Veganism
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2008-07-16T01:24:39Z
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/* Definition */
{{redirect|Vegan}}
[[Image:VeganSociety.png|right|frame|Logo of the [[Vegan Society]], the first society for vegans, founded in 1944.]]
'''Veganism''' is a [[lifestyle]] that seeks to exclude the use of animals for food, clothing, or any other purpose.<ref name="veganukmission"/><ref name="being-vegan"/> '''Vegans''' endeavor not to use or consume [[animal product]]s of any kind.<ref name="foodcriteria"/> The most common reasons for becoming a vegan are ethical commitment or moral convictions concerning [[animal rights]], the environment, human health, and spiritual or religious concerns.<ref name="Timepoll"/><ref name="Food Standards Agency"/><ref name="being-vegan"/> Of particular concern are the practices involved in [[factory farming]] and [[animal testing]], and the intensive use of land and other resources required for animal farming.
Various polls have reported vegans to be between 0.2%<ref name="Timepoll"/> and 1.3%<ref name="vrgharrispoll"/> of the U.S. population, and between 0.25%<ref name="Food Standards Agency"/> and 2.24%<ref name="defraenvironmentstudy"/> of the [[United Kingdom|UK]] population.
Vegan diets (sometimes called strict or pure [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]] diets) are a subset of vegetarian diets, which are credited with lowering the risk of [[Colorectal cancer|colon cancer]], [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]], [[hypercholesterolemia|high blood cholesterol]], [[hypertension|high blood pressure]], [[prostate cancer]], and [[stroke]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Key TJ, Thorogood M, Appleby PN, Burr ML |title=Dietary habits and mortality in 11,000 vegetarians and health conscious people: results of a 17 year follow up |journal=BMJ |volume=313 |issue=7060 |pages=775–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8842068 |doi=}}</ref> Properly planned vegan diets are healthful and have been found to satisfy nutritional needs.<ref>{{cite journal| journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association| year=2003| volume=103| issue=6| pages=748–765| title=Vegetarian Diets}}[http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_933_ENU_HTML.htm online copy available]</ref> However, poorly planned vegan diets can be low in levels of [[calcium]], [[iodine]], [[vitamin B12|vitamin B{{ssub|12}}]] and [[vitamin D]]. Vegans are therefore encouraged to plan their diet and take [[dietary supplements]] as appropriate.<ref name="adajournal"/>
==Definition==
[[Image:Donald watson.jpg|thumb|right|Donald Watson, creator of the term ''vegan'', and founder of the [[Vegan Society]].]]
The word ''vegan'', {{pronEng|ˈviːgən}},<ref name="pronunciation">{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/vegan |title=vegan |accessdate=2007-05-31 |work=Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1) |publisher=Random House, Inc }}</ref> or {{IPA|/ˈvɛdʒən/}},<ref>{{cite book |title=Oxford English Dictionary on CD-ROM|year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford|edition=v2}}</ref> was originally derived from "vegetarian" in 1944 when Elsie Shrigley and [[Donald Watson]], frustrated that the term "vegetarianism" had come to include the eating of [[dairy]] products, founded the UK Vegan Society.<ref name="vegansocietyhistory">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/about_us/history/ |title=Vegan Society: History |accessdate=2007-02-17 |publisher=[[Vegan Society]] }}</ref> They combined the first three and last two letters of vegetarian to form "vegan," which they saw as "the beginning and end of vegetarian."<ref name="vegansocietyhistory"/><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.vegparadise.com/24carrot610.html| title=Vegetarians in Paradise interview with Donald Watson| accessdate=2006-10-31|date=2004-08-11| work=Vegetarians in Paradise Web Magazine| publisher=Vegetarians in Paradise}}</ref> The [[Vegan Society]] defines veganism in this way:
{{quote|[T]he word "veganism" denotes a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude — as far as is possible and practical — all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans, animals and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals.<ref name="veganukmission">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/downloads/ArticlesofAssociation.pdf |title=Memorandum of Association of the Vegan Society |accessdate=2007-02-22 |pages=1 |date=[[1979-11-20]] |work=About Us |publisher=[[Vegan Society]] }}</ref>}}
Other vegan societies use similar definitions.<ref name="veganusmission">{{cite web |url=http://www.americanvegan.org/vegan.htm |title=What is Vegan? |accessdate=2006-09-15 |work=American Vegan Society }}</ref><ref name="vegannzmission">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganz.pl.net/introduction.htm |title=Introduction to Veganism |accessdate=2006-10-30 |work=The Vegan Society of New Zealand }}</ref><ref name="vegandkmission">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegana.dk/index-e.htm |title=About Vegana |accessdate=2006-10-30 |work=The Danish Vegan Society}}</ref>
==Demographics==
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THIS SECTION IS BASICALLY IMPOSSIBLE TO "GLOBALIZE", STATISTICS ON THE NUMBER OF VEGANS DO NOT EXIST FOR MOST COUNTRIES. PLEASE READ THE TALK ARCHIVES FOR EXTENSIVE DISCUSSIONS OF THIS ISSUE.
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Data regarding the number of vegans is available in some countries.
=== United States ===
[[Image:Kuciniches.JPG|right|thumb|[[United States House of Representatives|United States Representative]] [[Dennis_Kucinich#Animal_welfare|Dennis Kucinich]] and his wife Elizabeth. Kucinich is known in part for his veganism and support of [[animal welfare]].<ref name="kucinich">{{cite web |url=http://www2.kucinich.us/files/pdfs/about_dennis.pdf |title=About Dennis Kucinich |accessdate=2008-04-23 |format=PDF |work=Dennis for President |publisher=Kucinich for President 2008 |pages=2 |quote=Congressman Kucinich is one of the few vegans in Congress, a dietary decision he credits not only with improving his health, but in deepening his belief in the sacredness of all species.}}</ref>]]
A 2002 ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''/[[CNN]] [[opinion poll|poll]] found that 4% of [[United States|American]] adults consider themselves vegetarians, and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans, which implies that 0.2% of American adults are vegans.<ref name="Timepoll">{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101020715/poll/ |title=Time/CNN Poll: Do you consider yourself a vegetarian? |accessdate=2006-10-30 |date=[[2002-07-07]] |work=Time Magazine }}</ref> A 2006 poll conducted by [[Harris Interactive]] in the US listed specific foods and asked respondents to indicate which items they never eat, rather than asking respondents to self-identify. The survey found that of the 1,000 adults polled, 1.4% never eat meat, poultry, fish, seafood, dairy products, or eggs and were therefore essentially vegan in their eating habits. The survey also found that about 1.4% of men and 1.3% of women have vegan diets.<ref name="vrgharrispoll">{{cite web |url=http://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2006issue4/vj2006issue4poll.htm |title=How Many Adults Are Vegetarian? |accessdate=2007-03-18 |work=Vegetarian Journal |publisher=[[Vegetarian Resource Group]] }}</ref>
=== Europe ===
In 2002, the [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[Food Standards Agency]] reported that 5% of respondents self-identified as vegetarian or vegan. Though 29% of that 5% said they avoided "all animal products", only 5% reported avoiding dairy products.<ref name="Food Standards Agency">{{cite web| url=http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/ndnsprintedreport.pdf| title = Types and quantities of food consumed: Vegetarian/vegan| accessdate = 2006-10-30|format=PDF|pages=11, 23 |work = National Diet & Nutrition Survey: Adults aged 19 to 64, Volume 1 2002|publisher=Food Standards Agency}}</ref> Based on these figures, approximately 0.25% of the UK population follow a vegan diet. In 2005, ''[[The Times]]'' estimated there were 250,000 vegans in Britain, which suggests around 0.4% of the UK population is vegan.<ref name="londontimeswatson">{{cite web |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,60-1914862,00.html |title=Donald Watson |accessdate=2006-09-15 |date=[[2005-11-16]] |work=Times Online |publisher=Times Newspapers Ltd. }}</ref> A 2007 survey for the [[Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs]] into the UK population's attitudes and behaviour towards the environment found that 2.24% of the population identified themselves as vegan.<ref name="defraenvironmentstudy">{{cite web |url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/pubatt/download/pas2007_data_all.pdf |title=Data tables |accessdate=2007-11-22 |date=2007-11-02 |format=PDF |work=Report, questionnaire and data tables following Survey of Public Attitudes and Behaviours toward the Environment: 2007 |publisher=Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs |pages=500-502 |author=BMRB Social Research |quote= }}</ref> In the same study, vegetarians who did not also eat chicken or fish made up 2.7% of the population. The DEFRA study also indicated that slightly more men than women are vegan, that more vegans live in towns or cities than the country, and that people aged 16-29 were vegan more often than any other age group.
