Vampire 32362 226036754 2008-07-16T15:25:56Z Pi zero 5128415 /* Ancient beliefs */ punctuation {{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}} {{Otheruses}} [[Image:Burne-Jones-le-Vampire.jpg|thumb|260px|''The Vampire'', by [[Philip Burne-Jones]], 1897]] '''Vampires''' are [[mythology|mythological]] or [[folklore|folkloric]] [[Revenant (folklore)|revenants]], who subsist by feeding on the blood of the living. In folkloric tales, the [[undead]] vampires often visited loved ones and caused mischief or deaths in the neighbourhoods they inhabited when they were alive. They wore shrouds and were often described as bloated and of ruddy or dark countenance, markedly different from today's gaunt, pale vampire which dates from the early Nineteenth Century. Although vampiric entities have been [[Vampire folklore by region|recorded in most cultures]], the term ''vampire'' was not popularised until the early 18th century, after an influx of vampire superstition into Western Europe from areas where vampire legends were frequent, such as the [[Balkans]] and Eastern Europe,<ref name="SU223">Silver & Ursini, ''The Vampire Film'', pp.&nbsp;22-23.</ref> although local variants were also known by different names, such as ''[[vrykolakas]]'' in [[Greece]] and ''[[strigoi]]'' in [[Romania]]. This increased level of vampire superstition in Europe led to what can only be called [[mass hysteria]] and in some cases resulted in corpses actually being staked and people being accused of vampirism. In modern times, however, the vampire is generally held to be a fictitious entity, although belief in similar vampiric creatures such as the ''[[chupacabra]]'' still persists in some cultures. Early folkloric belief in vampires has been ascribed to the ignorance of the body's process of [[decomposition]] after death and how people in pre-industrial societies tried to rationalise this, creating the figure of the vampire to explain the mysteries of death. [[Porphyria]] was also linked with legends of vampirism in 1985 and received much media exposure, but has since been largely discredited. The charismatic and sophisticated vampire of [[modern fiction]] was born in 1819 with the publication of ''[[The Vampyre]]'' by [[John William Polidori|John Polidori]]; the story was highly successful and arguably the most influential vampire work of the early 19th century.<ref name="SU378">Silver & Ursini, ''The Vampire Film'', pp.&nbsp;37-38.</ref> However, it is [[Bram Stoker|Bram Stoker's]] 1897 novel ''[[Dracula]]'' which is remembered as the quintessential [[Vampire literature|vampire novel]] and provided the basis of the modern vampire legend. The success of this book spawned a distinctive vampire [[genre]], still popular in the 21st century, with books, films, and television shows. The vampire has since become a dominant figure in the horror genre. ==Etymology== The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' dates the first appearance of the word ''vampire'' in English from 1734, in a travelogue titled ''Travels of Three English Gentlemen'' published in the ''[[Harleian Miscellany]]'' in 1745.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia| title=Vampire|encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary|editor=J. Simpson, E. Weiner (eds)| year=1989 |edition= 2nd edition| location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press|id= ISBN 0-19-861186-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Harleian Miscellany |last=Johnson |first=Samuel |authorlink=Samuel Johnson|year=1745|chapter=IV|publisher=T. Osborne |location=London|pages=p. 358}}</ref> Vampires had already been much discussed in [[German language|German]] literature. After Austria gained control of northern [[Serbia]] and [[Oltenia]] [[Treaty of Passarowitz|in 1718]], officials noted the local practice of exhuming bodies and "killing vampires".<ref name=barber5/> These reports, prepared between 1725 and 1732, received widespread publicity.<ref name=barber5>Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p. 5.</ref> The English term was derived (possibly via [[French language|French]] ''vampyre'') from the German ''Vampir,'' in turn thought to be derived in the early 18th century<ref name=Grimm>{{de icon}} {{cite web|url=http://germazope.uni-trier.de/Projects/WBB/woerterbuecher/dwb/wbgui?lemid=GV00025 |title=Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm. 16 Bde. (in 32 Teilbänden). Leipzig: S. Hirzel 1854-1960|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> from [[Serbian language|Serbian]] вампир/''vampir''.<ref name=MW>{{cite web |title=Vampire |publisher=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |url=http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/vampire |accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref><ref name=Tresor>{{fr icon}} {{cite web |url=http://atilf.atilf.fr/dendien/scripts/fast.exe?mot=vampire |title=Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé |accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref><ref>{{fr icon}} {{cite book |last=Dauzat |first=Albert|title=Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française |year=1938 |publisher=Librairie Larousse |location=Paris |oclc=904687}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Weibel |first=Peter |title=Phantom Painting - Reading Reed: Painting between Autopsy and Autoscopy |publisher=David Reed's Vampire Study Center |url=http://thegalleriesatmoore.org/publications/vampirestudy/weiben12.shtml |accessdate=2007-02-23}}</ref> The Serbian form has parallels in virtually all [[Slavic languages]]: [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] вампир (''vampir''), [[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]] ''upír'', [[Polish language|Polish]] ''wąpierz'', and (perhaps [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]]-influenced) ''upiór'', [[Russian language|Russian]] упырь (''upyr<nowiki>'</nowiki>''), [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] упыр (''upyr''), [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] упирь (''upir<nowiki>'</nowiki>''), from [[Old East Slavic|Old Russian]] упирь (''upir<nowiki>'</nowiki>''). (Note that many of these languages have also borrowed forms such as "vampir/wampir" subsequently from the West; these are distinct from the original local words for the creature). The exact etymology is unclear<ref name=Tokarev>{{ru icon}} {{cite book |last=Tokarev |first=Sergei Aleksandrovich |title=Mify Narodov Mira|year=1982|publisher=Moscow |location=Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya|oclc=7576647}} ("Myths of the Peoples of the World"). Upyr' </ref> Among the proposed [[proto-Slavic language|proto-Slavic]] forms are *{{Unicode|ǫpyrь}} and *{{Unicode|ǫpirь}}.<ref name=Vasmer>{{ru icon}} {{cite web|url=http://vasmer.narod.ru/p752.htm|title=Russian Etymological Dictionary by [[Max Vasmer]]|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> Like its possible cognate that means "bat" ([[Czech language|Czech]] ''netopýr'', [[Slovak language|Slovak]] ''netopier'', [[Polish language|Polish]] ''nietoperz'', Russian нетопырь / ''netopyr' '' - a [[species]] of [[bat]]), the Slavic word might contain a [[PIE|Proto-Indo-European]] root for "to fly".<ref name=Vasmer/> An older theory is that the Slavic languages have borrowed the word from a [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] term for "witch" (e.g. [[Tatar language|Tatar]] ''ubyr'').<ref name=Vasmer/><ref>{{bg icon}}Mladenov, Stefan (1941). Etimologičeski i pravopisen rečnik na bǎlgarskiya knižoven ezik.</ref> The first recorded use of the Old Russian form Упирь (''Upir<nowiki>'</nowiki>'') is commonly believed to be in a document dated 6555 (1047 AD).<ref>{{cite book |last=Melton |first=J.G. |title=The Vampire Book: The Encyclopedia of the Undead |year=1994 |location=Detroit |publisher=Visible Ink Press |isbn=0-8103-2295-1 |pages=p. xxxi}}</ref> It is a [[Colophon (publishing)|colophon]] in a manuscript of [[the Book of Psalms]] written by a priest who transcribed the book from [[Glagolitic alphabet|Glagolitic]] into [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] for the [[Novgorod]]ian Prince [[Vladimir of Novgorod|Vladimir Yaroslavovich]].<ref name=Bible>{{ru icon}} {{Cite web|first=A. I. |last=Sobolevskij |title=Slavjano-russkaja paleografija |url=http://www.textology.ru/drevnost/srp2.shtml |accessdate=2007-12-21}} [http://www.stsl.ru/manuscripts/book.php?col=1&manuscript=089 The original manuscript, Книги 16 Пророков толковыя]</ref> The priest writes that his name is "''Upir' '' ''Likhyi'' " (Упирь Лихый), which means something like "Wicked Vampire" or "Foul Vampire."<ref name=Opir>{{cite journal |last=Lind |first=John H. |title=Varangians in Europe’s Eastern and Northern Periphery|journal=Ennen ja Nyt |issue=4 |date=2004 |url=http://www.ennenjanyt.net/4-04/lind.html |accessdate=2007-02-20}}</ref> This apparently strange name has been cited as an example of surviving [[paganism]] and/or of the use of nicknames as personal names.<ref> {{cite book| last=Dolotova|first= I.A.|coauthors=O.A. Rodionov & A.B. Van'kova|title=История России. 6-7 кл : Учебник для основной школы: В 2-х частях. Ч. 1: С древнейших времен до конца XVI века |year=2002 |publisher=ЦГО |isbn=5-7662-0149-4 |url=http://www.ndce.ru/fulltext/pdf/1000292.pdf|accessdate=2007-02-28}} ("History of Russia. 6-7 kl.: Textbook for the basic school: In 2-X parts. Part 1: From the earliest times to the end of the XVI century.")</ref> However, in 1982, Swedish Slavicist Anders Sjöberg suggested that "Upir' likhyi" was in fact an Old Russian transcription or translation of the name of [[Öpir|Öpir Ofeigr]], a well-known Swedish rune carver. Sjöberg argued that Öpir could possibly have lived in Novgorod before moving to Sweden, considering the connection between [[Eastern Scandinavia]] and Russia at the time. This theory is still controversial, although at least one Swedish historian, Henrik Janson, has expressed support for it.