court|accessdate=2007-05-05}}</ref>
===UN international observances===
The UN declares and coordinates [[international observance]]s, periods of time to observe some issue of international interest or concern. Using the symbolism of the UN, a specially designed logo for the year, and the infrastructure of the [[United Nations System]], various days and years have become catalysts to advancing key issues of concern on a global scale. For example, [[World Tuberculosis Day]], [[Earth Day]] and [[International Year of Deserts and Desertification]].
==Controversy and criticism==
{{criticism-section}}
There has been controversy and criticism of the UN organization and its activities since at least the 1950s. In the United States, an early opponent of the UN was the [[John Birch Society]], which began a "get US out of the UN" campaign in 1959, charging that the UN's aim was to establish a "One World Government." In 1967, [[Richard Nixon]], while running for President of the United States, criticized the UN as "obsolete and inadequate" for dealing with then-present crises like the [[Cold War]].<ref>[http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/ONU_edward_keefer.pdf "The Nixon Administration and the United Nations: 'It's a Damned Debating Society'"], Dr. Edward C. Keefer (PDF)]</ref> [[Jeane Kirkpatrick]], who was appointed by [[Ronald Reagan]] to be [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations]], wrote in a 1983 opinion piece in ''[[The New York Times]]'' that the process of discussions at the Security Council "more closely resembles a mugging" of the United States "than either a political debate or an effort at problem solving."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=1e13PNeB4DIC&pg=PA229&lpg=PA229&source=web&ots=zIav3cg8Wj&sig=9v58z35AQOSN_x23k_yqCzJkoTk#PPA229,M1 "UN Mugging Fails"], ''Legitimacy and Force'', Jeane J. Kirkpatrick, page 229</ref> In a February 2003 speech, soon before the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|United States invasion of Iraq]] (for which he had been unable to get UN approval), [[George W. Bush]] said, "free nations will not allow the United Nations to fade into history as an ineffective, irrelevant debating society."<ref>[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030213-3.html " President Salutes Sailors at Naval Station Mayport in Jacksonville: Remarks by the President at Naval Station Mayport"], February 13, 2003</ref> In 2005, Bush appointed [[John R. Bolton]] to the position of Acting U.S. Ambassador to the UN; Bolton had made several statements critical of the UN, including saying, in 1994, "There is no such thing as the United Nations. There is only the international community, which can only be led by the only remaining superpower, which is the United States."<ref>{{cite news
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| language =
| publisher = ''The Times''
| date = [[2005-03-08]]
| url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,11069-1515816,00.html
| accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref>
===Security Council criticism===
{{main|Reform of the United Nations Security Council}}
The Security Council has been criticized for being unable to act in a clear and decisive way when confronted with a crisis. [[United Nations Security Council veto power|The veto power of the five permanent members]] has often been cited as the cause of this problem.<ref name="R2PSD">{{cite web |url=http://www.iciss.ca/menu-en.asp |title=The Responsibility to Protect |accessdate=2008-03-24 |date=2001-12-18 |publisher=International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty |pages=p. 51}}</ref> However, according to UN Charter interpretations that were made law by the General Assembly's [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 377|'Uniting for Peace' resolution]], adopted [[3 November]] [[1950]], the Assembly may make ''any'' recommendations necessary to restore international peace and security, in cases where the Security Council, because of lack of unanimity between its permanent members, fails to act in situations where there appears to be a threat to international peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression. Given this, the position that reform of the Security Council veto power is a necessary prerequisite to ensuring the effectiveness of the UN Organization, has been questioned.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=11353 |title=The 'veto' charade |accessdate=2008-03-24 |date=2006-11-07 |publisher=ZNet}}</ref>
The makeup of the Security Council dates back to the end of World War II, and this division of powers is often said to no longer represent the current power realities in the world. Critics question the effectiveness and relevance of the Security Council, because responsibility for the enforcement of its resolutions lies primarily with the Council members themselves, and there are often no consequences for violating a Security Council resolution.<ref>[[Hans Köchler]], ''The Voting Procedure in the United Nations Security Council: Examining a Normative Contradiction and its Consequences on International Relations''. (Studies in International Relations, XVII.) Vienna: International Progress Organization, 1991.</ref>
===Inaction on genocide and human rights===
{{seealso|United Nations Commission on Human Rights#Criticism}}
The [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]], which existed from 1946 to 2006, was criticized for producing a disproportionate number of resolutions blaming [[Israel]] for its treatment of the [[Palestinian people]] while ignoring other human rights violators.<ref name = "UN-Bias">''The Struggle against Anti-Israel Bias at the UN Commission on Human Rights'', Hillel C. Neuer, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, January 1, 2006</ref> It was also criticized for letting countries accused of violating human rights, such as [[Cuba]] and [[Sudan]], become members of the commission. The commission was dissolved in 2006, as part of a [[reform of the United Nations]].
