Viceroy
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2008-07-15T04:37:37Z
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A '''viceroy''' is a royal official who governs a country or province in the name of and as representative of the [[monarch]]. The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the French word ''roi'', meaning king. His province or larger territory is called a '''viceroyalty'''. The relative adjective is '''viceregal'''. A '''vicereine''' is a woman in a viceregal position (rare, as it usually includes military high command), or a Viceroy's wife.
The etymological allusion to the royal [[Style (manner of address)|style]] makes it be perceived as higher than [[governor-general]] and [[lord lieutenant]], even when in some cases it is a synonym for that administrative rank, and not necessarily above several "provincial" (lieutenant-) governors.
In some cases, the title (and the office, unless the title is not permanently attached to the job) is reserved for members of the ruling dynasty. It was not uncommon for potential heirs to the throne to obtain such a post (or an equivalent one, without the viceregal style) as a test — and learning stage, not unlike the even loftier "associations to the throne", such as the Roman ''[[consortium imperii]] —'' or the [[Caesar (title)|Caesars]] in Emperor Diocletian's original [[Tetrarchy]].
== Spanish Empire ==
The title was originally used in the [[Aragonese Crown]] since 14th Century for [[Sardinia]] and [[Corsica]]. The absolutist Kings of [[Spain]] employed numerous Viceroys to rule over various parts of their vast empire "where the sun never set", both European and overseas.
In Europe, until the 18th century the Spanish crown appointed Viceroys of [[Aragon]], [[Valencia (autonomous community)|Valencia]], [[Catalonia]], [[Navarra]], [[Sardinia]], [[Sicily]], [[Naples]] and [[Portugal]] ([[1580]] – [[1640]])
See
*[[List of Spanish Viceroys of Aragon]]
*[[List of Spanish Viceroys of Valencia]]
*[[List of Spanish Viceroys of Catalonia]]
*[[List of Spanish Viceroys of Navarra]]
*[[List of Spanish Viceroys of Sardinia]]
*[[List of Spanish Viceroys of Sicily]]
*[[List of Spanish Viceroys of Naples]]
*[[List of Spanish Viceroys of Portugal]]
With the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]], the institution of viceroys was adapted to govern the highly populated and wealthy regions of [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|New Spain]] ([[Mexico]]) and [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Peru]]. The viceroys of these two areas had oversight over the other provinces, with most of the [[North America]]n, [[Central America]]n, [[Spanish West Indies|Caribbean]] and [[Spanish East Indies|Philippine]] areas overseen by the viceroy in [[Mexico City]] and the [[South America]]n ones by the viceroy in [[Lima]], (with the exception of most of today's [[Venezuela]], which was overseen by the Audiencia of [[Santo Domingo]] for most of the colonial period). These large administrative territories became known as ''Viceroyalties'' (Spanish term: ''virreinato''). There were only two [[New World]] viceroyalties until [[1717]], when the new [[Bourbon Reforms|Bourbon Dynasty]] established two additional viceroyalties to promote economic growth and new settlements. New viceroyalties were created for [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|New Granada]] in [[1717]] (capital, [[Bogotá]]) and [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|the Río de la Plata]] in [[1776]] (capital, [[Buenos Aires]]).
The viceroyalties of Spanish America were subdivided into smaller, automous units, the [[Audiencia]]s and the [[Captaincy|Captaincies General]], which in most cases became the bases for the independent countries of modern Spanish America. These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by a either a [[Corregidor (position)|corregidor]] (sometimes ''alcalde mayor'') or by a [[Cabildo (council)|cabildo]]. Audiencias were primarily the superior judicial tribunals, although these courts were granted by law extensive administrative and legislative powers. Captaincies General were primarily military districts set up in areas with a risk of foreign or [[Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas|Indian]] attack, but the captains general were usually given political powers over the provinces under their command. Because the long distances to the viceregal capital would hamper effective communication, both audiencias and captains general were authorized to communicate directly with the crown through the [[Council of the Indies]]. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new offiice of the [[Intendant|intendant]], which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues.
See also
*[[List of viceroys of New Spain|List of Viceroys of New Spain]]
*[[List of Viceroys of Peru]]
*[[List of Viceroys of New Granada]]
==British Empire and Commonwealth==
From 1858 (when the British crown took over the role of the [[British East India Company]], which had appointed governors-general since [[20 October]] [[1774]], and maintained its last incumbent) to 1947, the height of the [[British Raj]], the British colonial [[Governor]] of India was also known as the [[Viceroy of India]] (only the last incumbent was connected to royalty: [[21 February]] – [[15 August]] [[1947]] [[Louis Francis Mountbatten]], Earl Mountbatten of Burma).