<ref name=Opir/> Another early use of the Old Russian word is in the anti-pagan treatise "Word of Saint Grigoriy," dated variously to the 11th–13th centuries, where [[pagan]] worship of ''upyri'' is reported.<ref>{{ru icon}} {{cite web |url=http://historic.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000031/index.shtml |title=Рыбаков Б.А. Язычество древних славян / М.: Издательство 'Наука', 1981 г. |accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref><ref name=period>{{ru icon}} {{cite journal |last=Зубов |first=Н.И. |title=Загадка Периодизации Славянского Язычества В Древнерусских Списках “Слова Св. Григория … О Том, Како Первое Погани Суще Языци, Кланялися Идолом…” |journal=Живая Старина |volume=1 |issue=17 |pages=6–10 |year=1998 |url=http://kapija.narod.ru/Ethnoslavistics/zub_period.htm |accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref> ==Folk beliefs== The notion of vampirism has existed for millennia; cultures such as the [[Mesopotamia]]ns, [[Hebrews]], [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]], and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] had tales of demons and spirits which are considered precursors to modern vampires. However, despite the occurrence of vampire-like creatures in these ancient civilizations, the folklore for the entity we know today as the vampire originates almost exclusively from early 18th century [[Southeastern Europe]],<ref name="SU223">Silver & Ursini, pp.&nbsp;22-23.</ref> when [[oral culture|verbal traditions]] of many ethnic groups of the region were recorded and published. In most cases, vampires are [[Revenant (folklore)|revenants]] of evil beings, [[suicide]] victims, or witches, but they can also be created by a malevolent spirit [[spiritual possession|possessing]] a corpse or by being bitten by a vampire. Belief in such legends became so pervasive that in some areas it caused [[mass hysteria]] and even public executions of people believed to be vampires.<ref name="Cohen"/> ===Description and common attributes=== [[Image:Munch vampire.jpg|225px|thumb|''Vampyren'' "The Vampire", by [[Edvard Munch]].]] It is difficult to make a single, definitive description of the folkloric vampire, though there are several elements common to many European legends. Vampires were usually reported as bloated in appearance, and ruddy, purplish, or dark in colour; these characteristics were often attributed to the recent drinking of blood. Indeed, blood was often seen seeping from the mouth and nose when one was seen in its shroud or coffin and its left eye was often open.<ref name="Barb412">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;41-42.</ref> It would be clad in the linen shroud it was buried in, and its teeth, hair, and nails may have grown somewhat, though in general fangs were not a feature.<ref name="Barb2">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;2.</ref> Other attributes varied greatly from culture to culture; some vampires, such as those found in [[Transylvania]]n tales, were gaunt, pale, and had long fingernails, while those from [[Bulgaria]] only had one nostril,<ref name="Bun35">Bunson, ''Vampires Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;35.</ref> and [[Bavaria]]n vampires slept with thumbs crossed and one eye open.<ref name="Strange & Amazing">{{cite book|author=Reader's Digest Association |title=The Reader's Digest Book of strange stories, amazing facts: stories that are bizarre, unusual, odd, astonishing, incredible ... but true |edition= |year=1988 |publisher=Reader's Digest |location=London |isbn=0-949819-89-1 |pages=432-433 |chapter=Vampires Galore!}}</ref> [[Moravia]]n vampires only attacked while naked, and those of [[Albania]]n folklore wore high-heeled shoes.<ref name="Strange & Amazing"/> As stories of vampires spread throughout the globe to the Americas and elsewhere, so did the varied and sometimes bizarre descriptions of them: [[Mexico|Mexican]] vampires had a bare skull instead of a head,<ref name="Strange & Amazing"/> [[Brazil]]ian vampires had furry feet and vampires from the [[Rocky Mountains]] only sucked blood with their noses and from the victim's ears.<ref name="Strange & Amazing"/> Common attributes were sometimes described, such as red hair.<ref name="Strange & Amazing"/> Some were reported to be able to [[Shapeshifting|transform]] into bats, rats, dogs, wolves, spiders and even moths.<ref name="SU389">Silver & Ursini, ''The Vampire Film'', pp.&nbsp;38-39.</ref> From these various legends, works of literature such as [[Bram Stoker|Bram Stoker's]] ''Dracula'', and the influences of historical bloodthirsty figures such as [[Gilles de Rais]], [[Elizabeth Bathory]], and [[Vlad III the Impaler|Vlad Ţepeş]], the vampire developed into the modern stereotype.<ref name="Cohen"/><ref name="Strange & Amazing"/> ====Creating vampires==== The causes of vampiric generation were many and varied in original folklore. In Slavic and Chinese traditions, any corpse which was jumped over by an animal, particularly a dog or a cat, was feared to become one of the undead.<ref name="Barb30">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;33.</ref> A body with a wound which had not been treated with boiling water was also at risk. In Russian folklore, vampires were said to have once been witches or people who had rebelled against [[Russian Orthodox Church|the Church]] while they were alive.<ref name="Strange & Amazing"/> Cultural practices often arose that were intended to prevent a recently deceased loved one from turning into an undead revenant. Burying a corpse upside-down was widespread, as was placing earthly objects, such as [[scythe]]s or [[sickle]]s,<ref name="Barb5051">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;50-51.</ref> near the grave to satisfy any demons entering the body or to appease the dead so that it would not wish to arise from its coffin. This method resembles the [[Ancient Greek]] practice of placing an [[obolus]] in the corpse's mouth to pay the toll to cross the [[River Styx]] in the underworld; it has been argued that instead, the coin was intended to ward off any evil spirits from entering the body, and this may have influenced later vampire folklore. This tradition persisted in modern Greek folklore about the ''[[vrykolakas]]'', in which a wax cross and piece of pottery with the inscription "Jesus Christ conquers" were placed on the corpse to prevent the body from becoming a vampire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lawson |first=John Cuthbert|title=Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion |pages=pp.&nbsp;405-06 |year=1910 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |oclc=1465746}}</ref> Other methods commonly practised in Europe included severing the tendons at the knees or placing poppy seeds, millet, or sand on the ground at the grave site of a presumed vampire; this was intended to keep the vampire occupied all night by counting the fallen grains.<ref name="Barb49">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;49.</ref> Similar Chinese narratives state that if a vampire-like being came across a sack of rice, it would have to count every grain; this is a theme encountered in myths from the Indian subcontinent as well as in South American tales of witches and other sorts of evil or mischievous spirits or beings.<ref name=Jaramillo>{{es icon}} {{cite book|last=Jaramillo Londoño|first=Agustín|title=Testamento del paisa |year=1986 |origyear=1967 |edition=7th edition |publisher=Susaeta Ediciones |location=Medellín |isbn=958-95125-0-X}}</ref> ====Identifying vampires==== Many elaborate rituals were used to identify a vampire. One method of finding a vampire's grave involved leading a virgin boy through a graveyard or church grounds on a virgin stallion&nbsp;— the horse would supposedly balk at the grave in question.<ref name="Strange & Amazing"/> Generally a black horse was required, though in Albania it should be white.<ref name="Barb6869">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', pp.&nbsp;68-69.</ref> Holes appearing in the earth over a grave were taken as a sign of vampirism.<ref name="Barb125">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;125.</ref> Corpses thought to be vampires were generally described as having a healthier appearance than expected, plump and showing little or no signs of decomposition.<ref name="Barb109">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;109.</ref> In some cases, when suspected graves were opened, villagers even described the corpse as having fresh blood from a victim all over its face.<ref name="Barb1145">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;114-15.</ref> Evidence that a vampire was active in a given locality included death of cattle, sheep, relatives or neighbours. Folkloric vampires could also make their presence felt by engaging in minor [[poltergeist]]-like activity, such as hurling stones on roofs or moving household objects,<ref name="Barb96">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;96.</ref> and [[mara (folklore)|pressing]] on people in their sleep.<ref name="Bun1689">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', pp.&nbsp;168-69.</ref> ====Protection==== [[Image:Ernst6-thumb.gif|thumb|left|An image from [[Max Ernst|Max Ernst's]] ''[[Une Semaine de Bonté]]'']] [[Apotrope|Apotropaic]]s—mundane or sacred items able to ward off revenants—such as garlic<ref name=""Barb63">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;63.</ref> or [[holy water]] are common in vampire folklore. The items vary from region to region; a branch of [[wild rose]] and [[Common hawthorn|hawthorn]] plant are said to harm vampires; in Europe, sprinkling mustard seeds on the roof of a house was said to keep them away.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mappin |first=Jenni|title=Didjaknow: Truly Amazing & Crazy Facts About... Everything |year=2003 |publisher=Pancake |location=Australia|isbn=0-330-40171-8|pages=p. 50}}</ref> Other apotropaics include sacred items, for example a [[crucifix]], [[rosary]], or holy water. Vampires are said to be unable to walk on consecrated ground, such as those of churches or temples, or cross running water.