Various polls and research conducted during the 1990s put the percentage of [[Sweden|Swedish]] residents being vegan at between 0.27% and 1.6% of the entire population.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pettersson |first=Björn |title=Vegansk näringslära på vetenskaplig grund |edition=2nd edition |year=2005 |month=June |publisher=HÄLSAböcker/Energica Förlag |location=Orsa |language=Swedish |isbn=9185506796 |pages=17-19 }}</ref> A study of the eating patterns of 2,538 Swedish children of ages 4, 8 and 11 by the [[Swedish National Food Administration]] found that about 1% of the children were vegetarian, less than 1% were [[lacto vegetarianism|lacto-vegetarians]], but found no children to be vegans.<ref name="swedishchildrensdiet">{{cite web |url=http://www.slv.se/upload/dokument/mat/matvanor/Barns%20matvanor%202003%20resultat%20enk%C3%A4t.pdf |title=Svenska barns matvanor 2003 |accessdate=2007-11-23 |author=Heléne Enghardt Barbieri |coauthors=Wulf Becker |date=2004-12-15 |format=PDF |publisher=Livsmedelsverket |pages=5 |language=Swedish}}</ref> The website VeganWelt estimates there to be between 250,000 and 460,500 vegans in [[Germany]], or between 0.3% and 0.5% of the German population.<ref name="germanvegans">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganwelt.de/inhalt/vegan/v-faq.html |title=VeganWelt: vegan FAQ |accessdate=2007-10-03 |work=veganwelt.de |quote=In Deutschland gibt es zwischen 250 000 und 460 500 Veganer (5 Millionen Vegetarier)}}</ref> The Netherlands Association for Veganism estimates there to be approximately 16,000 vegans in the [[Netherlands]], or around 0.1% of the Dutch population.<ref name="netherlandsvegans">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganisme.org/?over_veganisme |title=Wat is veganisme? |publisher=Nederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme |accessdate=2007-10-03 |work=veganisme.org |quote=Er zijn nu ongeveer 2,4 miljoen parttime vegetariërs en vleesverlaters, 300.000 vegetariërs en 16.000 veganisten in Nederland.}}</ref>
==Animal products==
{{main|Animal product}}
The term "[[animal product]]" in a vegan context refers to any material derived from animals for human use.<ref name="being-vegan">{{cite book |last=Stepaniak |first=Joanne |title=Being Vegan |publisher=McGraw-Hill Contemporary |date=2000 |pages=2,6,17,148-150 |isbn=978-0737303230}}</ref> Notable animal products include [[meat]], [[poultry]], [[seafood]], [[egg (food)|egg]]s, [[dairy product]]s, [[honey]], [[fur]], [[leather]], [[wool]], and [[silk]].<ref name="foodcriteria">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/criteria.php |title=Criteria for Vegan food |accessdate=2007-02-17 |publisher= [[Vegan Society]] }}</ref> Common animal by-products include [[gelatin]], [[lanolin]], [[rennet]], [[whey]], [[casein]], [[beeswax]], [[isinglass]] and [[shellac]].<ref name="foodcriteria"/>
Animal products are ingredients in many products and are used in the production of many more products, although not always present in the final form.<ref name="veganoutreachfaq">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/starterpack/qa.html#isrefinedsugarvegan |title=Vegan FAQs |accessdate=2007-03-11 |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] |quote=Is refined sugar vegan? It depends on how you define 'vegan.' Refined sugars do not contain any animal products, and so by an ingredients-based definition of vegan, refined sugar is vegan. ... However, if one accepts a process-based definition of vegan, then many other familiar products would also not be considered vegan. For instance, steel and vulcanized rubber are produced using animal fats and, in many areas, groundwater and surface water is filtered through bone charcoal filters.}}</ref><ref name="ivumaybeanimaldrinks">{{cite web |url=http://www.ivu.org/faq/drink.html |title=IVU FAQ: Drinks |accessdate=2007-03-11 |date=2006-08-03 |work=International Vegetarian Union FAQ |publisher=[[International Vegetarian Union]] }}</ref><ref name="vegetariansocietyalchol">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegsoc.org/info/alcohol.html |title=Information Sheet: Alcohol |accessdate=2007-03-11 |work= |publisher=[[Vegetarian Society]] |quote=The use of animal derived products in the production of alcoholic beverages is fairly widespread not because no alternatives exist, but because they always have been used and there is little demand from the consumer for an alternative. ... The main appearance of animal derived products is in the fining or clearing process, though others may be used as colorants or anti-foaming agents.}}</ref> Many products use obscure names on their ingredient list,<ref name="ivuingredients">{{cite web |url=http://www.ivu.org/faq/ingredients.html |title=IVU FAQ: Ingredients |accessdate=2006-10-30 |work=International Vegetarian Union FAQ|publisher=International Vegetarian Union }}</ref><ref name="ivuanimalingredients">{{cite web |url=http://www.ivu.org/faq/animal_derived.html |title=IVU FAQ: Animal Derived Ingredient List |accessdate=2007-03-10 |date=2006-08-03 |work=International Vegetarian Union FAQ |publisher=[[International Vegetarian Union]]}}</ref> including non-animal sources.<ref name="ivumaybeanimalingredients">{{cite web |url=http://www.ivu.org/faq/maybe-animal-derived.html |title=IVU FAQ: Maybe Animal Derived |accessdate=2007-03-10 |date=2006-08-03 |work=International Vegetarian Union FAQ |publisher=[[International Vegetarian Union]] }}</ref> Non-food products are not required to provide ingredients on their labels.<ref name="veganoutreachfaq"/> Although some vegans attempt to avoid all these ingredients, [[Vegan Outreach]] argues that "it can be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to shun every minor or hidden animal-derived ingredient," and therefore that doing what is "best for preventing suffering" is more important than identifying and excluding every animal ingredient.<ref name="veganoutreachcompassion">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/starterpack/beingvegan.html |title=On Living With Compassion |accessdate=2007-03-10 |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] |quote=Our desire to oppose and help end cruelty to animals can help guide our choices, as well as provide a simple, easy-to-understand explanation of our actions. The question isn't, "Is this vegan?" but, "What is best for preventing suffering?" }}</ref><ref name="veganoutreacholdcompassion">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/starterpack/beingveganold.html |title=On Living With Compassion (Old version) |accessdate=2007-03-10 |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] |quote=We believe that framing veganism as the avoidance of a specific list of “bad” ingredients is not the best way to achieve results. When looked at closely, any ingredients-based definition of vegan collapses into inconsistencies. This is why we stress that the essence of being vegan is working to end cruelty to animals. }}</ref>
Although [[honey]] and [[silk]] are by definition animal products, some vegans consider their use and the use of other insect products to be acceptable.<ref name="veganactionhoney">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegan.org/FAQs/index.html#7 |title=Is honey vegan? |accessdate=2007-10-03 |publisher=Vegan Action |work=Vegan FAQ's |quote=Many vegans, however, are not opposed to using insect products, because they do not believe insects are conscious of pain. Moreover, even if insects were conscious of pain, it's not clear that the production of honey involves any more pain for insects than the production of most vegetables, since the harvesting and transportation of all vegetables involves many 'collateral' insect deaths. }}</ref> However, inclusion of honey and silk are contrary to the definition of veganism given by the Vegan Society.<ref>http://www.vegansociety.com/html/downloads/ArticlesofAssociation.pdf</ref><ref name="foodcriteria" />
==Ethical concerns==
{{seealso|Animal rights|Ethics of eating meat|Factory farming}}
