Universality (philosophy)
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'''Universality''' is the quality ascribed to an entity whose existence is consistent throughout the universe. In philosophy, '''universalism''' is a doctrine or school claiming universal facts can be discovered and is therefore understood as being in opposition to [[relativism]]. When used in the context of ethics, the meaning of ''universal'' refers to that which is true for "all similarly situated individuals." <ref>[http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/u.htm Philosophical Dictionary: Ubermensch-Utilitarianism<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Rights]], for example in [[natural rights]], or in the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]], for those heavily influenced by the philosophy of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and its conception of a [[human nature]], could be considered as universal. The 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] is inspired by such principles.
In logic, or the consideration of valid arguments, a [[proposition]] is said to have universality if it can be conceived as being true in all possible contexts without creating a [[contradiction]]. Some philosophers have referred to such propositions as [[universalizability|universalizable]]. [[Truth]] is considered to be universal if it is valid in all times and places. In this case, it is seen as [[eternal]] or as [[absolute]]. The [[relativism|relativist conception]] denies the existence of some or all universal truths, particularly ethical ones (through [[moral relativism]]). [[Mathematics]] is a field in which those truths discovered, in relation to the field of mathematics, are typically considerered of universal scope. Usage of the word ''truth'' has various domains of application, relativism does not necessarily apply to all of them. This is not to say that universality is limited to mathematics for there exists a large number of people who apply the standard to philosophy, theology and beyond.
== Universality in metaphysics ==
{{see also|universal (metaphysics)}}
In [[metaphysics]], a '''universal''' is a [[type (metaphysics)|type]], a [[property (metaphysics)|property]], or a [[relation (metaphysics)|relation]]. The noun ''universal'' contrasts with ''[[individual]]'', while the adjective ''universal'' contrasts with ''[[particular]]'' or sometimes with ''[[concrete (philosophy)|concrete]]''. The latter meaning, however, may be confusing since [[G.W.F. Hegel|Hegelian]] and neo-Hegelian (e.g. [[British idealism|British idealist]]) philosophies speak of ''[[concrete universal]]s''.
A universal may have instances, known as its ''particulars''. For example, the type ''dog'' (or ''doghood'') is a universal, as are the property ''red'' (or ''redness'') and the relation ''betweenness'' (or ''being between''). Any particular dog, red thing, or object that is between other things is not a universal, however, but is an ''instance'' of a universal. That is, a universal type (''doghood''), property (''redness''), or relation (''betweenness'') ''[[Substance theory#Inherence relation|inheres]]'' a particular object (a specific dog, red thing, or object between other things).
[[Platonic realism]] holds universals to be the [[referent]]s of general terms, i.e. the ''[[abstraction|abstract]]'', nonphysical entities to which words like "doghood", "redness", and "betweenness" refer. By contrast, particulars are the referents of proper names, like "Fido", or of definite descriptions that identify single objects, like the phrase, "that apple on the table". By contrast, other metaphysical theories merely use the terminology of universals to describe physical entities.
''The [[problem of universals]]'' is an ancient problem in metaphysics concerning the nature of universals, or whether they exist. Part of the problem involves the implications of language use and the complexity of relating language to [[ontology|ontological]] theory.
Most ontological frameworks do not consider [[class (philosophy)|classes]] to be universals, although some prominent philosophers, such as John Bigelow, do.
== Others ==
The term '''universality''' also refers to the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] concept of an absolute, all-encompassing morality that justified a universal secular rule by one all-powerful [[Holy Roman Emperor]], and also justified as universal the religious rule by one all-powerful all-encompassing (hence the term [[catholic]]) church. In the 17th century, the doctrine of universality gave way to the doctrine of ''[[raison d'état]]'' or [[national interest]]. Universality is comparable, but not equivalent, to the concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] in Chinese history.
== Quotes ==
"What is absolutely true is always correct, everywhere, all the time, under any condition. An entity's ability to discern these things is irrelevant to that state of truth." - [[Steven Robiner]]
==References==
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* http://www.unesco.org/opi2/philosophyandethics/intro.htm
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