<ref>Burkhardt, "Vampirglaube und Vampirsage", p. 221.</ref> Although not traditionally regarded as an apotropaic, mirrors have been used to ward off vampires when placed facing outwards on a door (vampires do not have a reflection and in some cultures, do not cast shadows, perhaps as a manifestation of the vampire's lack of a soul).<ref name=EoOc>{{cite book |last=Spence |first=Lewis |title=An Encyclopaedia of Occultism |year=1960 |publisher=University Books |location=New Hyde Parks|oclc=3417655}}</ref> This attribute, although not universal (the Greek ''vrykolakas/tympanios'' was capable of both reflection and shadow), was utilized by Bram Stoker in ''Dracula'' and has remained popular with subsequent authors and filmmakers.<ref name="SU25">Silver & Ursini, ''The Vampire Film'', p.&nbsp;25.</ref> Some traditions also hold that a vampire cannot enter a house unless invited by the owner, although after the first invitation they can come and go as they please.<ref name=EoOc/> Though folkloric vampires were believed to be more active at night, they were not generally considered vulnerable to sunlight.<ref name="SU25" /> Methods of destroying suspected vampires varied, with staking the most commonly cited method, particularly in southern Slavic cultures.<ref name ="Barber73">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;73.</ref> [[Ash tree|Ash]] was the preferred wood in Russia and the Baltic states,<ref>{{de icon}} {{cite book|last=Alseikaite-Gimbutiene |first=Marija |authorlink=Marija Gimbutas |title=Die Bestattung in Litauen in der vorgeschichtlichen Zeit |year=1946 |location=Tübingen|oclc=1059867}} (thesis)</ref> or [[Common Hawthorn|hawthorn]] in Serbia,<ref name="Vuk59">{{cite journal |last=Vukanović |first=T.P. |year=1959 |title=The Vampire |journal=Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society |volume=38 |pages=111–18}}</ref> with a record of [[oak]] in [[Silesia]].<ref>{{de icon}} {{cite journal|last=Klapper |first=Joseph|title=Die schlesischen Geschichten von den schädingenden Toten |journal=Mitteilungen der schlesischen Gesellschaft für Volkskunde |volume=11 |pages=58–93 |year=1909}}</ref> Potential vampires were most often staked though the heart, though the mouth was targeted in Russia and northern Germany<ref>{{de icon}} {{cite book |last=Löwenstimm |first=A.|title=Aberglaube und Stafrecht |pages=p. 99 |year=1897 |publisher=Berlin}}</ref><ref>{{de icon}} {{cite book |last=Bachtold-Staubli |first=H. |title=Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens |year=1934-35 |publisher=Berlin}}</ref> and the stomach in northeastern Serbia.<ref>{{de icon}} {{cite journal |last=Filipovic |first=Milenko |year=1962 |title=Die Leichenverbrennung bei den Südslaven |journal=Wiener völkerkundliche Mitteilungen |volume=10 |pages=61–71}}</ref> Piercing the skin of the chest was a way of "deflating" the bloated vampire; this is similar to the act of burying sharp objects, such as sickles, in with the corpse, so that they may penetrate the skin if the body bloats sufficiently while transforming into a revenant.<ref name="Barb158">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;158.</ref> [[Decapitation]] was the preferred method in [[Germany|German]] and western Slavic areas, with the head buried between the feet, behind the buttocks or away from the body.<ref name="Barb73">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;73.</ref> This act was seen as a way of hastening the departure of the soul, which in some cultures, was said to linger in the corpse. The vampire's head, body, or clothes could also be spiked and pinned to the earth to prevent rising.<ref name="Barb157">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;157.</ref> Gypsies drove steel or iron needles into a corpse's heart and placed bits of steel in the mouth, over the eyes, ears and between the fingers at the time of burial. They also placed hawthorn in the corpse's sock or drove a hawthorn stake through the legs. Further measures included pouring boiling water over the grave or complete incineration of the body. In the Balkans a vampire could also be killed by being shot or drowned, by repeating the funeral service, by sprinkling [[holy water]] on the body, or by [[exorcism]]. In Romania garlic could be placed in the mouth, and as recently as the 19th century, the precaution of shooting a bullet through the coffin was taken. For resistant cases, the body was dismembered and the pieces burned, mixed with water, and administered to family members as a cure. In Saxon regions of Germany, a lemon was placed in the mouth of suspected vampires.<ref>Bunson,''Vampires Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;154.</ref> ===Ancient beliefs=== [[Image:Lilith (John Collier painting).jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Lilith]]'' (1892), by [[John Collier (artist)|John Collier]].]] Tales of the undead consuming the blood or flesh of living beings have been found in nearly every culture around the world for many centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last=McNally |first=Raymond T. |coauthors=Florescu, Radu. |title=In Search of Dracula |year=1994 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=0-395-65783-0| pages= p. 117}}</ref> Today we would associate these entities with vampires, but in ancient times, the term ''vampire'' did not exist; blood drinking and similar activities were attributed to [[demon]]s or [[spiritual being|spirits]] who would eat flesh and drink blood; even the [[devil]] was considered synonymous with the vampire.<ref name="Marigny1">Marigny, ''Vampires'', pp. 24&ndash;25.</ref> Almost every nation has associated blood drinking with some kind of revenant or demon, or in some cases a deity. The Ancient Indian deity [[Kali]], with fangs and a garland of corpses or skulls, was intimately linked with the drinking of blood.<ref name="Bun1401">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', pp.&nbsp;140&ndash;141.</ref> Tales of [[vetala]]s, ghoul-like beings that inhabit corpses, have been compiled in the ''[[Baital Pachisi]]''; a prominent story in the ''[[Kathasaritsagara]]'' tells of King [[Vikramāditya]] and his nightly quests to capture an elusive one.<ref>{{cite book |last=Burton |first=Sir Richard R. |authorlink=Richard Francis Burton |title=Vikram and The Vampire:Classic Hindu Tales of Adventure, Magic, and Romance |origyear=1870 |year=1893 |publisher= Tylston and Edwards |location=London |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/goth/vav/vav00.htm |accessdate=2007-09-28}}</ref> ''[[Pishacha]]'', the returned spirits of evil-doers or those who died insane, also bear vampiric attributes.<ref name="Bun200">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;200.</ref> Even [[Egypt]] had its blood-drinking goddess [[Sekhmet]]. The [[Persia]]ns were one of the first civilizations to have tales of blood-drinking demons: creatures attempting to drink blood from men were depicted on excavated [[pottery]] shards.<ref name="Marigny3">Marigny, ''Vampires'', pp.&nbsp;14.</ref> Ancient [[Babylonia]] had tales of the mythical [[Lilith#Mesopotamian Lilitu|Lilitu]],<ref name="Hurwitz"/> synonymous with and giving rise to Lilith ([[Hebrew]] לילית) and her daughters the [[Lilu]] from [[Jewish demonology|Hebrew demonology]]. Lilitu was considered a demon and was often depicted as subsisting on the blood of babies. However, the Jewish counterparts were said to feast on both men and women, as well as newborns<!--is this referring to blood or flesh? and what as gender got to do with it at this stage of the article? suc/incubus are not mentioned before "Medieval and later European folklore"-->.<ref name="Hurwitz">Hurwitz, ''Lilith''.<!--Page number??--></ref> Ancient [[Greek mythology]] described the [[Empusa]],<ref name="GraveEmp">{{cite book |last=Graves |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Graves|title=[[The Greek Myths]] |origyear=1955 |year=1990 |publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0-14-001026-2 |pages=189&ndash;90|chapter=The Empusae}}</ref> [[Lamia (mythology)|Lamia]],<ref name="Gravlam">Graves, "Lamia", in ''Greek Myths'', pp. 205&ndash;206.</ref> and [[striges]] (the [[Strix (mythology)|strix]] of Ancient Roman mythology). Over time the first two terms became general words to describe witches and demons respectively. Empusa was the daughter of the goddess [[Hecate]] and was described as a demonic, [[bronze]]-footed creature. She feasted on blood by transforming into a young woman and seduced men as they slept before drinking their blood.<ref name="GraveEmp"/> Lamia preyed on young children in their beds at night, sucking their blood.<ref name="Gravlam"/> Like Lamia, the ''striges'', feasted on children, but also preyed on young men. They were described as having the bodies of crows or birds in general, and were later incorporated into Roman mythology as ''strix'', a kind of nocturnal bird that fed on human flesh and blood.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Oliphant |first=Samuel Grant |year=1913 |title=The Story of the Strix: Ancient |journal= Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association |volume=44 |pages=133–49 |doi=10.2307/282549}}</ref> <!--The Romanian vampire breed named ''[[Strigoï]]'' has no direct relation to the Greek ''striges'', but was derived from the Roman term ''strix'', as is the name of the [[Albania]]n ''[[Shtriga]]'' and the [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] ''[[Strzyga]]'', though myths about these creatures are more similar to their Slavic equivalents.<ref name="Marigny5">Marigny, ''Vampires'', pp.&nbsp;15&ndash;17.</ref> This is not about Ancient beliefs and doesn't seem to belong here.