Vegan organizations maintain that animals have certain rights, and as such it is not [[ethical]] for humans to use animals in ways that infringe those rights.<ref name="veganactionaboutanimals">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegan.org/about_veganism/animals.html |title=About Veganism: For the Animals |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[Vegan Action]] |quote=Veganism emerges as the lifestyle most consistent with the philosophy that animals are not ours to use. }}</ref><ref name="petahistory">{{cite web |url=http://www.peta.org/factsheet/files/FactsheetDisplay.asp?ID=107 |title=PETA's History: Compassion in Action |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]] |quote=PETA operates under the simple principle that animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, or use for entertainment.}}</ref><ref name="mercyforanimalsabout">{{cite web |url=http://www.mercyforanimals.org/about_mfa.asp |title=About Mercy for Animals |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[Mercy for Animals]] |quote=Mercy For Animals is a 501(c)(3) non-profit animal advocacy organization that believes non-human animals are irreplaceable individuals with morally significant interests and hence rights, including the right to live free of unnecessary suffering. }}</ref> Practices seen as cruel to animals include [[factory farming]],<ref name="veganoutreachfactoryfarm">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/whyvegan/animals.html |title=Factory Farms |accessdate=2006-09-15 |work=Why Vegan |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]]}}</ref><ref name="crueltytoanimals">{{cite web |url=http://www.goveg.com/factoryFarming.asp|title=Cruelty to Animals: Mechanized Madness |accessdate=2006-09-15 |work=GoVeg.com |publisher=People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals}}</ref><ref name="vegansocietyexploitation">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/animals/exploitation/ |title=Exploitation |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[Vegan Society]] |quote=The vast majority of these animals will have spent their brief lives in the cramped, distressing conditions of the factory farm. Their close confinement and the overworking of their bodies will have led to increased susceptibility to injury and disease. They will have been reared on an unnatural diet designed to increase productivity and many will have undergone various painful and traumatic procedures. }}</ref> [[animal testing]],<ref name="foodcriteria"/><ref name="vegansocietytesting">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/people/lifestyle/toiletries_and_cosmetics/testing.php |title=Testing |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[Vegan Society]] |quote=Every year, millions of animals are subjected to the most horrifically painful experiments just so people can have a new brand of shampoo or a differently scented perfume. }}</ref> and displaying animals for entertainment in [[circus]]es,<ref name="petacircuses">{{cite web |url=http://peta.org/mc/factsheet_display.asp?ID=66 |title=Circuses: Three Rings of Abuse |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]] |quote=Colorful pageantry disguises the fact that animals used in circuses are captives who are forced, under threat of punishment, to perform confusing, uncomfortable, repetitious, and often-painful acts. }}</ref> [[rodeo]]s,<ref name="petarodeos">{{cite web |url=http://peta.org/mc/factsheet_display.asp?ID=69 |title=Rodeo: Cruelty for a Buck |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]] |quote=In reality, rodeos are nothing more than manipulative displays of human domination over animals, thinly disguised as entertainment.}}</ref> and [[zoo]]s.<ref name="petazoos">{{cite web |url=http://www.peta.org/campaigns/ar-zoos.asp |title=Animal Rights Uncompromised: Zoos |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]] |quote=PETA opposes zoos because zoo cages and cramped enclosures deprive animals of their most basic needs. The zoo community regards the animals it keeps as commodities, and animals are regularly bought, sold, borrowed, and traded without any regard for established relationships. }}</ref>
Philosopher [[Tom Regan]] argues that animals are entities which possess "inherent value"<ref name="regan-inherentvalue">{{cite book |title=[[The Case for Animal Rights]] |last=Regan |first=Tom |authorlink=Tom Regan |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |isbn=0-520-05460-1 |pages=244-245 |quote=…moral patients (e.g., animals in the wild)…For these reasons, the subject-of-a-life criterion can be defended as citing a relevant similarity between moral agents and patients, one that makes the attribution of equal inherent value to them both intelligible and nonarbitrary.}}</ref> and therefore have "basic moral rights," and that the principal moral right they possess is "the right to respectful treatment."<ref name="regan-basicmoralrights">{{cite book |title=[[The Case for Animal Rights]] |last=Regan |first=Tom |authorlink=Tom Regan |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |isbn=0-520-05460-1 |pages=327 |quote=The principal conclusion reached in the present chapter is that all moral agents and patients have certain basic moral rights. … The principal basic moral right possessed by all moral agents and patients is the right to respectful treatment. }}</ref> Regan additionally argues that animals have a "basic moral right not to be harmed," which can be overridden only when the individual's right to be harmed is "morally outweighed" by "other valid moral principles."<ref name="regan-rightnotharmed">{{cite book |title=[[The Case for Animal Rights]] |last=Regan |first=Tom |authorlink=Tom Regan |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |isbn=0-520-05460-1 |pages=328 |quote=It was also argued that all moral agents and patients have a prima facie basic moral right not to be harmed. }}</ref><ref name="regan-overriderights">{{cite book |title=[[The Case for Animal Rights]] |last=Regan |first=Tom |authorlink=Tom Regan |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |isbn=0-520-05460-1 |pages=287 |quote=To say this right is a prima facie right is to say that (1) consideration of this right is always a morally relevant consideration, and (2) anyone who would harm another, or allow others to do so, must be able to justify doing so by (a) appealing to other valid moral principles and by (b) showing that these principles morally outweigh the right not to be harmed in a given case. }}</ref> From this "rights view," Regan argues that "animal agriculture, as we know it, is unjust" even when animals are raised "humanely."<ref name="regan-agricultureunjust">{{cite book |title=[[The Case for Animal Rights]] |last=Regan |first=Tom |authorlink=Tom Regan |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |isbn=0-520-05460-1 |pages=394 |quote=This chapter traced some of the implications of the rights view. On this view, animal agriculture, as we know it, is unjust (9.1), and it is unjust because it fails to treat farm animals with the respect they are due }}</ref><ref name="regan-humanely">{{cite book |title=[[The Case for Animal Rights]] |last=Regan |first=Tom |authorlink=Tom Regan |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |isbn=0-520-05460-1 |pages=394 |quote=Animal agriculture, as we know it, is wrong, not only when farm animals are raised in close confinement in factory farms, but also when they are raised "humanely," since even in this case their lives are routinely brought to an untimely end because of human interests }}</ref> Regan argues against various justifications for eating meat including that "animal flesh is tasty," that it is "habit" for "individuals and as a culture", that it is "convenient," that "meat is nutritious," that there is an obligation the economic interests of farmers or to the economic interests of a country, or that "farm animals are legal property," and finds that all fail to treat animals with the respect due to them by their basic rights.<ref name="regan-justifications">{{cite book |title=[[The Case for Animal Rights]] |last=Regan |first=Tom |authorlink=Tom Regan |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |isbn=0-520-05460-1 |pages=333-334 |quote= The argument just given is sound only if the case can be made that raising animals to eat and eating them satisfies all the requirements of the liberty principle. Once we examine the matter more closely, we shall see that it fails to do so. }}</ref> Regan therefore argues that "those who support current animal agriculture by purchasing meat have a moral obligation to stop doing so" and that "the individual has a duty to lead a vegetarian way of life."<ref name="regan-obligation">{{cite book |title=[[The Case for Animal Rights]] |last=Regan |first=Tom |authorlink=Tom Regan |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |isbn=0-520-05460-1 |pages=394 |quote=Those who support current animal agriculture by purchasing meat have a moral obligation to stop doing so. … the rights view holds that the individual has a duty to lead a vegetarian way of life }}</ref>
Legal theorist [[Gary L. Francione]] argues that animals are [[sentience|sentient]], and that this is sufficient to grant them moral consideration.<ref name="francioneveganism">{{cite web |url=http://www.abolitionistapproach.com/index.php?page_id=54 |title=Mission Statement |accessdate=2007-05-29 |last=Francione |first=Gary |authorlink=Gary L. Francione |date=2006-12-27 |work=Animal Rights: The Abolitionist Approach |quote=We have no moral justification for using nonhumans for our purposes. … A shorthand way of describing the view presented here is to say that all sentient beings should have at least one right—the right not to be treated as property. … This site also seeks to make clear that the moral baseline of an animal rights movement is veganism. }}</ref> Francione argues that "all sentient beings should have at least one right—the right not to be treated as property" and that there is "no moral justification for using nonhumans for our purposes."<ref name="francioneveganism"/> Francione further argues that adopting veganism should be regarded as the "baseline" action taken by people concerned with animal rights.<ref name="francioneveganism"/>
[[Image:CattleRestrainedForSlaughter.jpg|thumb|right|A [[cow]] restrained for [[Slaughter (livestock)|slaughter]].]]