The commission's successor, the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] was soon [[United Nations Human Rights Council#Council's position on Israel|accused]] of perpetuating the UNHCR's anti-Israel bias<ref>''Bad counsel'', The Economist, April 4 2007, www.economist.com</ref><ref>''A Shadow on the Human Rights Movement'', By Jackson Diehl, June 25, 2007; Page A19, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/24/AR2007062401373.html www.washingtonpost.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.eyeontheun.org/browse-un.asp?ya=1&sa=1&u=344&un_s=0&ul=1&tp=1&tpn=Resolution compilation of UNCHR resolution, 2006-2007] </ref> while ignoring the plight of other oppressed people, for example [[International response to the War in Darfur|in Darfur]].<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/africa/01/31/sudan.report/ CNN.com - U.N. report: Darfur not genocide - Jan 31, 2005<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Similar criticism has been echoed by Secretaries-General Kofi Annan<ref>[http://www.irishexaminer.com/breaking/index.aspx?c=ireland&jp=cwidqlauojsn "Darfur crisis 'graver than Middle East' - Annan", ''Irish Examiner'', November 29, 2006]</ref> and Ban Ki-moon<ref>[http://www.un.org/apps/sg/sgstats.asp?nid=2626 "New York, 20 June 2007 - Statement attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General On the Human Rights Council"]</ref> and U.S. President [[George W. Bush]].<ref>[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/09/20070925-4.html " President Bush Addresses The United Nations General Assembly"], September 25, 2007</ref> Doru Costea, the current UNHCR President admitted an anti-Israel bias and hoped for reform of the Council.<ref>''Human Rights Council president wants reform'', September 29, 2007, [http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/front/detail/Human_Rights_Council_president_wants_reform.html?siteSect=105&sid=8265630&cKey=1191080216000&ty=st www.swissinfo.org]</ref> This "mea culpa" was contradicted by accusations from the Canadian delegation of personal interference by Costea.<ref>''Controversial changes to UN rights body passes'', by Steven Edwards, CanWest News ServicePublished: November 16, 2007, [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=88cdec73-c6c9-4858-a95c-f2e8cbfe45dc&k=11105 National Post]</ref>
===Accusations of bias in the Arab-Israeli conflict===
{{Main|Israel, Palestinians, and the United Nations}}
{{:Israel, Palestinians and the United Nations}}
===Oil-for-Food Programme===
{{seealso|Oil-for-Food Programme}}
The Oil-for-Food Programme was established by the UN in 1996 to allow Iraq to sell [[Petroleum|oil]] on the world market in exchange for [[food]], [[medicine]], and other [[Humanitarianism|humanitarian]] needs of ordinary Iraqi citizens who were affected by international [[economic sanctions]], without allowing the [[federal government of Iraq|Iraqi government]] to rebuild its military in the wake of the first [[Gulf War]]. Over $65 billion worth of Iraqi oil was sold on the world market. Officially, about $46 billion was used for humanitarian needs. Additional revenue paid for [[Gulf War]] [[war reparations|reparations]] through a Compensation Fund, UN administrative and operational costs for the Programme (2.2%), and the [[United Nations Special Commission|weapons inspection]] programme (0.8%). {{Fact|date=September 2007}}
The programme was discontinued in late 2003 amidst allegations of widespread abuse and corruption. [[Benon Sevan]], the former director, was suspended and then resigned from the UN, as an interim progress report of a UN-sponsored investigation concluded that Sevan had accepted bribes from the Iraqi regime, and recommended that his UN immunity be lifted to allow for a criminal investigation.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.iic-offp.org/documents/Third%20Interim%20Report.pdf|title=Independent Inquiry Committee into the United Nations Oil-for-Food Programme|Publisher=United Nations|date=2005-08-08 <!-- application/pdf, 3848553 bytes -->}}</ref> Beyond Sevan, [[Kojo Annan]] was alleged to have illegally procured Oil-for-Food contracts on behalf of the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] company Cotecna. India's foreign minister, [[K. Natwar Singh]], was removed from office because of his role in the scandal. And the [[Cole Inquiry]] investigated whether the Australian Wheat Board breached any laws with its contracts with Iraq.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ag.gov.au/agd/WWW/unoilforfoodinquiry.nsf/Page/Report|title=Report of the Inquiry into certain Australian companies in relation to the UN Oil-for-Food Programme|publisher=Australian Government Attorney-General's Department|date=2006-11}}</ref>
===Abuse of human rights===
[[Albin Kurti]], an activist from Kosovo, has accused United Nations of persecuting and arresting him for political reasons. His statements are supported by international human rights organizations such as [[Amnesty International]] and [[International Helsinki Federation]]. The UN-appointed judge according to an Amnesty report "approached the prosecutor after the hearing—in the absence of either Albin Kurti or his court-appointed lawyer—to clarify what the prosecution would like to recommend in relation to his detention." <ref>http://www.freealbinkurti.org/11_12_07%20AMNESTY%20Statement.pdf</ref>
===Other controversies===