--> ===Medieval and later European folklore=== {{main|Vampire folklore by region}} [[Image:Moraine le vampire.jpg|200px|thumb|left|''Le Vampire'',<br> lithograph by R. de Moraine<br>''Les Tribunaux secrets'' (1864)]] Many of the myths surrounding vampires originated during the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]]. The 12th century English historians and chroniclers [[Walter Map]] and [[William of Newburgh]] recorded accounts of [[revenant (folklore)|revenants]],<ref name="Cohen"/><ref>{{cite web|author=William of Newburgh |coauthors=Paul Halsall |authorlink=William of Newburgh |title=Book 5, Chapter 22-24 |work=Historia rerum Anglicarum |publisher=Fordham University |date=2000 |accessdate=2007-10-16 |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/williamofnewburgh-five.html}}</ref> though records in English legends of vampiric beings after this date are scant.<ref name="Jones121">Jones, "The Vampire", p.&nbsp;121.</ref> These tales are similar to the later folklore widely reported from Eastern Europe in the 18th century and were the basis of the vampire legend that later entered Germany and England, where they were subsequently embellished and popularised. During the 18th century, there was a frenzy of vampire sightings in Eastern Europe, with frequent stakings and grave diggings to identify and kill the potential revenants; even government officials engaged in the hunting and staking of vampires.<ref name="Barb5to9"/> Despite being called the [[Age of Enlightenment]], during which most folkloric legends were quelled, the belief in vampires increased dramatically, resulting in a mass hysteria throughout most of Europe.<ref name="Cohen"/> The panic began with an outbreak of alleged vampire attacks in [[East Prussia]] in 1721 and in the [[Habsburg Monarchy]] from 1725 to 1734, which spread to other localities. Two famous vampire cases, the first to be officially recorded, involved the corpses of [[Peter Plogojowitz]] and [[Arnold Paole]] from [[Serbia]]. Plogojowitz was reported to have died at the age of 62, but allegedly returned after his death asking his son for food. When the son refused, he was found dead the following day. Plogojowitz supposedly returned and attacked some neighbours who died from loss of blood.<ref name="Barb5to9">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', pp.&nbsp;5-9.</ref> In the second case, Paole, an ex-soldier turned farmer who allegedly was attacked by a vampire years before, died while [[haying]]. After his death, people began to die in the surrounding area and it was widely believed that Paole had returned to prey on the neighbours.<ref name="Barb1521"/> The two incidents were well-documented: government officials examined the bodies, wrote case reports, and published books throughout Europe.<ref name="Barb1521">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', pp.&nbsp;15-21.</ref> The hysteria, commonly referred to as the "18th-Century Vampire Controversy", raged for a generation. The problem was exacerbated by rural epidemics of so-claimed vampire attacks, undoubtedly caused by the higher amount of superstition that was present in village communities, with locals digging up bodies and in some cases, staking them. Although many scholars reported during this period that vampires did not exist, and attributed reports to premature burial or [[rabies]], [[superstition|superstitious]] belief increased. [[Antoine Augustine Calmet|Dom Augustine Calmet]], a well-respected French [[theologian]] and scholar, put together a comprehensive treatise in 1746, which was ambiguous concerning the existence of vampires. Calmet amassed reports of vampire incidents; numerous readers, including both a critical [[Voltaire]] and supportive [[demonologist]]s, interpreted the treatise as claiming that vampires existed.<ref name="Hoyt84"/> In his ''[[Dictionnaire philosophique|Philosophical Dictionary]]'', Voltaire wrote:<ref>{{cite book |title=Philosophical Dictionary|author=Voltaire|year=1984|origyear=1764|publisher=Penguin|location=|isbn=014044257X}}</ref> {{quote|These vampires were corpses, who went out of their graves at night to suck the blood of the living, either at their throats or stomachs, after which they returned to their cemeteries. The persons so sucked waned, grew pale, and fell into consumption; while the sucking corpses grew fat, got rosy, and enjoyed an excellent appetite. It was in [[Poland]], [[Hungary]], [[Silesia]], [[Moravia]], [[Austria]], and [[Alsace-Lorraine|Lorraine]], that the dead made this good cheer.}} The controversy only ceased when Empress [[Maria Theresa of Austria]] sent her personal physician, [[Gerhard van Swieten]], to investigate the claims of vampiric entities. He concluded that vampires did not exist and the Empress passed laws prohibiting the opening of graves and desecration of bodies, sounding the end of the vampire epidemics. Despite this condemnation, the vampire lived on in artistic works and in local superstition.<ref name="Hoyt84">{{cite book |last=Hoyt |first=Olga |title=Lust for Blood: The Consuming Story of Vampires |year=1984 |chapter=The Monk's Investigation |pages=pp. 101-06 |publisher=Scarborough House |location=Chelsea |isbn=0-8128-8511-2}}</ref> ===Non-European beliefs=== ====Africa==== Various regions of [[Africa]] have folkloric tales of beings with vampiric abilities: in [[West Africa]] the [[Ashanti]] people tell of the iron-toothed and tree-dwelling ''[[asanbosam]]'',<ref name="Buns11">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;11.</ref> and the [[Ewe people]] of the ''[[adze (folklore)|adze]]'', which can take the form of a [[firefly]] and hunts children.<ref name="Buns2">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;2.</ref> The eastern Cape region has the ''[[impundulu]]'', which can take the form of a large taloned bird and can summon thunder and lightning, and the [[Betsileo]] people of [[Madagascar]] tell of the ''ramanga'', an outlaw or living vampire who drinks the blood and eats the nail clippings of nobles.<ref>Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;219.</ref> ====The Americas==== The ''[[Loogaroo]]'' is an example of how a vampire belief can result from a combination of beliefs, here a mixture of French and African Vodu or [[voodoo]]. The term ''Loogaroo'' possibly comes from the French ''[[loup-garou]]'' (meaning 'werewolf') and is common in the [[culture of Mauritius]]. However, the stories of the ''Loogaroo'' are widespread through the [[Caribbean Islands]] and [[Louisiana]] in the United States.<ref name="Buns1623">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;162-63.</ref> Similar female monsters are the ''[[Soucouyant]]'' of [[Trinidad]], and the ''[[Tunda]]'' and ''[[Patasola]]'' of [[Colombia]]n folklore, while the [[Mapuche]] of southern [[Chile]] have the bloodsucking snake known as the ''[[Peuchen]]''.<ref>{{es icon}} {{cite book|author=Martinez Vilches, Oscar|title=Chiloe Misterioso: Turismo, Mitologia Chilota, leyendas |year=1992 |pages=p. 179 |publisher=Ediciones de la Voz de Chiloe |location=Chile |oclc=33852127}}</ref> ''[[Aloe vera]]'' hung backwards behind or near a door was thought to ward off vampiric beings in South American superstition.<ref name=Jaramillo/> Aztec mythology described tales of the [[Cihuateteo]], skeletal-faced spirits of those who died in childbirth who stole children and entered into sexual liaisons with the living, driving them mad.<ref name="Strange & Amazing"/> During the late 18th and 19th centuries the belief in vampires was widespread in parts of New England, particularly in [[Rhode Island]] and Eastern [[Connecticut]]. There are many documented cases of families disinterring loved ones and removing their hearts in the belief that the deceased was a vampire who was responsible for sickness and death in the family, although the term "vampire" was never actually used to describe the deceased. The deadly disease [[tuberculosis]], or "consumption" as it was known at the time, was believed to be caused by nightly visitations on the part of a dead family member who had died of consumption themselves.<ref name=sledzik>{{cite journal |last=Sledzik |first=Paul S. |coauthors=Nicholas Bellantoni |month=June |year=1994 |title=Bioarcheological and biocultural evidence for the New England vampire folk belief |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=269–274 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330940210 |url=http://www.ceev.net/biocultural.pdf |pmid=8085617}}</ref> The most famous, and most recently recorded, case of suspected vampirism is that of nineteen-year-old [[Mercy Brown vampire incident|Mercy Brown]], who died in Exeter, Rhode Island in 1892. Her father, assisted by the family physician, removed her from her tomb two months after her death and her heart was cut out and burnt to ashes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://seacoastnh.com/Places_&_Events/The_Grave_Site/Real_Vampires_in_New_England?/ |title=Interview with a REAL Vampire Stalker |publisher=SeacoastNH.com |accessdate=2006-06-14}}</ref> ====Asia==== Rooted in older folklore, the modern belief in vampires spread throughout [[Asia]] with tales of ghoulish entities from the mainland, to vampiric beings from the islands of [[Southeast Asia]]. [[India]] also developed other vampiric legends. The ''[[Bhūta]]'' or ''Prét'' is the soul of a man who died an untimely death. It wanders around animating dead bodies at night, attacking the living much like a [[ghoul]].<ref>Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;23-24.</ref> In northern India, there is the ''BrahmarākŞhasa'', a vampire-like creature with a head encircled by intestines and a skull from which it drank blood. Although vampires have appeared in [[Japan]]ese Cinema since the late 1950s, the folklore behind it was western in origin.<ref name=Buns378>Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;137-38.</ref> However, the [[Nukekubi]] is a being whose head and neck detach from its body to fly about seeking human prey at night.