[[Preference utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] philosopher [[Peter Singer]] argues that there is "no moral justification" for refusing to take sentient animal suffering into consideration in ethical decisions.<ref name="singerethics-sentience">{{cite book |title=[[Practical Ethics]] |last=Singer |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Singer |origyear=1993 |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-43971-X |edition=Second Edition |pages=57–58 |chapter=Equality for Animals? |quote=If a being suffers, there can be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into consideration. … This is why the limit of sentience…is the only defensible boundary of concern for the interests of others. … Similarly those I would call 'speciesists' give greater weight to their own species when there is a clash between their interests and the interests of those of other species. }}</ref> Singer argues that an animal's interests warrant [[equal consideration of interests|equal consideration]] with the interests of humans, and that not doing so is "[[speciesism|speciesist]]."<ref name="singerethics-sentience"/> Based upon his evaluation of these interests, Singer argues that "our use of animals for food becomes questionable—especially when animal flesh is a luxury rather than a necessity."<ref name="singerethics-food">{{cite book |title=[[Practical Ethics]] |last=Singer |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Singer |origyear=1993 |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-43971-X |edition=Second Edition |pages=62 |chapter=Equality for Animals? |quote=The use of animals for food is probably the oldest and most widespread form of animal use. There is also a sense in which it is the most basic form of animal use, the foundation stone on which rests the belief that animals exist for our pleasure and convenience. If animals count in their own right, our use of animals for food becomes questionable—especially when animal flesh is a luxury rather than a necessity. }}</ref> Singer does not contend that killing animals is always wrong, but that from a practical standpoint it is "better to reject altogether the killing of animals for food, unless one must do so to survive."<ref name="singerethics-killing">{{cite book |title=[[Practical Ethics]] |last=Singer |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Singer |origyear=1993 |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-43971-X |edition=Second Edition |pages=134 |chapter=Taking Life: Animals |quote=In any case, at the level of practical moral principles, it would be better to reject altogether the killing of animals for food, unless one must do so to survive. }}</ref> Singer therefore advocates both veganism and improved conditions for farm animals as practical means to reduce animal suffering.<ref name="satyasingerinterview">{{cite web |url=http://www.satyamag.com/oct06/singer.html |title=Singer Says |accessdate=2007-05-29 |last=Clyne |first=Catherine |year=2006 |month=10 |work=[[Satya (magazine)|Satya]] |quote=If you read the book, it does make clear that going vegan is a good solution to a lot of the ethical problems. }}</ref><ref name="motherjonessinger">{{cite web |url=http://www.motherjones.com/interview/2006/04/peter_singer.html?welcome=true |title=Chew the Right Thing |accessdate=2007-05-29 |last=Gilson |first=Dave |date=2006-05-03 |work=[[Mother Jones]] |publisher=The Foundation for National Progress |quote=In 1975 he published Animal Liberation, a pioneering defense of the rights of animals that concluded that veganism is the most ethically justifiable diet. }}</ref><ref name="salonsinger">{{cite web |url=http://www.salon.com/books/int/2006/05/08/singer/index_np.html |title=The practical ethicist |accessdate=2007-05-29 |last=Broudy |first=Oliver |date=2006-05-08 |work=[[Salon.com]] |publisher=Salon Media Group, Inc. |quote=If you can be vegetarian or vegan that's ideal. If you can buy organic and vegan that's better still, and organic and fair trade and vegan, better still, but if that gets too difficult or too complicated, just ask yourself, Does this product come from intensive animal agriculture? }}</ref>
Steven Davis, a professor of [[animal science]] at [[Oregon State University]], argues that following Tom Regan's "least harm principle" may not necessarily require the adoption of a vegan diet.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://icwdm.org/WDC%20website/animalrights/leastharm.htm |title=The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet. |accessdate=2008-04-22 |last=Davis |first=S.L. |year=2001 |work=Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics |publisher=EurSafe 2001. Food Safety, Food Quality and Food Ethics. |pages=449-450 |quote=In conclusion, applying the Least Harm Principle as proposed by Regan would actually argue that we are morally obligated to move to a ruminant-based diet rather than a vegan diet.}}</ref> Davis suggests that there are non-vegetarian diets which "may kill fewer animals" than are killed in the intensive crop production necessary to support vegetarian diets. In particular, Davis argues that adopting a diet based upon "forage-[[ruminant]]-based agriculture" in the United States would kill an estimated 380-450 million fewer animals annually than a vegan diet and therefore that "humans may be morally obligated to consume a diet from plant-based plus pasture-forage-ruminant systems."<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/r1277l2428v10637/fulltext.pdf |format=PDF |title=The least harm principle may require that humans consume a diet containing large herbivores, not a vegan diet|author=Davis S.L.|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics|volume=16|issue=4|pages=387–394|year=2003|doi=10.1023/A:1025638030686 |quote=An examination of this question shows that the LHP may actually be better served using food production systems that include both plant-based agriculture and forage-ruminant-based agriculture as compared to a strict plant-based (vegan) system. Perhaps we are morally obligated to consume a diet containing both plants and ruminant (particularly cattle) animal products. … According to this model then, fewer animals (1.35 billion) would die than in the vegan model (1.8 billion). … the total number of animals that would need to be killed under this alternative method would still only be 1.424 billion, still clearly less than the vegan model. … Several alternative food production models exist which may kill fewer animals than the vegan model.
}}</ref>
Gaverick Matheny, a Ph.D. candidate in agricultural economics at the University of Maryland, counters that Davis' reasoning contains several major flaws, including miscalculating the number of animal deaths based on land area rather than per consumer, and incorrectly equating "the harm done to animals […] to the number of animals killed." Matheny notes that Davis' proposal is "a world apart" from agriculture "prevalent in the United States" which would "greatly improve the lives of farmed animals," but argues that per-consumer, a vegan diet would kill fewer wild animals than a diet adhering to Davis' model, and that vegetarianism "involves better treatment of animals, and likely allows a greater number of animals with lives worth living to exist."<ref name="Matheny">{{cite journal|url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/enewsletter/matheny.html |title=Least harm: a defense of vegetarianism from Steven Davis’s omnivorous proposal|author=Gaverick Matheny|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics|volume=16|issue=5|pages=505–511|year=2003|doi=10.1023/A:1026354906892 |quote=While eating animals who are grazed rather than intensively confined would vastly improve the welfare of farmed animals given their current mistreatment, Davis does not succeed in showing this is preferable to vegetarianism. First, Davis makes a mathematical error in using total rather than per capita estimates of animals killed; second, he focuses on the number of animals killed in ruminant and crop production systems and ignores important considerations about the welfare of animals under both systems; and third, he does not consider the number of animals who are prevented from existing under the two systems. After correcting for these errors, Davis’s argument makes a strong case for, rather than against, adopting a vegetarian diet.}}</ref>
William Jarvis, writing for [[The National Council Against Health Fraud]], characterizes veganism as "a hygienic religion that meets deep emotional needs of its followers," who revel "in self-denial and wars against pleasure," and who "cannot be trusted to be objective, reliable sources of information on anything that bears upon its fundamental paradigm."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncahf.org/articles/o-r/pcrm.html |title=Physician's Committee For Responsible Medicine (PCRM) |accessdate=2008-04-22 |last=Jarvis |first=William T. |year=1996 |publisher=[[National Council Against Health Fraud]] |quote=NCAHF considers vegetarianism, particularly veganism, a hygienic religion that meets deep emotional needs of its followers. Adherents cannot be trusted to be objective, reliable sources of information on anything that bears upon its fundamental paradigm.}}</ref> Jarvis attacks "ideologic vegetarians," whom he claims believe that "all life is sacred" and that "all forms of life have equal value," saying that these beliefs "can lead to absurdities such as allowing mosquitoes to spread malaria, or vipers to run loose on one's premises."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jarvis |first=William T. |date=1997-04-01 |title=Why I Am Not a Vegetarian |journal=ACSH Newsletter "Priorities" |volume=9 |issue=2 |url=http://www.acsh.org/healthissues/newsID.760/healthissue_detail.asp |publisher=[[American Council on Science and Health]] |accessdate= 2008-04-22 |quote=The belief that all life is sacred can lead to absurdities such as allowing mosquitoes to spread malaria, or vipers to run loose on one's premises. Inherent in the idea that all life is sacred is the supposition that all forms of life have equal value. }}</ref>
==Health==
The [[Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine]] recommends what they call the "Four New Food Groups."<ref name="PCRMdiet">[http://www.vegsource.com/food_groups.htm "Vegetarian starter kit"], Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, posted on ''vegsource.com''.</ref> They suggest that vegans and vegetarians eat at least three servings of vegetables a day, including dark green, leafy vegetables such as broccoli, and dark yellow and orange such as carrots; five servings of whole grains (bread, rice, pasta); three of fruit; and two of legumes (beans, peas, lentils).<ref name="PCRMdiet"/>
=== Benefits ===
[[Image:Vegan food pyramid.svg|thumb|right|350px|Vegan version of the nutritional [[food pyramid]] which normally includes meat and animal products. Click to enlarge.]]
Some scientists believe that some diets (such as the [[Standard American Diet|standard American diet]]) are detrimental to health, and they believe that a vegan diet represents an improvement,<ref name="cornell china study">{{cite web| url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/01/6.28.01/China_Study_II.html| title = China Study II: Switch to Western diet may bring Western-type diseases| accessdate = 2006-09-15| last = Segelken| first = Roger| authorlink = Roger Segelken|date= [[2001-06-28]]| publisher = Cornell Chronicle}}</ref><ref name="corness nutrition">{{cite web| url = http://www.nutrition.cornell.edu/ChinaProject/| title = China-Cornell-Oxford Project On Nutrition, Environment and Health at Cornell University| accessdate = 2006-09-15| work = Division of Nutritional Sciences| publisher = Cornell University}}</ref> in part because vegan diets are often high enough in fruit and vegetables to meet or exceed the recommended fruit and vegetable intakes.
