Ur 32047 224780805 2008-07-10T11:32:00Z 12.196.13.3 /* History */ corrected '...he and his successor were *defied*...' to '...he and his successor were *deified*...' {{coor title dms|30|57|45|N|46|06|11|E|region:IQ_scale:30000}} {{otheruses}} [[Image:UR 17 01 2004.jpg|thumb|250px|Ur seen across the Royal tombs, with the [[Great Ziggurat of Ur|Great Ziggurat]] in the background, [[January 17]] [[2004]]]] '''Ur''' was an ancient city in southern [[Mesopotamia]] (modern day Iraq), located near the mouth (at the time) of the [[Euphrates]] and [[Tigris]] rivers on the [[Persian Gulf]] and close to [[Eridu]]. It is considered to be one of the earliest known [[civilizations]] in [[History of the world|world history]]. Because of marine [[regression (geology)|regression]], the remains are now well inland in present-day [[Iraq]], south of the Euphrates on its right bank, and named Tell el-Mukayyar <ref>[[Tell el-Mukayyar ]]&ndash; in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''Tell'' means "mound" and ''Mukayyar'' means "built of bitumen". Mukayyar is variously transcribed as Mugheir, Mughair, Moghair, Muqayyar etc.</ref>, near the city of [[Nasiriyah]] south of [[Baghdad]]. The site is marked by the ruins of a [[ziggurat]] (''right''), still largely intact, and by settlement mounds. [[Great Ziggurat of Ur|The ziggurat of Ur]] is a temple of [[Nanna (Sumerian deity)|Nanna]], the [[Lunar_deity|moon deity]] in [[Mesopotamian mythology|Sumerian mythology]], and has two stages constructed from brick: in the lower stage the bricks are joined together with [[bitumen]], in the upper stage they are joined with [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]]. The Sumerian name for this city was Urim.<ref>S. M. Kramer, ''The Sumerians, Their History, Culture, and Character'', University of Chicago Press, 1963, pages 28 and 298</ref> [[Image:Meso2mil.JPG|300px|right|thumb|Mesopotamia in [[2nd millennium BC]]]] == History == {{Ancient Mesopotamia}} Ur was inhabited in the earliest stage of village settlement in southern Mesopotamia, the [[Ubaid period]]. However, it later appears to have been abandoned for a time. Scholars believe that, as the climate changed from relatively moist to drought in the early [[3rd millennium BC]], the small farming villages of the Ubaid culture consolidated into larger settlements, arising from the need for large-scale, centralized [[irrigation]] works to survive the dry spell. Ur became one such center, and by around [[2600 BC]], in the Sumerian [[Sumerian king list|Early Dynastic Period III]], the city was again thriving. Ur by this time was considered sacred to [[Nanna]]. The location of Ur was favourable for trade, by both sea and land routes, into [[Arabia]]. Many elaborate tombs, including that of Queen [[Puabi]] <ref name="puabi">Queen Puabi is also written Pu-Abi and formerly transcribed as Shub-ab.</ref>, were constructed. In this cemetery were also found artifacts bearing the names of kings [[Meskalamdug]] and [[Akalamdug]]. Eventually, the kings of Ur became the effective rulers of [[Sumer]], in the [[first dynasty of Ur]] established by the king [[Mesannepada]] (or Mesanepada, Mes-Anni-Padda), who is on the [[Sumerian king list|king list]] and is named as a son of Meskalamdug on one artifact. The first dynasty was ended by an attack of [[Sargon of Akkad]] around [[24th century BC|2340 BC]]. Not much is known about the following second dynasty, when the city was in eclipse. The [[3rd dynasty of Ur|third dynasty]] was established when the king [[Ur-Nammu]] (or Urnammu) came to power, ruling between ca. [[22nd century BC|2112 BC]] and [[21st century BC|2094 BC]]. During his rule, temples, including the ziggurat, were built, and [[agriculture]] was improved through [[irrigation]]. His code of laws, the ''[[Code of Ur-Nammu]]'' (a fragment was identified in [[Istanbul]] in [[1952]]) is one of the oldest such documents known, preceding the [[code of Hammurabi]] by 300 years. He and his successor [[Shulgi]] were both deified during their reigns, and after his death, he continued as a hero-figure: one of the surviving works of Sumerian literature describes the death of Ur-Nammu and his journey to the underworld. According to one estimate, Ur was the largest city in the world from c. 2030 to [[1980 BC]]. Its population was approximately 65,000.