<ref>{{cite book |title=Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things |last=Hearn |first=Lafcadio |authorlink=Lafcadio Hearn |year=1903 |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin and Company |location=Boston}}</ref> Legends of female vampire-like beings who can detach parts of their upper body also occur in the [[Philippines]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]. There are two main vampire-like creatures in the [[Philippines]]: the [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]] ''mandurugo'' ("blood-sucker") and the [[Visayan]] ''[[manananggal]]'' ("self-segmenter"). The mandurugo is a variety of the [[aswang]] that takes the form of an attractive girl by day, and develops wings and a long, hollow, thread-like tongue by night. The tongue is used to suck up blood from a sleeping victim. The ''manananggal'' is described as being an older, beautiful woman capable of severing its upper torso in order to fly into the night with huge bat-like wings and prey on unsuspecting, sleeping pregnant women in their homes. They use an elongated proboscis-like tongue to suck [[fetus]]es off these [[pregnant]] women. They also prefer to eat entrails (specifically the [[heart]] and the [[liver]]) and the phlegm of sick people.<ref name="ramos">{{cite book |last=Ramos |first=Maximo D. |title=Creatures of Philippine Lower Mythology |origyear=1971 |year=1990 |publisher=Phoenix Publishing |location=Quezon |isbn=971-06-0691-3}}</ref> The [[Malaysia]]n ''[[Penanggalan]]'' may be either a beautiful old or young woman who obtained her beauty through the active use of [[black magic]] or other unnatural means, and is most commonly described in local folklores to be dark or demonic in nature. She is able to detach her fanged head which flies around in the night looking for blood, typically from pregnant women.<ref>Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;197.</ref> Malaysians would hang ''jeruju'' (thistles) around the doors and windows of houses, hoping the ''Penanggalan'' would not enter for fear of catching its intestines on the thorns.<ref>Hoyt, ''Lust for Blood'', p. 34.</ref> The [[Leyak]] is a similar being from [[Balinese mythology|Balinese folklore]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Witchcraft, Grief, and the Ambivalence of Emotions |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=26 |issue=3 |month=August |year=1999 |pages=711–737 |url=|doi=10.1525/ae.1999.26.3.711|author=Stephen, Michele|unused_data=|last Stephen }}</ref> A ''Kuntilanak'' or ''Matianak'' in Indonesia,<ref>Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;208.</ref> or ''[[Pontianak (folklore)|Pontianak]]'' or ''Langsuir'' in Malaysia,<ref>Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p. 150.</ref> is a woman who died during childbirth and became undead, seeking revenge and terrorizing villages. She appeared as an attractive woman with long black hair that covered a hole in the back of her neck, which she sucked the blood of children with. Filling the hole with her hair would drive her off. Corpses had their mouths filled with glass beads, eggs under each armpit, and needles in their palms to prevent them from becoming ''langsuir''.<ref>Hoyt, ''Lust for Blood'', p. 35.</ref> [[Jiang Shi]] ({{zh-tsp|t=僵屍 or 殭屍|s=僵尸|p=jiāngshī}}; literally "stiff corpse"), sometimes called "Chinese vampires" by Westerners, are reanimated corpses that hop around, killing living creatures to absorb life essence ([[qi|qì]]) from their victims. They are said to be created when a person's soul (魄 ''pò'') fails to leave the deceased's body.<ref>{{cite book |last=Suckling |first=Nigel |title=Vampires |year=2006 |publisher=Facts, Figures & Fun |location=London |isbn=190433248X |pages=p. 31}}</ref> One unusual feature of this vampire is its greenish-white furry skin, perhaps derived from [[fungus]] or [[mould]] growing on corpses.<ref>{{cite book |last=de Groot |first=J.J.M. |title=The Religious System of China |orig=1910 |location=Leyden |publisher=E.J. Brill |oclc=7022203}}<!--many recent editions for this--></ref> ===Modern beliefs=== In modern fiction, the vampire tends to be depicted as a suave, charismatic villain.<ref name="Barb2"/> Despite the general disbelief in vampiric entities, occasional sightings of vampires are reported. Indeed, vampire hunting societies still exist, although they are largely formed for social reasons.<ref name="Cohen"/> Allegations of vampire attacks swept through the [[Africa]]n country of [[Malawi]] during late 2002 and early 2003, with mobs stoning one individual to death and attacking at least four others, including Governor [[Eric Chiwaya]], based on the belief that the government was colluding with vampires.<ref>{{cite news |first=Raphael |last=Tenthani |title='Vampires' strike Malawi villages |publisher=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2602461.stm |date=23 December, 2002 |accessdate=2007-12-29}}</ref> In early 1970 local press spread rumors that a vampire haunted [[Highgate Cemetery]] in [[London]]. Amateur vampire hunters flocked in large numbers to the cemetery. Several books have been written about the case, notably by Sean Manchester, a local man who was among the first to suggest the existence of the "[[Highgate Vampire]]" and who later claimed to have [[exorcise]]d and destroyed a whole nest of vampires in the area.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Highgate Vampire: The Infernal World of the Undead Unearthed at [[London]]'s Highgate Cemetery and Environs |last=Manchester |first=Sean |year=1991 |location= London |publisher=Gothic Press |isbn=1-872486-01-0}}</ref> In January 2005, rumours circulated that an attacker had bitten a number of people in [[Birmingham]], [[England]], fuelling concerns about a vampire roaming the streets. However, local police stated that no such crime had been reported and that the case appears to be an [[urban legend]].<ref name=guardian1>{{cite web |title=Reality Bites |publisher=[[The Guardian]] |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,1392607,00.html |date=January 18, 2005 |accessdate=2007-12-29}}</ref> In one of the more notable cases of vampiric entities in the modern age, the ''[[chupacabra]]'' ("goat-sucker") of [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Mexico]] is said to be a creature that feeds upon the flesh or drinks the blood of [[domesticated animal]]s, leading some to consider it a kind of vampire. The "chupacabra hysteria" was frequently associated with deep economic and political crises, particularly during the mid-1990s.<ref name="trail">{{cite web | author=Stephen Wagner| url=http://paranormal.about.com/library/weekly/aa051898.htm| title=On the trail of the Chupacabras| accessdate=2007-10-05}}</ref> In Europe, where much of the vampire folklore originates, the vampire is considered a fictitious being, although many communities have embraced the revenant for economic purposes. In some cases, especially in small localities, vampire superstition is still rampant and sightings or claims of vampire attacks occur frequently. In [[Romania]] during February 2004, several relatives of Toma Petre feared that he had become a vampire. They dug up his corpse, tore out his heart, burned it, and mixed the ashes with water in order to drink it.<ref>{{cite news|author=Taylor T|date=2007 October 28|title=The real vampire slayers |work=The Independent |url=http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article3096920.ece |accessdate=2007-12-14}}</ref> Vampirism also represents a relevant part of modern day's [[occult#Occultism|occultist]] movements. The mythos of the vampire, his [[magick]]al qualities, allure, and predatory archetype express a strong symbolism that can be used in ritual, energy work, and magick, and can even be adopted as a spiritual system. The vampire has been part of the occult society in Europe for centuries and has spread into the American sub-culture as well for more than a decade, being strongly influenced by and mixed with the [[Goth subculture|neo gothic]] aesthetics.<ref>Marques, Luis. ''Asetian Bible''. Aset Ka, 2007 ISBN 978-9899569409.</ref> ==Origins of vampire beliefs== {{main|Origins of vampire beliefs‎}} ===Pathology=== Belief in vampires has been described as the result of people of [[pre-industrial]] societies attempting to explain the process of death and decomposition.<ref name="Barb1to4">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;1-4.</ref> People sometimes suspected vampirism when a cadaver did not look as they thought a normal corpse should when disinterred. However, rates of decomposition vary depending on temperature and soil composition, and many of the signs are little known. This has led vampire hunters to mistakenly conclude that a dead body had not decomposed at all, or, ironically, to interpret signs of decomposition as signs of continued life.<ref>{{cite web |last=Barber |first=Paul |title=Staking claims: the vampires of folklore and fiction|work=Skeptical Inquirer |date=[[1996-03-01]] |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_n2_v20/ai_18158446/pg_1 |accessdate=2006-04-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Benecke |first=Mark |coauthors=David Pescod-Taylor|title=The Restless Dead: Vampires & Decomposition |pubisher=Bizarre Magazine |date=May-June 1997 |url=http://www.benecke.com/vampires_bizmag.html |accessdate=2006-10-23}}</ref> Corpses swell as gases from decomposition accumulate in the torso and the increased pressure forces blood to ooze from the nose and mouth. This causes the body to look "plump", "well-fed", and "ruddy"&nbsp;— changes that are all the more striking if the person was pale or thin in life.<ref name="Barb117">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;117.</ref> The exuding blood gave the impression that the corpse had recently been engaging in vampiric activity.<ref name="Barb1145"/> Darkening of the skin is also caused by decomposition.<ref name="Barb105">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;105.</ref> The staking of a swollen, decomposing body could cause the body to bleed and force the accumulated gases to escape the body. This could produce a groan-like sound when the gases moved past the vocal cords, or a sound reminiscent of [[flatulence]] when they passed through the anus.<ref name="Barb119">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;119.