Benefits of vegetarian diets might be valid also for strict vegan diets: according to the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada, diets that avoid meat tend to have lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants, such as [[Vitamin C|vitamins C]] and [[Tocopherol|E]], and phytochemicals.<ref name="adajournal">{{cite journal |year=2003 |month=June |title=Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=103 |issue=6 |pages=748–765 |doi=10.1053/jada.2003.50142 |url=http://www.adajournal.org/article/PIIS0002822303002943/fulltext |accessdate=2006-09-15 }}</ref> People who avoid meat are reported to have lower [[body mass index]] than those following the average Canadian diet; from this follows lower death rates from [[ischemic heart disease]]; lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer.<ref name="adajournal"/>
A 1999 [[Meta-analysis|meta-study]] of five studies comparing vegetarian and non-vegetarian [[mortality rate]]s in western countries found equivalent mortality rates for vegans and those who eat meat regularly. The study also found equivalent and lower mortality rates for vegetarians and those who eat meat infrequently. <ref name="mortality-overview">{{cite journal |last=Timothy |first=J |coauthors=et al. |year=1999 |month=September |title=Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies |journal=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=516S–524S |pmid=10479225 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/70/3/516S |accessdate=2008-01-31 |quote=Death rate ratio (Number of deaths)<br/>Regular meat eaters (n = 31766): 1.00 (3017)<br/>Vegans (n = 753): 1.00 (68) }}</ref> A 2003 study of British vegetarians, including vegans, found similar mortality rates between vegetarians and other groups.<ref name="mortality-british">{{cite journal |last=Key |first=Timothy J |coauthors=et. al. |year=2003 |month=September |title=Mortality in British vegetarians: review and preliminary results from EPIC-Oxford |journal=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=533S–538S |pmid=12936946 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/78/3/533S |accessdate=2008-01-31 |quote=In conclusion, both the vegetarians and the nonvegetarians in these 3 British cohort studies have a low mortality compared with the national average. Comparisons within the cohorts suggest that the vegetarians have a moderately lower mortality from IHD than the nonvegetarians but that there is little difference in mortality from other major causes of death. }}</ref>
A 2006 study found that in people with type 2 diabetes a low-fat vegan diet reduced weight, [[Body mass index|BMI]], total [[cholesterol]], and [[Low-density lipoprotein|LDL cholesterol]] and did so to a greater extent than the diet prescribed by the [[American Diabetes Association]].<ref name="diabetesstudy">{{cite journal |last=Barnard |first=Neal |authorlink=Neal D. Barnard |coauthors=Joshua Cohen, David J.A. Jenkins, Gabrielle Turner-McGrievy, Lise Gloede, Brent Jaster, Kim Seidl, Amber A. Green, and Stanley Talpers |year=2006 |month=08 |title=A Low-Fat Vegan Diet Improves Glycemic Control and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in a Randomized Clinical Trial in Individuals With Type 2 Diabetes |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=29 |issue=8 |pages=1777–1783 |doi=10.2337/dc06-0606 |url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/content/full/29/8/1777 |accessdate=2008-01-26 |quote=Both diets were associated with significant clinical improvements, as indicated by reductions in A1C, body weight, plasma lipid concentrations, and urinary albumin excretion. Among medication-stable participants, changes in A1C, weight, BMI, waist circumference, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol were significantly greater in the vegan group. The magnitude of A1C reduction in medication-stable vegan group participants, 1.23 percentage points, compares favorably with that observed in single-agent therapy with oral diabetes drugs. |pmid=16873779 }}</ref>
===Precautions===
[[Image:Foods.jpg|thumb|right|Various fruits, vegetables, nuts, and grains; some basic ingredients of a vegan diet.]]
====Specific nutrients====
The [[American Dietetic Association]] has said that "appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases."<ref name="adajournal"/> However, poorly planned vegan diets can be deficient in nutrients such as [[Cobalamin|vitamin B{{ssub|12}}]],<ref name="B12veganhealth">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/articles/vitaminb12 |title=Vegan Health: Vitamin B12 |accessdate=2007-02-23 |date=2006-07-26 |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] }}</ref> [[vitamin D]],<ref name="calciumvitamindveganhealth">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/articles/bones |title=Vegan Health: Bone Health |accessdate=2007-02-23 |date=2007-01-09 |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] }}</ref> [[calcium]],<ref name="ejcnveganfracture">{{cite journal |author=P Appleby |coauthors=A Roddam, N Allen and T Key |year=2007 |month=02 |title=Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford |journal=[[European Journal of Clinical Nutrition]] |pmid=17299475 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659 |url=http://www.nature.com/ejcn/journal/v61/n12/full/1602659a.html |format=fee required |accessdate=2007-02-25 | volume = 61 | pages = 1400}}</ref><ref name="calciumvitamindveganhealth"/> [[iodine]]<ref name="iodineveganhealth">{{cite web|url=http://www.veganhealth.org/articles/iodine |title=Vegan Health: Iodine |accessdate=2007-02-23 |date=2006-12-26 |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] }}</ref> and [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s.<ref name="omega3veganhealth">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/articles/fat |title=Vegan Health: Fat |accessdate=2007-02-23 |date=2007-02-20 |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] }}</ref> These deficiencies have potentially serious consequences, including [[anemia]],<ref name="b12vegansociety">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/nutrition/b12/ |title=What every vegan should know about vitamin B12 |accessdate=2007-02-22 |publisher=[[Vegan Society]] |quote=Vitamin B12, whether in supplements, fortified foods, or animal products, comes from micro-organisms. }}</ref> [[rickets]]<ref name="vitaminDvegansociety">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/nutrition/vitaminD.php |title=Vegans and Vitamin D |accessdate=2007-02-22 |publisher=[[Vegan Society]] }}</ref> and [[cretinism]]<ref name="iodinevegansociety">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/nutrition/iodine.php |title=Nutrition: Iodine |accessdate=2007-02-23 |author=Steven Walsh |publisher=[[Vegan Society]] }}</ref> in children, and [[osteomalacia]]<ref name="vitaminDvegansociety"/> and [[hypothyroidism]]<ref name="iodinevegansociety"/> in adults.
=====Vitamin B<sub>12</sub>=====
Deficiencies in [[Vitamin B12|Vitamin B{{ssub|12}}]], a [[bacteria]]l product that cannot be reliably found in plant foods,<ref name="healthyvegan"/><ref name="b12vegetariansociety">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegsoc.org/info/b12.html |title=Vitamin B12 Information Sheet |accessdate=2007-02-22 |publisher=[[Vegetarian Society]] |quote=any B12 present in plant foods is likely to be unavailable to humans and so these foods should not be relied upon as safe sources.}}</ref><ref name="b12vegansociety"/> can have serious health consequences, including anemia and [[neurodegenerative disease]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec12/ch154/ch154j.html |title=Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) |accessdate=2006-10-30 |work=Merck Manual Home Edition}}</ref> Although clinical B{{ssub|12}} deficiency is rare in vegans,<ref name="b12vegansociety"/> if a person has not eaten more than the daily needed amount of B<sub>12</sub> over a long period before becoming a vegan then they may not have built up any significant store of the vitamin.<ref name="B12mythveganhealth">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/b12/often |title=Vegan Health: Myth about How Often Someone Needs B12 |accessdate=2007-01-02|date=2005-07-22 |work=Vitamin B12: Are You Getting It? |author=Jack Norris, RD |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] }}</ref> In a 2002 laboratory study, more of the strict vegan participants' B{{ssub|12}} and iron levels were compromised than those of lacto- or lacto-ovo-vegetarian participants.<ref name="vegparameters">{{cite journal|author=Obeid R, Geisel J, Schorr H, Hubner U, Herrmann W.|title=The impact of vegetarianism on some haematological parameters|journal=Eur J Haematol. |year=2002|pages=275–9|volume=69|issue=5–6|pmid=12460231 | doi = 10.1034/j.1600-0609.2002.02798.x <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref>
The [[Vegan Society]] and [[Vegan Outreach]], and others, recommend that vegans either consistently eat foods fortified with B{{ssub|12}} or take a B{{ssub|12}} supplement.<ref name="vegansocietynutrition">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/nutrition/ |title=Healthy choices on a vegan diet |accessdate=2007-02-14 |publisher=[[Vegan Society]]}}</ref><ref name="b12vegetarianresourcegroup">{{cite web |url=http://www.vrg.org/nutrition/b12.htm |title=Vitamin B12 in the Vegan Diet |accessdate=2007-02-22 |author=Reed Mangels, Ph.D., R.D. |publisher=[http://www.vrg.org/ Vegetarian Resource Group] }}</ref><ref name="b12PCRM">{{cite web |url=http://www.pcrm.org/health/veginfo/b12.html |title=Don't Vegetarians Have Trouble Getting Enough Vitamin B12? |accessdate=2007-02-22 |publisher=[[Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine]] }}</ref> [[Tempeh]], [[seaweed]], [[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|spirulina]], [[Organic food|organic]] produce, soil on unwashed vegetables, and [[intestine|intestinal]] bacteria have not been shown to be reliable sources of B{{ssub|12}} for the dietary needs of vegans.<ref name="b12plantsources">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/b12/plant |title=Vegan Health: B12 in Tempeh, Seaweeds, Organic Produce, and Other Plant Foods |accessdate=2007-02-22 |author=Jack Norris, RD |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] }}</ref><ref name="b12intestine">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/b12/int |title=Vegan Health: Are Intestinal Bacteria a Reliable Source of B12? |accessdate=2007-02-22 |author=Jack Norris, RD |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] }}</ref><ref name="b12vegansociety"/>
=====Calcium & Vitamin D=====
It is recommended that vegans eat three servings per day of a high calcium food, such as fortified [[soy milk]], and take a calcium supplement as necessary.<ref name="calciumvitamindveganhealth"/><ref name="adajournal"/> The [[European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition|EPIC]]-[[University of Oxford|Oxford]] study showed that vegans have an increased risk of [[bone fracture]]s over both meat eaters and vegetarians, likely due to lower dietary [[calcium]] intake, but that vegans consuming more than the UK's estimated average requirements for calcium of 525 [[milligram|mg]]/day had risk of bone fractures similar to other groups.<ref name="ejcnveganfracture"/><ref name="oxfordbone">{{cite web |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17299475&query_hl=2&itool=pubmed_docsum |title=Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford. |accessdate=2007-06-17}}</ref>