<ref>[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm Largest Cities Through History<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The third dynasty fell around [[1950 BC]] to the [[Elam]]ites; the [[Lament for Ur]] commemorates this event. Later, [[Babylon]] captured the city. In the [[6th century BC]] there was new construction in Ur under the rule of [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon]]. The last Babylonian king, [[Nabonidus]], improved the ziggurat. However the city started to decline from around [[550 BC]] and was no longer inhabited after about [[500 BC]], perhaps owing to drought, changing river patterns, and the silting of the outlet to the [[Persian Gulf]]. ==Biblical Ur== :''Main article: [[Ur Kasdim]]''. Ur is considered by many to be the city of [[Ur Kasdim]] mentioned in the [[Book of Genesis]] as the birthplace of the patriarch Abram ([[Abraham]]). This identification is, however, disputed. <ref>[http://www.biography.com/listings/episode_details.do?episodeid=149950&airingid=202725 "Abraham One Man, One God"], 1996 - video at Biography.com</ref> Ur is mentioned four times in the [[Tanakh]] or [[Old Testament]], with the distinction "of the Kasdim/Kasdin" &mdash; traditionally rendered in English as "Ur of the Chaldees", referring to the [[Chaldea]]ns, who were already settled there by around [[900 BC]]. In ''[[Genesis]]'', the name is found in 11:28, 11:31 and 15:7. In ''[[Nehemiah]]'' 9:7, a single passage mentioning Ur is a paraphrase of ''Genesis.'' The ''[[Book of Jubilees]]'' states that Ur was founded in 1688 ''[[Anno Mundi]]'' (year of the world) by 'Ur son of Kesed, presumably the offspring of [[Arphaxad]], adding that in this same year, wars began on Earth. :"And 'Ur, the son of Kesed, built the city of 'Ara of the Chaldees, and called its name after his own name and the name of his father. (ie, ''Ur Kesdim'')" (''Jubilees'' 11:3) ==Archaeology== [[Image:Ur-Nassiriyah.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ziggurat]] and the Ruins of Ur, Southern [[Iraq]]]] In the mid-17th century, the site was visited by [[Pietro della Valle]], who recorded the presence of ancient bricks stamped with strange symbols, cemented together with [[bitumen]], as well as inscribed pieces of black marble that appeared to be [[seal (device)|seals]]. The first excavation was made by [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Consulate general|consul]] [[J.E. Taylor]], who partly uncovered the ziggurat. Clay cylinders found in the four corners of the top stage of the ziggurat bore an inscription of Nabonidus (''Nabuna`id''), the last king of Babylon ([[530s BC|539 BC]]), closing with a prayer for his son Belshar-uzur (Bel-ŝarra-Uzur), the Belshazzar of the [[Book of Daniel]]. Evidence was found of prior restorations of the ziggurat by Ishme-Dagan of Isin and Gimil-Sin of Ur, and by Kuri-galzu, a [[Kassites|Kassite]] king of Babylon in the [[14th century BC]]. [[Nebuchadnezzar]] also claims to have rebuilt the temple. Taylor further excavated an interesting Babylonian building, not far from the temple, part of an ancient Babylonian [[necropolis]]. All about the city he found abundant remains of burials of later periods. Apparently, in later times, owing to its sanctity, Ur became a favorite place of [[sepulchre]]s, so that even after it had ceased to be inhabited, it continued to be used as a necropolis. After Taylor's time the site was visited by numerous travelers, almost all of whom have found ancient Babylonian remains, inscribed stones and the like, lying upon the surface. The site was considered rich in remains, and relatively easy to explore. Excavations from [[1922]] to [[1934]] were funded by the [[British Museum]] and the [[University of Pennsylvania]] and led by the [[archaeologist]] Sir [[Charles Leonard Woolley]]. A total of about 1,850 burials were uncovered, including 16 that were described as "royal tombs" containing many valuable artifacts, including the [[Standard of Ur]]. Most of the royal tombs were dated to about [[2600 BC]]. The finds included the unlooted tomb of a queen thought to be Queen [[Puabi]] <ref name="puabi" /> &ndash; the name is known from a cylinder [[seal (device)|seal]] found in the tomb, although there were two other different and unnamed seals found in the tomb. Many other people had been buried with her, in a form of human sacrifice. Near the [[ziggurat]] were uncovered the temple E-nun-mah and buildings E-dub-lal-mah (built for a king), E-gi-par (residence of the high priestess) and E-hur-sag (a temple building). Outside the temple area, many houses used in everyday life were found. Excavations were also made below the royal tombs layer: a 3.5m thick layer of alluvial clay covered the remains of earlier habitation, including [[pottery]] from the [[Ubaid period]], the first stage of settlement in southern Mesopotamia. Woolley later wrote many articles and books about the discoveries. Most of the treasures excavated at Ur are in the [[British Museum]] and the [[University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology]]. Archaeological names of periods of habitation include: *[[Ubaid period]] *Sumerian Early Dynastic period III *[[Ur-III]], c. [[2100 BC]]&ndash;[[2000 BC]] ==Access to visitors== There is no modern village at Ur, so it has never received many tourist visitors, although it has been made accessible to them. Saddam Hussein established a military base adjacent to the site, and it was wholly inaccessible even to the hardiest travelers, on security grounds, after the Iran-Iraq war. In early 1990, a handful of travelers were permitted to tour the site, escorted by soldiers, but they were not permitted to climb the ziggurat (as they were elsewhere) because of its commanding view of the military base and all the country surrounding it. Shortly after this, the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait made further visits impossible, and great concern was expressed at the proximity of the military base to the archaeological site at a time of war. These concerns revived when Iraq was invaded in 2003. ==January 2004== [[Image:UR 17 01 2004 003.