</ref> After death, the skin and gums lose fluids and contract, exposing the roots of the hair, nails, and teeth, even teeth that were concealed in the jaw. This can produce the illusion that the hair, nails, and teeth have grown. At a certain stage, the nails fall off and the skin peels away, as reported in the Plogojowitz case—the [[dermis]] and [[nail (anatomy)#Parts of the human nail|nail bed]]s emerging underneath were interpreted as "new skin" and "new nails".<ref name="Barb119"/> In some cases in which people reported sounds emanating from a specific coffin, it was later dug up and fingernail marks were discovered on the inside from the victim trying to escape. In other cases the person would hit their heads, noses or faces and it would appear that they had been "feeding".<ref name="Marigny2">Marigny, ''Vampires'', pp.&nbsp;48-49.</ref> A problem with this theory is the question of how people presumably buried alive managed to stay alive for any extended period without food, water or fresh air. An alternate explanation for noise is the bubbling of escaping gases from natural decomposition of bodies.<ref name="Barber128">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;128.</ref> Another likely cause of disordered tombs is [[grave robbing]].<ref name="Barber13738">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', pp.&nbsp;137-38.</ref> ===Disease=== Folkloric vampirism has been associated with a series of deaths due to unidentifiable or mysterious illnesses, usually within the same family or the same small community.<ref name=sledzik/> [[Tuberculosis]] and the pneumonic form of [[bubonic plague]] were associated with breakdown of lung tissue which would cause blood to appear at the lips.<ref name=""Barb100">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;115.</ref> Dr Juan Gómez-Alonso, a neurologist at Xeral Hospital in [[Vigo]], Spain, examined the possibility of a link with [[rabies]] in the journal ''[[Neurology (journal)|Neurology]]''. The susceptibility to garlic and light could be due to rabies-induced hypersensitivity. The disease can also affect portions of the brain that could lead to disturbance of normal sleep patterns (thus becoming nocturnal) and [[hypersexuality]]. Legend once said a man was not rabid if he could look at his own reflection (an allusion to the legend that vampires have no reflection). Wolves and bats, which are often associated with vampires, can be carriers of rabies. The disease can also lead to a drive to bite others and to a bloody frothing at the mouth.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gómez-Alonso |first= Juan |month=September |year=1998 |title=Rabies: a possible explanation for the vampire legend |journal=Neurology |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=856–9 |pmid=9748039}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |=date=September 24, 1998 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/178623.stm |title=Rabies-The Vampire's Kiss |publisher=BBC news |accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref> ====Porphyria==== In 1985 [[biochemistry|biochemist]] [[David Dolphin]] proposed a link between the rare blood disorder [[porphyria]] and vampire folklore. Noting that the condition is treated by intravenous [[haem]], he suggested that the consumption of large amounts of blood may result in haem being transported somehow across the stomach wall and into the bloodstream. Thus vampires were merely sufferers of porphyria seeking to replace haem and alleviate their symptoms.<ref>Dolphin D (1985) "Werewolves and Vampires", annual meeting of American Association for the Advancement of Science.<!--Can't the details to a paper reference be dug up properly? Or at least to a good secondary reference mentioning the link? Adams might be our only possibility...--></ref> The theory has been rebuffed medically as suggestions that porphyria sufferers crave the haem in human blood, or that the consumption of blood might ease the symptoms of porphyria, are based on a misunderstanding of the disease. Furthermore, Dolphin was noted to have confused fictional (bloodsucking) vampires with those of folklore, many of whom were not noted to drink blood.<ref name=""Barb100">Barber, ''Vampires, Burial and Death'', p.&nbsp;100.</ref> Similarly, a parallel is made between sensitivity to sunlight by sufferers, yet this was associated with fictional and not folkloric vampires. In any case, Dolphin did not go on to publish his work more widely.<ref>{{cite web|last=Adams |first=Cecil |title=Did vampires suffer from the disease porphyria--or not? |work=The Straight Dope|publisher=Chicago Reader|date=May 7, 1999 |accessdate=2007-12-25 |url=http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a990507.html}}</ref> Despite being dismissed by experts, the link gained media attention<ref>{{cite web |last=Pierach|firstClaus A. |title= Vampire Label Unfair To Porphyria Sufferers |work=Opinion |publisher =New York Times|date=June 13, 1985 |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C04E4D71239F930A25755C0A963948260 |accessdate=2007-12-25}}</ref> and entered popular modern folklore.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kujtan |first=Peter W. |title=Porphyria: The Vampire Disease| publisher =The Mississauga News online |date=October 29th, 2005 |url =http://www.geocities.com/researchguide/drkporphyria.html |accessdate=2007-12-25}}</ref> ===Psychopathology=== {{See also|Clinical vampirism}} A number of murderers have performed seemingly vampiric rituals upon their victims. [[Serial killer]]s [[Peter Kurten]] and [[Richard Trenton Chase]] were both called "vampires" in the [[tabloid]]s after they were discovered drinking the blood of the people they murdered. Similarly, in 1932, an unsolved murder case in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]] was nicknamed the "[[Atlas Vampire|Vampire murder]]", due to the circumstances of the victim’s death.<ref name=Stig1>{{sv icon}} {{cite book |last=Linnell |first=Stig |title=Stockholms spökhus och andra ruskiga ställen |origyear=1968 |year=1993 |publisher=Raben Prisma |isbn=91-518-2738-7 |pages=}}</ref> The late 16th-century Hungarian countess and mass murderer [[Elizabeth Báthory]] became particularly infamous in later centuries' works, which depicted her bathing in her victims' blood in order to retain beauty or youth.<ref name="Hoyt6871">Hoyt ''Lust for Blood: The Consuming Story of Vampires'' pp.&nbsp;68-71</ref> [[Vampire lifestyle]] is a term for a contemporary [[subculture]] of people, largely within the [[Goth subculture]], who consume the blood of others as a pastime; drawing from the rich recent history of popular culture related to [[cult symbolism]], [[horror film]]s, the fiction of [[Anne Rice]], and the styles of Victorian England.<ref>Skal, ''The Monster Show'', pp.&nbsp;342-43.</ref> Active vampirism within the vampire subculture includes both blood-related vampirism, commonly referred to as ''Sanguine Vampirism'', and ''Psychic Vampirism'', or 'feeding' from [[prana|pranic]] energy. Practitioners may take on a variety of 'roles', including both "vampires" and their sources of blood or pranic energy.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jon |first=A. Asbjorn |month= |year=2002 |title=The Psychic Vampire and Vampyre Subculture |journal=Australian Folklore |volume= |issue=12 |pages=143–148 |issn=0819-0852}}<!-- ISBN 1-86389-831-X--></ref> ===Vampire bats=== {{main|Vampire bat}} [[Image:Desmodus.jpg|thumb|A [[vampire bat]] near [[Peru]]]] Although many cultures have stories about them, [[vampire bat]]s have only recently become an integral part of the traditional vampire lore.<ref name="Cohen2">Cohen, ''Encyclopedia of Monsters'', pp.&nbsp;95-96.</ref> The vampire bat was revered in South American culture; [[Camazotz]] was a bat god of the caves who lived in the bathhouse of the Underworld. Although there are no vampire bats in Europe, [[bat]]s and [[owl]]s have long been associated with the supernatural, mainly due to their nocturnal habits,<ref name="Cohen2"/><ref name="Cooper92">{{cite book |last=Cooper |first=J.C. |title=Symbolic and Mythological Animals |pages=pp. 25-26 |year=1992 |publisher= Aquarian Press |location=London |isbn=1-85538-118-4}}</ref> and in modern English [[heraldry|heraldic]] tradition, a bat means "Awareness of the powers of darkness and chaos".<ref>{{cite web |title=Heraldic "Meanings" |publisher=American College of Heraldry |accessdate=2006-04-30 |url=http://www.americancollegeofheraldry.org/achsymbols.html}}</ref> As the three species of actual [[vampire bat]]s are all [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to [[Latin America]], it is unlikely that the folkloric vampire represents a distorted association with them. During the 16th century the Spanish [[conquistador]]s first came into contact with vampire bats and recognized the similarity between the feeding habits of the bats and those of their legendary vampires. The bats were named after the folkloric vampire rather than vice versa; the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' records their folkloric use in English from 1734 and the zoological not until 1774. Although the vampire bat's bite is usually not harmful to a person, the bat has been known to actively feed on humans and large prey such as cattle and often leave the trademark, two-prong bite mark on its victim's skin.<ref name="Cohen2"/> Though the literary [[Count Dracula|Dracula's]] flying shapeshifted form was originally described as merely bird- or lizard-like, it was not long before vampire bats were adapted into vampiric accoutrements; they were used in the 1927 stage production of ''Dracula'' and the resulting [[Dracula (1931 film)|film]], where [[Bela Lugosi]] would transform into a bat.<ref name="Cohen2"/> The bat transformation scene would again be used by [[Lon Chaney, Jr.|Lon Chaney Jr.]] in 1943's ''[[Son of Dracula (1943 film)|Son of Dracula]]''.<ref>Skal, ''V is for Vampire'', pp.&nbsp;19-21.</ref> Ironically, vampire bats are small creatures and have never been used in the film industry; instead, the much larger [[Pteropus|flying fox]] bat (which is entirely herbivorous) is used in bat transformation scenes.