The authors of [[The China Study]] argue that [[osteoporosis]] is linked to the consumption of animal protein because animal protein, unlike plant protein, increases the acidity of blood and tissues which is then neutralized by calcium pulled from the bones.<ref name="The China Study Part I p205">{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=T. Colin |title=The China Study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health |accessdate=2008-02-01 |date=2006 |publisher=Benbella Books |page=205 |isbn=1-932100-38-5}}</ref> The authors add that "in our rural China Study, where the animal to plant ratio [for protein] was about 10%, the fracture rate is only one-fifth that of the U.S."<ref name="The China Study Part I p208">{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=T. Colin |title=The China Study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health |accessdate=2008-02-01 |date=2006 |publisher=Benbella Books |page=208 |isbn=1-932100-38-5 }}</ref>
For light skinned people, adequate amounts of vitamin D may also be obtained by spending 15 to 30 minutes in the sunlight every few days. Dark skinned people need significantly more sunlight to obtain the same amount of vitamin D, and sunlight exposure may be difficult for vegans in areas with low levels of sunlight during winter; in these cases supplementation is recommended.<ref name="vitaminDvegansociety"/><ref name="nutritionvegetariansociety">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegsoc.org/info/vegan-nutrition.html#vitd |title=Information Sheet: Vegan Nutrition |accessdate=2007-02-22 |publisher=[[Vegetarian Society]] }}</ref><ref name="healthyvegan">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/health/stayinghealthy.html#vitamind |title=Staying a Healthy Vegan |accessdate=2007-02-22 |author=Jack Norris, RD |date=2003-04-18 |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] |quote=There are no reliable, unfortified plant sources of vitamin B12; therefore fortified foods and/or supplements are necessary for the optimal health of vegans.}}</ref> Certain mushrooms and some [[Vitamin D2]]-fortified foods (where the Vitamin D2 is derived from [[yeast]]) are the only food sources of Vitamin D suitable for vegans.<ref name="VitaminD">{{cite web | title = Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin D | url = http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind.asp | publisher = United States National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements | date = 2008-05-16 | accessdate = 2008-05-21 }}</ref>
=====Iodine=====
[[Iodine]] supplementation may be necessary for vegans in countries where salt is not typically [[Iodized salt|iodized]], where it is iodized at low levels, or where, as in [[Great Britain|Britain]] or [[Ireland]], animal products are used for iodine delivery.<ref name="vegansocietynutrition" /><ref name="iodineveganhealth"/> Iodine can be obtained from most vegan multivitamins or from regular consumption of [[kelp]].<ref name="vegansocietynutrition" /><ref name="iodineveganhealth"/>
====Pregnancies and children====
According to the US [[National Institute of Health]], "with appropriate food choices, vegan diets can be adequate for children at all ages."<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11424545&dopt=Abstract |title=Considerations in planning vegan diets: children. |last=Messina |first=V |coauthors=Mangels, AR |month=June |year=2001 |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=101 |issue=6 |pages=661–9 |pmid=11424545 |accessdate=2007-06-12 |doi=10.1016/S0002-8223(01)00167-5}}</ref> The American Dietetic Association also considers well-planned vegan diets "appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including [[pregnancy]] and [[Breastfeeding|lactation]],"<ref name="adajournal"/> but recommends that vegan mothers supplement for [[iron]], vitamin D, and [[Cyanocobalamin|vitamin B{{ssub|12}}]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_3773_ENU_HTML.htm |title=Nutrition and lifestyle for a healthy pregnancy outcome |publisher=[[American Dietetic Association]] |author=Lucia Lynn Kaiser |coauthors=Lindsay Allen |accessdate=2007-02-14 |date=2002-05-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/home_9812_ENU_HTML.htm |title=The Vegetarian Mom-to-Be |publisher=[[American Dietetic Association]] |author=ADA’s Public Relations Team |accessdate=2007-02-14 |date=2006-10-03}}</ref> Vitamin B{{ssub|12}} deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers has been linked to deficiencies and [[Neurology|neurological]] disorders in their children.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kuhne T, Bubl R, Baumgartner R |title=Maternal vegan diet causing a serious infantile neurological disorder due to vitamin B12 deficiency |journal=Eur J Pediatr |year=1991 |pages=205–8 |volume=150 |issue=3 |pmid=2044594 |doi=10.1007/BF01963568}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Weiss R, Fogelman Y, Bennett M |title=Severe vitamin B12 deficiency in an infant associated with a maternal deficiency and a strict vegetarian diet |journal=J Pediatr Hematol Oncol |year=2004 |pages=270–1 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pmid=15087959 | doi = 10.1097/00043426-200404000-00013 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref> Some research suggests that the essential [[omega-3 fatty acid]] [[Alpha-linolenic acid|α-linolenic acid]] and its derivatives should also be supplemented in pregnant and lactating vegan mothers, since they are very low in most vegan diets, and the metabolically related [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA) is essential to the developing [[visual system]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sanders TA |title=Essential fatty acid requirements of vegetarians in pregnancy, lactation, and infancy |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=70 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=555S–559S |year=1999 |pmid=10479231 |doi=}}</ref> A maternal vegan diet has also been associated with low birth weight,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sanders TA |title=The nutritional adequacy of plant-based diets |journal=The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=265–9 |year=1999 |pmid=10466165 |doi=}}</ref> and a five times lower likelihood of having [[twin]]s than those who eat animal products.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Steinman |first=G. |year=2006 |month=05 |title=Mechanisms of twinning: VII. Effect of diet and heredity on the human twinning rate. |journal=[[Journal of Reproductive Medicine]] |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=405–10 |pmid=16779988 |url=http://www.reproductivemedicine.com/online/2006/405.pdf |format=PDF, ''fee required'' |accessdate=2007-02-25 }}</ref>
Several cases of severe infant [[malnutrition]] and some fatalities have been associated with a poorly planned vegan diet,<ref>{{cite news |first=Greg |last=Retsinas |title= Couple Guilty Of Assault In Vegan Case |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9F0DE0D71438F936A35757C0A9659C8B63 |work= [[New York Times]]|publisher=[[Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr.]] |date= April 5, 2003|accessdate=2007-07-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |coauthors= [[Associated Press]] |title=Vegan Parents Get Prison In Infant's Death |url=http://www.theksbwchannel.com/news/13286030/detail.html |work=[[KSBW]] 8|publisher= |date= May 9, 2007 |accessdate=2007-07-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Susannah Nesmith |coauthors=David Kidwell |title=Parents jailed in baby's death |url=http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/local/6033947.htm |work=[[Miami Herald]] |publisher=Miami Herald Media Co. |date=2003-06-07 |accessdate=2007-09-17 |quote=A Miami-Dade medical examiner's office autopsy concluded Woyah died of ''severe malnutrition,'' according to an arrest report. |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20031217011036/http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/local/6033947.htm |archivedate=2003-12-17 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2094460/Couple-face-questioning-after-vegan-daughter-suffers-bone-disease.html Couple face questioning after vegan daughter suffers bone disease
By Rob Davies] 08/06/2008 [[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]</ref><ref name="Sick">[http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-wellbeing/healthy-living/how-our-vegan-diet-made-us-ill-848322.html How our vegan diet made us ill] By Natasha Mann, [[17 June]], [[2008]] - [[The Independent]]</ref> and provoked criticism of vegan diets for children.<ref>{{cite news |first=[[Nina Planck|Nina]] |last=[[Nina Planck|Planck]] |title=Death by Veganism |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/21/opinion/21planck.html?ex=1337400000&en=37878847a13bd4bc&ei=5090 |work=[[New York Times]] |publisher=[[Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr.]] |date=May 21, 2007 |accessdate=2007-07-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Emily |last=Nipps |title=Custody battle over quints questions vegan lifestyle |url=http://www.sptimes.com/2007/06/25/Hillsborough/Custody_battle_over_q.shtml |work=[[St. Petersburg Times]] |publisher= |date=June 25, 2007 |accessdate=2007-07-17 }}</ref> Parents involved in these cases were convicted on charges ranging from [[assault]] to [[felony murder]]. Addressing criticism of veganism, Dr. Amy Lanou, an [[expert witness]] for the prosecution in one of the cases, asserted that the child "was not killed by a vegan diet" but that "the real problem was that he was not given enough food of any sort."<ref>{{cite news |author=Amy Joy Lanou |title=Just the facts: A vegan diet is safe, healthy for infants |url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/editorial/outlook/4919336.html |work=Houston Chronicle |date=2007-06-25 |accessdate=2007-09-17 |quote= |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070630154243/http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/editorial/outlook/4919336.html |archivedate=2007-06-30 }}</ref> According to Nigel Denby, a dietician and author, it is easy for the body to absorb iron from animal based sources making a vegan diet for small children more difficult.
====Eating disorders====
The American Dietetic Association indicates that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders but that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, rather that "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder."<ref name="adajournal"/> Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.<ref>{{cite news |first=Katherine |last=Dedyna |title=Healthy lifestyle, or politically correct eating disorder? |url=http://compulsiveeating.com/pressrelease/PR_vegetarisnismeatingdisorders.htm |work=Victoria Times Colonist |publisher=CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. |date=2004-01-30 |accessdate=2006-10-30 |quote=Vesanto Melina, a B.C. registered dietitian and author of Becoming Vegetarian, stresses there is no cause and effect relationship between vegetarianism and eating disorders although people who have eating disorders may label themselves as vegetarians "so that they won't have to eat."}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=O'Connor MA, Touyz SW, Dunn SM, Beumont PJ | title=Vegetarianism in anorexia nervosa? A review of 116 consecutive cases | journal=Med J Aust | year=1987 | pages=540–2 | volume=147 | issue=11–12 | pmid=3696039 |quote=In only four (6.3%) of these did meat avoidance predate the onset of their anorexia nervosa.}}</ref><ref name="becomingvegan">{{cite book |last=Davis |first=Brenda |coauthors=Vesanto Melina |title=Becoming Vegan: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet |year=2002 |pages=224 |publisher=Healthy Living Publications |isbn=1-57067-103-6 }}</ref>.