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The Great Ziggurat]] Some of the areas that were cleared during excavations were also sanded over again. The site is set up for [[tourism]], however not on the scale exhibited by some sites in [[Egypt]]. Electricity is at the site and several lines of poles go through the site area. There are a few steel poles about 25 m high, near the Great Ziggurat, that seem to be intended for lighting of the site; however there are no actual lamps on them. Tourist information signs are also found at the site in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. There are a few shaded resting places available for tourists located close to the entry of the site. Since the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraqi war]], westerners have been coming here again, in the form of [[Coalition of the willing|Coalition forces]]. The road up to the site is covered with little shops, selling everything from [[Saddam Hussein]] money bills to genuine, exquisite rugs. There is only one shop on the actual site. One can visit the whole site, view any grave or climb any peak without restrictions. The huge [[United States]] / Coalition forces Ali Base (formerly called [[Tallil Air Base]]), and now called Camp Adder, is located nearby. The [[Great Ziggurat of Ur|Great Ziggurat]] is fully cleared and stands as the best-preserved and only major structure on the site. One can walk around it, and will observe very little damage. Only the top is covered with debris and is at times a confusing mix of loose stones, broken pottery and partial reconstruction. [[Image:UR 17 01 2004 004.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Royal tombs]] The famous Royal tombs, also called the Neo-[[Sumerian architecture|Sumerian]] Mausolea, located about 250m south-east of the Great Ziggurat, in the corner of the wall that surrounds the city –- a wall difficult to locate today unless one knows it is there -- are nearly totally cleared. Parts of the tomb area appear to be in need of structural consolidation or stabilisation. One can see [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] (Sumerian writing) on many walls, some entirely covered in script stamped into the mud-bricks. It is sometimes difficult to see the text, but on close inspection, it covers most surfaces. [[Image:UR 17 01 2004 002.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Cuneiform writing, Royal tombs]] Modern graffiti has also found its way to the graves, usually in the form of names made with colour pens (sometimes they are carved). The Great Ziggurat itself has far more graffiti, mostly lightly carved into the bricks. The graves are completely empty with nothing left in them. It is possible to climb into and out of all of them. The whole site is covered completely with broken pottery. One can practically not set foot anywhere without stepping on broken pottery. It even surpasses [[Saqqara]] in [[Egypt]] in that regard, and is easily on the level of [[Dendera]] (a much smaller area). They are mostly small pieces, but once in a while there are also large pieces. Some have colours and paintings on them. One can see that some of the 'mountains' of broken pottery are of newer creation, and are debris removed from excavations. Similar 'mountains' can be seen at Egyptian sites, like [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Giza Pyramids]], [[Saqqara]] and [[Dendera]]. Pottery debris is inside many of the walls of the royal tombs area. It can only be speculated whether this is of ancient making or modern restoration, but it is a fact that they are, literally, filled up with pottery debris. AS OF MAY 2008 the area of the ziggurat is entirely closed off to the public. Nobody at all has access to this area, to include personnel from Camp Adder (US/Coalition base located right next to it). ==Notes== <references/> ==Sources== *{{1911}} *Materials from the [[British Museum]] * Travel info from [[Dancon/Irak]] ==See also== *[[Biblical archaeology]] ==External links== * [http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/tombs/explore/exp_set.html Explore some of the Royal Tombs] Mesopotamia website from the [[British Museum]] * [http://mcclungmuseum.utk.edu/specex/ur/ur-flood.htm Woolley and the Great Flood] * [http://www.oi.uchicago.edu/OI/UR/Ur_home.html Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur] *[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=40&letter=U ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] Ur *[http://www.defence.gov.au/opcatalyst/images/gallery/20060929a/index.htm Australian Battlegroup at the Ziggurat] - Department of Defence, Australia. 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