<ref name="Cohen2"/> ==Lycanthropic connections== {{Main|Werewolf}} ===Folkloric overlap=== In Medieval Europe, the corpses of some people executed as werewolves were cremated rather than buried in order to prevent them from being resurrected as vampires.<ref name="Woodward">{{cite book | author= Woodward, Ian | url = http://www.amazon.com/werewolf-delusion-Ian-Woodward/dp/0448231700 | title=The Werewolf Delusion | year=1979 | pages= pp.256 | id= ISBN 0448231700 }}</ref> Before the end of the 19th century, the [[Greek people|Greeks]] believed that the corpses of werewolves, if not destroyed, would return to life as vampires in the form of wolves or [[striped hyena|hyena]]s which prowled battlefields, drinking the blood of dying soldiers. In the same vein, in some rural areas of Germany, Poland and Northern France, it was once believed that people who died in mortal sin came back to life as blood-drinking wolves. This differs from conventional werewolfery, where the creature is a living being rather than an undead apparition. These vampiric werewolves would return to their human corpse form at daylight. They were dealt with by decapitation with a spade and exorcism by the parish priest. The head would then be thrown into a stream, where the weight of its sins were thought to weigh it down. Sometimes, the same methods used to dispose of ordinary vampires would be used.<ref name="Woodward" /> The werewolf was also linked to the vampire in East European countries, particularly Bulgaria, Serbia and Slovakia. In Serbia, the werewolf and vampire are known collectively as one creature; ''Vulkodlak''.<ref name="Woodward" /> In Hungarian and Balkan mythology, many werewolves were said to be vampiric witches who became wolves in order to suck the blood of men born under the full moon in order to preserve their health. In their human form, these werewolves were said to have pale, sunken faces, hollow eyes, swollen lips and flabby arms.<ref name="Woodward" /> The Haitian ''jé-rouges'' (red eyes) differ from traditional European werewolves by their habit of actively trying to spread their lycanthropic condition to others, much like vampires.<ref name="Woodward" /> ===Scholastic comparisons=== In areas allegedly affected sympatrically by werewolves and vampires, the latter were almost invariably the most feared, as evidenced by the fact that while there are unnumerable accounts of individuals becoming werewolves by their own choosing, there are no testimonies indicating that people voluntarily became vampires.<ref name="Woodward" /> Werewolves were typically unaffected by items or rituals used to cast away or kill vampires.<ref name="Woodward" /> Writers such as Woodward have compared werewolves and vampires as two differing personifications of sexual deviancy. {{bquote|“There is it is true, a certain sexual element associated with the werewolf, although it does not approach the [[Sadomasochism|sado-erotic]] subtlety of the vampire. The werewolf is a crude and aggressive rapist; the vampire is a [[Don Juan]] among demons.”|x|x|“The Werewolf Delusion”, Ian Woodward, Paddington Press, 1978 }} ==In modern fiction== <!--*****This section is a general overview - do not add cultural references here, add them to the subarticles... Thanks.*****--> The vampire is now a fixture in popular fiction. Such fiction began with eighteenth century poetry, continued with nineteenth century short stories, serial publications and plays, and culminated in the pre-eminent vampire novel of all time: ''[[Dracula]]'' by [[Bram Stoker]], published in 1897. <ref>Christopher Frayling (1992) ''Vampyres - Lord Byron to Count Dracula''</ref> The vampire or revenant first appeared in poems such as ''The Vampire'' (1748) by [[Heinrich August Ossenfelder]], ''Lenore'' (1773) by [[Gottfried August Bürger]], ''Die Braut von Corinth'' (''The Bride of Corinth'' (1797) by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]<ref name="Marigny poems">Marigny, ''Vampires'', pp. 114-115.</ref> and [[Lord Byron]]'s ''[[The Giaour]]'' (1813). Byron was also credited with the first prose fiction piece concerned with vampires: ''[[The Vampyre]]'' (1819). However this was in reality authored by Byron's personal physician, [[John Polidori]], who adapted an enigmatic framentary tale of his illustrious patient.<ref>Christopher Frayling (1992) ''Vampyres - Lord Byron to Count Dracula''</ref> <ref name="Cohen">Cohen, ''Encyclopedia of Monsters'', pp.&nbsp;271-274.</ref>Byron's own dominating personality, mediated by his lover [[Lady Caroline Lamb]] in her unflattering ''roman-a-clef'', ''Glenarvon'' (a Gothic fantasia based on Byron's wild life), was used as a model for Polidori's undead protagonist [[Lord Ruthven (vampire)|Lord Ruthven]]. ''The Vampyre'' was highly successful and the most influential vampire work of the early 19th century.<ref name="SU378">Silver & Ursini, ''The Vampire Film'', pp.&nbsp;37-38.</ref> Over time, some attributes now regarded as integral became incorporated into the vampire's profile: fangs and vulnerability to sunlight appeared over the course of the 19th century, with Varney the Vampire and Dracula both bearing protruding teeth,<ref name="Skal99">Skal, ''V for Vampire'', p.&nbsp;99.</ref> and [[Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau|Murnau's]] ''[[Nosferatu]]'' (1922) fearing daylight.<ref name="Skal104">Skal, ''V for Vampire'', p. 104.</ref> The cloak appeared in stage productions of the 1820s, with a high collar introduced by playwright Hamilton Deane to help Dracula 'vanish' on stage.<ref name="Skal62">Skal, ''V for Vampire'', p.&nbsp;62.</ref> Lord Ruthven and Varney were able to be healed by moonlight, although no account of this is known in traditional folklore.<ref name="SU389"/> Implied though not often explicitly documented in folklore, [[immortality]] is one attribute which features heavily in vampire film and literature. Much is made of the price of eternal life, namely the incessant need for blood of former equals.<ref>Bunson,''Vampires Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;131.</ref> ===Literature=== {{main|Vampire literature}} [[Image:carmilla.jpg|thumb|200px|"[[Carmilla]]" by D.H. Friston, 1872, from ''The Dark Blue'']] ''[[Varney the Vampire]]'' was a landmark popular mid-[[Victorian era]] [[gothic horror]] story by [[James Malcolm Rymer]] (alternatively attributed to [[Thomas Preskett Prest]]), which first appeared from 1845 to 1847 in a series of pamphlets generally referred to as ''[[penny dreadful]]s'' because of their inexpensive price and typically gruesome contents. The story was published in book form in 1847 and runs to 868 double-columned pages. It has a distinctly suspenseful style, using vivid imagery to describe the horrifying exploits of Varney.<ref name="SU389"/> Other examples of early vampire fictions exist, such as [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Samuel Taylor Coleridge's]] unfinished poem ''[[Christabel (poem)|Christabel]]'' and [[Sheridan Le Fanu|Sheridan Le Fanu's]] [[lesbian vampire]] story ''[[Carmilla]]'' (1871). Like Varney before her, the vampire Carmilla is portrayed in a somewhat sympathetic light as the compulsion of her condition is highlighted.<ref name="SU401">Silver & Ursini, ''The Vampire Film'', p.&nbsp;40-41.</ref> No effort to depict vampires in popular fiction was as influential or as definitive as [[Bram Stoker|Bram Stoker's]] ''[[Dracula]]'' (1897).<ref name="SU43">Silver & Ursini, ''The Vampire Film'', p.&nbsp;43.</ref> Its portrayal of vampirism as a disease of contagious demonic possession, with its undertones of sex, blood and death, struck a chord in [[Victorian era|Victorian]] Europe where [[tuberculosis]] and [[syphilis]] were common. The vampiric traits described in Stoker's work merged with and dominated folkloric tradition, eventually evolving into the modern fictional vampire. Drawing on past works such as ''The Vampyre'' and "Carmilla", Stoker began to research his new book in the late 1800s, reading works such as ''The Land Beyond the Forest'' (1888) by [[Emily Gerard]] and other books about Transylvania and vampires. A member of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], he was keen to travel around Eastern Europe to learn about the folkloric vampires and the [[occult]]. In London, a colleague mentioned to him the story of [[Vlad III the Impaler|Vlad Ţepeş]], the "real-life Dracula", and Stoker immediately incorporated this story into his book. The first chapter of the book was omitted when it was published in 1897, but it was released in 1914 as ''Dracula's Guest''.<ref name="Marigny Drac">Marigny, ''Vampires'', pp.&nbsp;82-85.</ref> The latter part of the twentieth century saw the rise of multi-volume vampire epics. The first of these was gothic romance writer [[Marilyn Ross|Marilyn Ross']] ''[[Barnabas Collins]]'' series (1966–71), loosely based on the contemporary American TV series ''[[Dark Shadows]]''. It also set the trend for seeing vampires as poetic [[tragic hero]]es rather than as the more traditional embodiment of evil. This formula was followed in novelist [[Anne Rice|Anne Rice's]] highly popular and influential ''[[Vampire Chronicles]]'' (1976–2003).<ref name="SU205">Silver & Ursini, ''The Vampire Film'', p.&nbsp;205.