==Resources and the environment==
[[Image:Feedlot-1.jpg|thumb|Cattle - especially when kept on enormous [[feedlot]]s such as this one - have been shown as a contributing factor in the rise in [[greenhouse gas]] emissions.]]
{{main|Environmental vegetarianism}}
People who adopt veganism for environmental reasons do so on the basis that veganism consumes far fewer resources and causes less environmental damage than an animal-based diet.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brown LR |title=World food resources and population: the narrowing margin |journal=Population bulletin |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=1–44 |year=1981 |pmid=12263473}}</ref><ref name="veganactionenvironment">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegan.org/about_veganism/environment.html |title=About Veganism: For the Environment |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[Vegan Action]] |quote=Animal agriculture takes a devastating toll on the earth. It is an inefficient way of producing food, since feed for farm animals requires land, water, fertilizer, and other resources that could otherwise have been used directly for producing human food. }}</ref><ref name="veganoutreachwhyenvironment">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/whyvegan/environment.html |title=Environmental Destruction |accessdate=2007-05-29 |work=Why Vegan? |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] }}</ref> Animal agriculture is linked to climate change, water pollution, land degradation, and a decline in biodiversity.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mosier AR, Duxbury JM, Freney JR, Heinemeyer O, Minami K and Johnson DE, |title=Mitigating Agricultural Emissions of Methane |journal=Climatic Change |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=39–80 |year=1998 |doi=10.1023/A:1005338731269}}</ref><ref name="veganoutreachwhyenvironment"/><ref name="petafactoryfarming">{{cite web |url=http://peta.org/mc/factsheet_display.asp?ID=103 |title=Factory Farming: Mechanized Madness |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]] |quote=Factory farms are harmful to the environment as well. Each day, factory farms produce billions of pounds of manure, which ends up in lakes, rivers, and drinking water. ... Of all the agricultural land in the U.S., 80 percent is used to raise animals for food and grow the grain to feed them—that’s almost half the total land mass of the lower 48 states. ... it takes more than 1,250 gallons of water to produce a pound of cow flesh, whereas it takes about 235 gallons of water to grow 1 pound of wheat. }}</ref> Additionally, an animal-based diet uses more land,<ref name="petafactoryfarming"/><ref name="vegansocietyland">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/environment/land/ |title=Environment: Land|accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[Vegan Society]] |quote=In all, the raising of livestock takes up more than two-thirds of agricultural land, and one third of the total land area. }}</ref> water,<ref name="vegansocietywater">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/environment/water/ |title=Environment: Water |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[Vegan Society]] |quote=If we put all of these figures together, we find that whilst wheat provides us with an average 27.5 kcal for each litre of water used, beef provides only 0.76 kcal per litre. This means that - based on the data presented to show that other figures were "overstated" - beef still requires 36 times as much water per calorie as wheat. }}</ref> and energy than a vegan diet.<ref name="petafactoryfarming"/><ref name="vegansocietyenergy">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/environment/energy/ |title=Environment: Energy |accessdate=2007-05-29 |publisher=[[Vegan Society]] |quote=A plant-based vegan diet uses substantially less energy than a diet based on animal products. This energy is virtually all derived from fossil fuels, making meat and dairy consumption a contributing factor in air pollution, acidification, oil spills, habitat destruction and global warming. }}</ref><ref name="veganoutreachresources">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/whyvegan/resources.html |title=Resources |accessdate=2007-05-29 |work=Why Vegan? |publisher=[[Vegan Outreach]] }}</ref>
[[Image:Pandua Cattle Market by Piyal Kundu.jpg|thumb|left|The growing demand for meat in [[developing countries]] may be aggravating climate change.{{Fact|date=July 2008}}]]
The Livestock, Environment And Development Initiative, a joint effort of the [[World Bank]], The [[European Union]], The US [[Agency for International Development]], the [[United Nations]] Food and Agriculture Organization and others, released a report in November 2006 linking animal agriculture to environmental damage. The report, [[Livestock's Long Shadow]] <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.htm |title=Livestock’s Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options|accessdate=2007-01-04}}</ref> concludes that the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases - responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO<sub>2</sub> equivalents. In comparison, the proportion of total CO<sub>2</sub> emissions by passenger vehicles is 12% of the total CO<sub>2</sub>.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/your-car/emissions.html Regulating car emissions: How tough will Canada be?]</ref> It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO<sub>2</sub>) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO<sub>2</sub>). Those numbers are confirmed in a 2007 article in the British medical journal [[The Lancet]], which concludes that reducing consumption of animal products should be a top priority, especially in developed countries where such a measure would also entail substantial health benefits.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/images/release_graphics/pdf/EH5.pdf|title=Food, Livestock Production, Energy, Climate Change, and Health.|accessdate=2008-05-18 |coauthors=A . McMichael , J . Powles , C . Butler , R . Uauy|date=[[2007-09-13]] |publisher=Elsevier}}</ref>
In the developing world, notably [[Asia]] and [[Africa]], fossil fuels are seldom used to transport feed for farm animals. [[Sheep]] or [[goats]], for example, require no fuel, since they graze on farmlands, while bales of [[hay]] for [[bovine]]s are still transported mainly using [[cart|bullock cart]]s or similar devices. Few of the meat processing techniques that occur in developed countries takes place in the majority of developing countries. Animals are also often herded to the place of slaughter (with the exception of poultry) resulting in a very low use of fossil fuels. <ref>[http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/x0262e/x0262e13.htm Food for all - World food summit - Agricultural machinery worldwide<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In fact farm animals in developing world are used for multiple purposes from providing draught power, to transportation while also serving as meat once it reaches the end of its economic life.
A 2006 study by Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, assistant professors of geophysics at the [[University of Chicago]], found that a person switching from the average American diet to a vegan diet would reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions by 1,485 [[Kilogram|kg]] per year.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Earth Interactions |title=Diet, Energy and Global Warming |author=Eshel, G., and P.A. Martin |year=2006 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1175/EI167.1 |url=http://geosci.uchicago.edu/~gidon/papers/nutri/nutri3.pdf |accessdate=2007-05-29 |format=PDF |quote=We conclude that a person consuming a mixed diet with the mean American caloric content and composition causes the emissions of 1,485 kg CO2-equivalent above the emissions associated with consuming the same number of calories, but from plant sources. Far from trivial, nationally this difference amounts to over 6% of the total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.}}</ref>
The [[International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis]] argues that while most meat production in industrialized countries uses inefficient grain feeding methods through [[intensive farming]], meat production is not invariably a poor use of land, especially in countries like [[China]] and [[Brazil]]. Since a proportion of all grain crops produced are not suitable for human consumption, they can be fed to animals to turn into meat, thus improving efficiency.<ref>[http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/choosing-feeds/dai232.htm NSW Department of Primary Industries - Feeding frosted cereal grain to ruminants]</ref><ref>[http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/ChinaFood/argu/impact/imp_21.htm How harmful is animal protein consumption for the environment?]</ref> Further, greenhouse gas emissions are not limited to animal husbandry; but also to several plant based sources such as rice cultivation.<ref>[http://www.ciesin.org/docs/004-032/004-032.html Methane Emission from Rice Fields - Wetland rice fields may make a major contribution to global warming by Heinz-Ulrich Neue]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4604332.stm Plants revealed as methane source By Tim Hirsch] [[11 January]], [[2006]] -[[BBC]]</ref>
A 2007 study which simulated various diets' land use for the geography of [[New York|New York State]] concluded that although vegetarian diets used the smallest amount of land per capita, a diet which included some meat and dairy—though significantly less than consumed by the average American—could support more people on the same available land, since animal food crops can be grown on lower quality land than crops for human consumption.<ref name="nydiet">{{cite journal |last=Peters |first=Christian J. |coauthors=Jennifer L. Wilkinsa and Gary W. Ficka |year=2007 |month= |title=Testing a complete-diet model for estimating the land resource requirements of food consumption and agricultural carrying capacity: The New York State example |journal=Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems |volume=22 |issue=02 |pages=145–153 |url=http://www.journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=1091328 |accessdate= 2008-02-07 |doi=10.1017/S1742170507001767 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |quote= }}</ref><ref name="nydietnews">{{cite news |first=Susan |last=Lang |title=Diet for small planet may be most efficient if it includes dairy and a little meat, Cornell researchers report |url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Oct07/diets.ag.footprint.sl.html |work=Cornell Chronicle Online |publisher=Cornell University |date=2007-10-04 |accessdate=2008-02-07 }}</ref>
==Similar diets and lifestyles==
[[Image:Shojin ryori ryuanji.jpg|right|thumb|Sample of vegan [[Buddhist cuisine]] from a [[Zen temple]] in Japan.]]