* UN peacekeepers have been accused of child rape, sexual abuse or soliciting prostitutes during various peacekeeping missions, starting in 2003, in [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]],<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A3145-2004Dec15.html|title=U.N. Sexual Abuse Alleged in Congo|Publisher=Washington Post|author=Colum Lynch|date=2004-12-16}}</ref> [[Haiti]],<ref>{{cite web|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6195830.stm|title=UN troops face child abuse claims|Publisher=BBC News|date=2006-11-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/11/02/news/UN-GEN-UN-Haiti-Sexual-Exploitation.php|title=
108 Sri Lankan peacekeepers in Haiti to be repatriated after claims they paid prostitutes
|publisher=International Herald Tribune|date=2007-11-02}}</ref> [[Liberia]],<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/05/08/news/abuse.php|title=Aid workers in Liberia accused of sex abuse|publisher=International Herald Tribune|date=2006-05-08}}</ref> Sudan,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/01/03/wsudan03.xml|title= UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan|publisher=Telegraph|date=2007-01-04}}</ref> [[Burundi]] and [[Ivory Coast]]<ref>{{cite web|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/7420798.stm|title= UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan|publisher=BBC|date=2007-05-28}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Cleanup-section|date=March 2008}}
{{Confusing|date=March 2008}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
<div style="-moz-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;">
*[[Democratic mundialization]]
*[[High-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence]]
*[[International relations]]
*[[Israel, Palestinians, and the United Nations]]
*[[List of Permanent Representatives to the United Nations]]
*[[Model United Nations]]
*[[United Nations Association]]
*[[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]]
*[[United Nations elections and appointments]]
*[[United Nations in popular culture]]
*[[United Nations International School]]
</div>
{{col-2}}
<div style="-moz-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;">
*[[UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador]]
*[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Goodwill Ambassador|UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador]]
*[[University for Peace]]
*[[United Nations Peace Messenger Cities|UN Peace Messenger Cities]]
*[[United Nations Postal Administration|UN Postal Administration]]
*[[United Nations University]]
*[[World Heritage Site]]
*[[Global Governance Watch]]
*[[Population_control|Population Control]]
*[[Eugenics]]
</div>
{{col-end}}
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
*[http://foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=34 "Think Again: The United Nations"], [[Madeleine K. Albright]], ''Foreign Policy'', September/October, 2004
* [[Hans Köchler]], ''Quo Vadis, United Nations?'', in: Law Review, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, College of Law, May 2005 [http://hanskoechler.com/koechler-quo-vadis-UN.htm Online version]
*''An Insider's Guide to the UN'', Linda Fasulo, Yale University Press ([[November 1]], [[2003]]), hardcover, 272 pages, ISBN 0-300-10155-4
*''United Nations: The First Fifty Years'', Stanley Mesler, Atlantic Monthly Press ([[March 1]], [[1997]]), hardcover, 416 pages, ISBN 0-87113-656-2
*''United Nations, Divided World: The UN's Roles in International Relations'' edited by Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury, Oxford University Press; 2nd edition ([[January 1]] [[1994]]), hardcover, 589 pages, ISBN 0-19-827926-4
*''A Guide to Delegate Preparation: A Model United Nations Handbook'', edited by Scott A. Leslie, The United Nations Association of the United States of America, 2004 edition (October 2004), softcover, 296 pages, ISBN 1-880632-71-3
*"U.S. At War - International." ''[[Time Magazine]]'' XLV.19 [[May 7]], [[1945]]: 25-28.
*[http://www.us.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Politics/InternationalStudies/InternationalOrganizations/?view=usa&ci=9780199279517 ''The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations'', edited by Thomas G. Weiss and Sam Daws], Oxford University Press, July 2007, hardcover, 896 pages, ISBN 9780199279517, ISBN 0199279519
</div>
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|United Nations}}
*[http://www.un.org/ United Nations official website]
**[http://www.un.org/aboutun About the United Nations]
**[http://www.un.org/issues Global Issues on the UN Agenda]
**[http://www.un.org/events/panel/ High-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence]
**[http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/En/lateste.pdf Journal of the United Nations: Programme of meetings and agenda].
**[http://www.unric.org The United Nations Regional Information Centre (UNRIC)]
**[http://www.un.org/chronicle UN Chronicle Magazine]
**[http://www.un.org/aboutun/chart.html UN Organisation Chart]
**[http://www.un.org/works UN Works]
**[http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/index.html United Nations Charter] - Charter text
**[http://www.un.net/ United Nations Directory]
**[http://www.un.org/documents/scres.htm United Nations Security Council Resolutions]
**[http://www.unv.org United Nations Volunteers]
**[http://www.un.org/webcast/index.asp# United Nations Webcasts]
**[http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html Universal Declaration of Human Rights]
**[http://www.un.org/aroundworld/map/ World Map of UN websites and locations]
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