</ref> Twenty first century has been marked by the birth of [[Stephenie Meyer|Stephenie Meyer's]] [[Twilight (series) | Twilight Series ]], highly popular vampire books among teenagers and young adults. In Meyer's fiction, vampires don't fear the sunlight, and are invincible save for confrontation with werewolves, or vampires themselves; vampires are noted for forming covens, and they all answer to the largest clan [[Volturi]], who keep it in their responsibility to protect the vampire kind from being exposed to humans. ===Film and television=== {{main|Vampire films}} [[Image:Orlock.jpg|thumb|Count Orlock, a well-known example of vampire fiction, from the 1922 film ''[[Nosferatu]]'']] Considered one of the preeminent figures of the classic horror film, the vampire has proven to be a rich subject for the film and gaming industries. [[Dracula in popular culture|Dracula is a major character]] in more movies than any other but [[Sherlock Holmes]], and many early films were either based on the novel of ''Dracula'' or closely derived from it. These included the landmark 1922 German silent film ''[[Nosferatu]]'', directed by [[F. W. Murnau]] and featuring the first film portrayal of Dracula—although names and characters were intended to mimic ''Dracula'''s, Murnau could not obtain permission to do so from Stoker's widow, and had to alter many aspects of the film. In addition to this film was Universal's ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' (1931), starring [[Béla Lugosi]] as the count in what was the first talking film to portray Dracula. The decade saw several more vampire films, most notably ''[[Dracula's Daughter]]'' in 1936.<ref name="Marigny film1">Marigny, ''Vampires'', pp.&nbsp;90-92.</ref> The legend of the vampire was cemented in the film industry when Dracula was reincarnated for a new generation with the celebrated [[Hammer Horror]] series of films, starring [[Christopher Lee]] as the Count. The successful 1958 ''[[Dracula (1958 film)|Dracula]]'' starring Lee was followed by seven sequels. Lee returned as Dracula in all but two of these and became well known in the role.<ref name="Marigny film2">Marigny, ''Vampires'', pp. 92-95.</ref> By the 1970s, vampires in films had diversified with works such as ''[[Count Yorga, Vampire]]'' (1970), an African Count in 1972's ''[[Blacula]]'', a Nosferatu-like vampire in 1979's ''[[Salem's Lot (film)|Salem's Lot]]'', and a remake of ''Nosferatu'' itself, titled ''[[Nosferatu the Vampyre]]'' with [[Klaus Kinski]] the same year. Several films featured female, often lesbian, vampire antagonists such as Hammer Horror's ''[[The Vampire Lovers]]'' (1970) based on Carmilla, though the plotlines still revolved around a central evil vampire character.<ref name="Marigny film2"/> [[Image:Sd lamagra.gif|thumb|left|[[Deacon Frost]] from [[Blade (film)|''Blade'']].]]The pilot for the Dan Curtis 1974 television series ''[[Kolchak: The Night Stalker]]'' revolved around reporter Carl Kolchak hunting a female vampire in the greater Los Angeles area. Later films showed more diversity in plotline, with some focusing on the vampire-hunter such as [[Blade (film)|Blade]] in the [[Marvel Comics]]' [[Blade (film series)|Blade]] films and the film ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)|Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]''. ''Buffy'', released in 1992, foreshadowed a vampiric presence on television, with adaptation to a long-running hit [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer (TV series)|TV series]] of the same name and its spin-off [[Angel (TV series)|Angel]]. Still others showed the vampire as protagonist such as 1983's ''[[The Hunger]]'', 1994's ''[[Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles]]'' and its indirect sequel of sorts ''[[Queen of the Damned (film)|Queen of the Damned]]''. ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' was a noteworthy 1992 remake which became the then-highest grossing vampire film ever.<ref name="SU208">Silver & Ursini, ''The Vampire Film'', p. 208</ref> This increase of interest in vampiric plotlines led to the vampire being depicted in movies such as ''[[Underworld (2003 film)|Underworld]]'' and ''[[Van Helsing (film)|Van Helsing]]'', the Russian ''[[Night Watch (2004 film)|Night Watch]]'' and a TV miniseries remake of ''[['Salem's Lot (2004 TV mini-series)|'Salem's Lot]]'', both from 2004. The continuing popularity of the vampire theme has been ascribed to a combination of two factors: the representation of [[human sexual behavior|sexuality]]&nbsp;— something which has become more overt in the [[Internet]] age&nbsp;— and the perennial dread of mortality.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bartlett |first=Wayne|coauthors=Flavia Idriceanu |title=Legends of Blood: The Vampire in History and Myth |year=2005 |publisher=NPI Media Group |location=London |isbn=0-7509-3736-X |pages=p46}}</ref> ==Footnotes== <!--This article uses the Cite.php citation mechanism. If you would like more information on how to add references to this article, please see http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Cite/Cite.php --> {{reflist|2}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} *{{cite book|last=Barber|first=Paul|title=Vampires, Burial and Death: Folklore and Reality|year=1988 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-300-04126-8}} *{{cite book|last=Bunson|first=Matthew|title=The Vampire Encyclopedia|year=1993|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London|isbn=0-500-277486}} *{{de icon}} {{cite book|last=Burkhardt|first=Dagmar|title=Beiträge zur Südosteuropa-Forschung: Anlässlich des I. Internationalen Balkanologenkongresses in Sofia 26. VIII.-1. IX. 1966|chapter=Vampirglaube und Vampirsage auf dem Balkan|year=1966|publisher=Rudolf Trofenik |location=Munich|oclc=1475919}} *{{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Daniel|title=Encyclopedia of Monsters: Bigfoot, Chinese Wildman, Nessie, Sea Ape, Werewolf and many more...|year=1989|publisher=Michael O'Mara Books Ltd|location=London|isbn=0-948397-94-2}} *{{fr icon}} {{cite book|last=Créméné|first=Adrien|title=La mythologie du vampire en Roumanie|year=1981|publisher=Rocher|location=Monaco|isbn=2-268-00095-8}} *{{fr icon}} {{cite book|last=Faivre|first=Antoine|title=Les Vampires. Essai historique, critique et littéraire|year=1962|location=Paris |publisher= Eric Losfeld|oclc=6139817}} *{{cite book|last=Frayling|first=Christopher|title=Vampyres, Lord Byron to Count Dracula|year=1991 |location=London|publisher=Faber|isbn=0-571-16792-6}} *{{it icon}} {{cite book|last=Introvigne|first=Massimo|title=La stirpe di Dracula: Indagine sul vampirismo dall'antichità ai nostri giorni |year=1997 |location=Milan |publisher=Mondadori |isbn=88-04-42735-3}}<!--Coll. Antropologia--> *{{cite book |last=Hurwitz |first=Siegmund |editor=Gela Jacobson (trans.) |year=1992 |origyear=1980 |title=Lilith, the First Eve: Historical and Psychological Aspects of the Dark Feminine |location=Einsiedeln, Switzerland |isbn=3-85630-522-X}} *{{cite book |last=Jennings |first=Lee Byron |chapter=An Early German Vampire Tale: Wilhelm Waiblinger's 'Olura' |editor=Reinhard Breymayer and Hartmut Froeschle (eds.)|year=2004 |origyear=1986 |title=In dem milden und glücklichen Schwaben und in der Neuen Welt: Beiträge zur Goethezeit |location=Stuttgart |publisher=Akademischer Verlag Stuttgart |isbn=3-88099-428-5 |pages=pp. 295–306}} *{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Ernest |title=On the Nightmare |chapter=The Vampire |year=1931 |publisher=Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis |location=London |oclc=2382718}} *{{cite book|last=Marigny|first=Jean|authorlink=|title=Vampires: The World of the Undead |year=1993 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |isbn=0-500-30041-0}} *{{cite book|last=McNally |first=Raymond T. |title=Dracula Was a Woman |year=1983 |publisher=McGraw Hill |isbn=0-07-045671-2}} *{{cite book|last=Schwartz |first=Howard |title=Lilith's Cave: Jewish tales of the supernatural |publisher=Harper & Row |date=1988 |location=San Francisco |isbn=0-06-250779-6}} *{{cite book|last=Skal|first=David J.|title=V is for Vampire |year=1996 |location=New York |publisher=Plume |isbn=0-452-27173-8}} *{{cite book|last=Skal|first=David J.|title=The Monster Show: A Cultural History of Horror |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |isbn=0-14-024002-0}} *{{cite book|last=Silver|first= Alain|coauthors=James Ursini|title=The Vampire Film: From Nosferatu to Bram Stoker's Dracula|year=1993|publisher=Limelight|location=New York|isbn=0-87910-170-9}} *{{cite book |last=Summers |first=Montague |authorlink=Montague Summers |year=2005 |origyear=1928 |title=Vampires and Vampirism |location=Mineola, NY |publisher=Dover |isbn=0-486-43996-8}} (Originally published as ''The Vampire: His Kith and Kin'') *{{cite book |last=Summers |first=Montague |year=1996 |origyear=1929 |title=The Vampire in Europe |location=Gramercy Books |publisher=New York |isbn=0-517-14989-3}} (also published as ''The Vampire in Lore and Legend'', ISBN 0-486-41942-8) *{{sr icon}} {{cite book|last=Vuković|first=Milan T.|title=Народни обичаји, веровања и пословице код Срба|publisher=Сазвежђа|date=2004|location=Belgrade|isbn=86-83699-08-0}} *{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Dudley |title=The Book of Vampires |year=1973 |location=New York |publisher=Causeway Books |origyear=1914 |isbn=0-88356-007-0}} (Originally published as ''Vampire and Vampirism''; also published as ''The History of Vampires'') {{refend}} ==External links== {{Commons|Vampire}} {{wikiquote}} * [http://joshuaberlow.com/drac/index.htm ''Circumcising Dracula'' - Vampirism and Anti-Semitism] * [http://science.howstuffworks.com/vampire.htm How Stuff Works - Vampires] * [http://www.blooferland.com/drc/index.php?title=Journal_of_Dracula_Studies ''Journal of Dracula Studies''] * [http://www.vampyres.ca ''Vampyres Only'' - first vampire-themed website, established 1994] {{featured article}} [[Category:Corporeal undead]] [[Category:Vampirism| ]] [[Category:Shapeshifting]] [[Category:Slavic legendary creatures]] [[Category:Vampires| ]] {{Link FA|he}} [[af:Vampier]] [[ar:مصاص دماء]] [[ast:Vampiru]] [[az:Xortdan]] [[bs:Vampir]] [[bg:Вампир]] [[ca:Vampir]] [[cv:Вупăр]] [[cs:Upír (nemrtvý)]] [[da:Vampyr]] [[de:Vampir]] [[et:Vampiir]] [[es:Vampiro]] [[eo:Vampiro]] [[fa:خون‌آشام]] [[fr:Vampire]] [[ko:흡혈귀]] [[hr:Vampir]] [[id:Vampir]] [[is:Vampíra]] [[it:Vampiro]] [[he:ערפד]] [[ka:ვამპირი]] [[la:Vampyrus]] [[lv:Vampīrs]] [[lt:Vampyras]] [[hu:Vámpír]] [[nl:Vampier]] [[ja:吸血鬼]] [[no:Vampyr]] [[nn:Vampyr]] [[pl:Wampir]] [[pt:Vampiro]] [[ru:Вампир]] [[simple:Vampire]] [[sk:Upír (bytosť)]] [[sr:Вампир]] [[fi:Vampyyri]] [[sv:Vampyr]] [[th:แวมไพร์]] [[vi:Ma cà rồng]] [[tr:Vampir]] [[uk:Вампір]] [[zh:吸血鬼]]