{{seealso|Vegetarianism and religion}}
Diets such as [[raw veganism]] and [[fruitarianism]] are related to veganism, but have significant differences from standard veganism. There are also numerous religious groups that regularly or occasionally practice a similar diet, including adherents to some [[Vegetarianism in Buddhism|Buddhist]] traditions,<ref>{{citation|title=Into the Jaws of Yama, Lord of Death: Buddhism, Bioethics, and Death |author= Karma Lekshe Tsomo|year= 2006|publisher=SUNY Press |id=ISBN 0791468313 |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?vid=ISBN0791468313&id=TvJjnIYXGzYC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&ots=15GajcCxBq&dq=vegan+buddhism&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html&sig=cp7z245xN5l6HxPrXzDsKi5fDxE}}</ref>
[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christians]],<ref name="orthodoxyveganism">{{cite web |url=http://www.abbamoses.com/fasting.html |title=The Fasting Rule of the Orthodox Church |work=God is Wonderful in His Saints: Orthodox Resources |accessdate=2007-11-15 |quote=Unless a fast-free period has been declared, Orthodox Christians are to keep a strict fast every Wednesday and Friday. The following foods are avoided: Meat, including poultry, and any meat products such as lard and meat broth. Fish (meaning fish with backbones; shellfish are permitted). Eggs and dairy products (milk, butter, cheese, etc.)}}</ref> [[Jainism|Jains]],<ref name="jainvegan">{{cite web |url=http://www.barcelona2004.org/eng/banco_del_conocimiento/documentos/ficha.cfm?idDoc=1241 |title=The role of religion in protecting the Earth (Jainism and the environment: precursors of modern ecology) |accessdate=2007-02-22 |date=2004 |work=Forum 2004: Parliament of the World's Religions |publisher=[[Universal Forum of Cultures]] |quote=Naresh Jain, Co-Chair of the Interfaith Committee of Jainism Associations in North America, said that the difference lies in Jainists’ strict approach to the vegetarian (or vegan) diet. “Jainism is the only religion that materialises the ideal of non-violence through the vegan diet” he said. }}</ref> [[Hinduism|Hindus]],<ref name="hinduvegans">{{cite web |url=http://www.youngindianvegetarians.co.uk/writings/veganism_and_hinduism.htm |title=Veganism and Hinduism |accessdate=2007-02-22 |author=Jyoti Mehta |publisher=The Young Indian Vegetarians }}</ref> [[Sikhism]], [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarians]],<ref name="rastavegan">{{cite journal |last=Campbell |first=M |coauthors=W S Lofters, W N Gibbs |year=1982 |month=12 |title=Rastafarianism and the vegans syndrome |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=285 |issue= |pages=1617–1618 |id=1617–1618 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1500778&blobtype=pdf |accessdate=2007-02-22 }}</ref> and [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]].<ref name="7thdayvegans">{{cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Gary |year=1999 |month=08 |title=Associations between diet and cancer, ischemic heart disease, and all-cause mortality in non-Hispanic white California Seventh-day Adventists |journal=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=70 |issue=3 |id=532S-538S |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/70/3/532S |accessdate=2007-02-22 |pmid=10479227 }}</ref>
==Cuisine==
[[Image:Raspberry-pear-tart-shortcrust.jpg|left|thumb|A vegan raspberry pear [[tart]].]]
{{see also|Vegetarian cuisine}}
:''Also see the [[b:Cookbook|Wikibooks Cookbook]] articles on [[b:Cookbook:Vegan cuisine|vegan cuisine]] and [[b:Cookbook:Vegan Substitutions|vegan substitutions]] and its listing of [[b:Category:Vegan recipes|vegan recipes]]. ''
The cuisines of most nations contain dishes suitable for a vegan diet, including ingredients such as [[tofu]], [[tempeh]] and the wheat product [[seitan]] in Asian diets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tofufest.org/tofuindex/tofufest/news_general/history_of_tofu/ |title=History of Tofu |accessdate=2007-02-18 |last=Shurtleff |first=William |publisher=LA Tofu Festival }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Leonard |coauthors=Aveline Kushi, and Barbara Jacobs |title=Cooking with Seitan: The Complete Vegetarian "Wheat-meat" Cookbook |year=1994 |publisher=Avery |pages=5–6 |isbn=978-0895295996 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tempeh.info/tempeh-history.php |title=History of Tempeh |accessdate=2007-02-18 |publisher=tempeh.info }}</ref><ref name="bbcveganprotein">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/vegetarian_and_vegan/veganproteins.shtml |title=Vegan proteins |accessdate=2007-02-23 |work=BBC Food |publisher=[[BBC]] }}</ref> Many recipes that traditionally contain animal products can be adapted by substituting plant-based ingredients. For example, nut, grain or [[soy milk]]s can be used to replace cow's milk<ref name="bbcveganprotein"/><ref name="ppkbaking">{{cite web |url=http://www.theppk.com/veganbaking.html |title=Baking without eggs, milk and buttah |accessdate=2007-02-23 |publisher= Post Punk Kitchen }}</ref> and eggs can be replaced by applesauce or commercial starch-based substitute products, depending upon the recipe.<ref name="bbcveganprotein"/><ref name="ppkbaking"/><ref name="flaxeggs">{{cite web |url=http://www.ochef.com/687.htm |title=Vegan Substitution for Egg Whites |accessdate=2007-02-23 |publisher=Food News Service |work=Ochef.com |quote=Q. What is a vegan substitute for egg whites? A. And the mystery ingredient is… flax seed. }}</ref> Additionally, artificial "meat" products ([[Meat analogue|"analogs" or "mock meats"]]) made from non-animal derived ingredients such as soy, [[gluten]], or [[mycoprotein]], including imitation [[Vegetarian sausage|sausages]], [[ground beef]], [[Veggie burger|burger]]s, and [[chicken nugget]]s are widely available.<ref name="bbcveganprotein"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bryannaclarkgrogan.com/page/page/628710.htm |title=Vegan Meat Analogs, Dairy Substitutes, and Egg Alternatives |accessdate=2007-02-23 |author=Bryanna Clark Grogan |work=Bryanna's Vegan Feast }}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Farm Sanctuary]]
* [[List of vegans]]
* [[Raw veganism]]
* [[Vegan Prisoners Support Group]] (VPSG)
==References==
{{reflist|3}}
==External links==
<!--WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A WEB DIRECTORY [[WP:ISNOT]]
Please do not add links to forums, vegan "communities", or recipe sites here. Keep this link listing focused on providing direct information ''about'' veganism.-->
{{Wikibookspar|Cookbook|Vegan cuisine}}
{{wikiquote}}
;Vegan Societies <!-- NATIONAL, ENGLISH language societies only, please -->
*[http://www.vegansociety.com/ The Vegan Society] (UK)
*[http://www.americanvegan.org/ American Vegan Society]
*[http://www.veganaustralia.net/ Vegan Society of Australia]
*[http://home.intekom.com/animals/orgs/visa/ Vegans in South Africa] (V.I.S.A.)
;General
*[http://www.veganoutreach.org/ Vegan Outreach], creators of the popular "Why Vegan?" pamphlet
*[http://www.vegan.org/ Vegan Action], administrators of vegan product certification in the US and Canada
*[http://www.peta.org/accidentallyVegan/default.asp I Can't Believe It's Vegan!], a list of vegan commercial food products
;Health/Nutrition
*[http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_933_ENU_HTML.htm American Dietetic Association position on vegetarian diet]
*[http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/governance_5105_ENU_HTML.htm American Dietetic Association: A new food guide for North American vegetarians]
*[http://www.pcrm.org/ Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine]
*[http://www.veganhealth.org/ Vegan Health], a project of Vegan Outreach
*[http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/nutrition/ Vegan nutrition], from the Vegan Society
*[http://www.vegetarian.org.uk/ The Vegetarian and Vegan Foundation]
;Ethical
*[http://www.mclveganway.org.uk/ Movement for Compassionate Living]
*[http://www.peta.org/ People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals] (PETA)
{{Vegetarianism|state=expanded}}
{{alib/end|state=collapsed}}
[[Category:Veganism|*]]
[[Category:Vegetarianism]]
[[Category:Animal rights]]
[[Category:Intentional living]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[Category:Diets]]
[[ast:Veganismu]]
[[ca:Veganisme]]
[[cs:Veganství]]
[[da:Veganisme]]
[[de:Veganismus]]
[[el:Αυστηρή χορτοφαγία]]
[[es:Veganismo]]
[[eo:Veganismo]]
[[fr:Végétalisme]]
[[id:Veganisme]]
[[it:Cucina vegana]]
[[he:טבעונות]]
[[lb:Veganismus]]
[[lt:Veganizmas]]
[[hu:Veganizmus]]
[[nl:Veganisme]]
[[no:Veganisme]]
[[pl:Weganizm]]
[[pt:Veganismo]]
[[ru:Веганизм]]
[[simple:Veganism]]
[[sk:Vegánstvo]]
[[fi:Veganismi]]
[[sv:Veganism]]
[[tr:Vegan]]
[[zh:純素食主義]]