The [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]] was also sometimes referred to as a British viceroy or in the Irish language ''Tánaiste-Ri'', literally 'deputy king'.
The title itself and the derived [[adjective]] "vice-regal" are used in some [[Commonwealth realms]] (in general technically incorrect, as formerly in British India) to refer to the function of the [[governor general]] (and in Canada, provincial [[lieutenant governor]]s, and in Australia, state [[Governors of the Australian states|governors]]) as representatives of [[the Crown]]. This usage may reflect the direct relationship between a governor general and the Crown and a governor general's exercise of all royal powers and functions under the [[Balfour Declaration of 1926]].
== Portuguese Empire ==
in Portuguese ''Vice-Rei'':
*[[Portuguese India]], with its seat in [[Goa]], started in 1505–1509 under Viceroy [[Francisco de Almeida]] (b.1450–d.1510). From 1505 on Viceroys, [[Governor-general|Governors(-general)]] and Governing Commissions were many times interleaved as the form of government until the last Viceroy Afonso Henriques, [[Duke of Porto|Duke of Oporto]] (b.1865-d.1920) in 1896. From 1896 until 1961 only Governors–general took place.
*[[Brazil]], [[13 July]] [[1714]]–[[16 December]] [[1815]]. From that date, the giant colony was the seat of the Portuguese royal Bragança dynasty in exile, until on [[7 September]] [[1822]] the royal Regent declared the independence of the now separated Kingdom of Brazil, proclaiming himself on [[12 October]] [[1822]] Emperor of Brazil ([[13 May]] [[1825]] recognized by Portugal). Allegedly there were once two viceroyalties in Brazil, including [[Grão Para]].
== Other colonial viceroyalties ==
*[[New France]], in present Canada, after a single Governor ([[24 July]] [[1534]]–[[15 January]] [[1541]] [[Jacques Cartier]]) had [[Lieutenant General of New France|Lieutenants-general]] and Viceroys [[15 January]] [[1541]]–September 1543 [[Jean-François de la Roque de Roberval|Jean François de la Rocquet, sieur de Robervalle]] (b. c.1500–d. 1560), after September 1543–[[3 January]] [[1578]] Abandonment again [[3 January]] [[1578]]–February 1606 Troilus de Mesgouez, marquis de la Roche-Mesgouez (d. 1606) (viceroy and from [[12 January]] [[1598]], lieutenant-general), February 1606–1614 [[Jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt et de Saint-Just|Jean de Biencourt, sieur de Poutrincourt, baron de St. Just]] (b. 1557–d. 1615); next a series of ''Viceroys'' (resident in France) [[8 October]] [[1611]]–1672, later Governors and Governors-general.
*in Italian ''Viceré'': The highest colonial representatives in the "federation" of [[Italian East Africa]] (six provinces, each under a governor; together [[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]] and [[Italian Somaliland]]) were no longer styled "High Commissioner", but "Viceroy and Governor-general" from [[5 May]] [[1936]], when [[fascist]] forces temporarily occupied [[Ethiopia]], until [[27 November]] [[1941]], when the last Italian administrator surrendered to the Allies. The Italian King [[Victor Emmanuel]] claimed the title of "[[Emperor of Ethiopia]]" (Nəgusä nägäst, "King of Kings") and declared himself to be a successor to the [[Nəgusä nägäst]]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, even though [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Emperor Haile Selassie I]] continued to hold this title while in exile, and resumed his actual, physical throne on [[5 May]] [[1941]].
== Other Domestic Viceroys, including personal unions ==
*During the rule of the House of Hanover in Britain, the German principality of Hanover was run by a group of ministers. However, the collapse of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] meant that Hanover was incorporated into the [[British Empire]]. During the [[English Regency|Regency of George, Prince of Wales]], and the reigns of [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]] and [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]], their younger brother [[Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge|Adolphus]] was Viceroy (1814–1837). Hanover left the Empire in 1837 and became independent under another brother, [[Ernest Augustus I of Hanover|Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland]]. [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], as a woman, could not inherit Hanover.
*[[Corsica]] had one, 1406–c.1420: Vincentello d'Istria, Count and Viceroy (nominally for Aragon).
*Napoleon I Bonaparte created his adoptive stepson, [[Eugène de Beauharnais]], ''Viceroi d'Italie'' in his kingdom of Italy (in personal union with his French Empire), and the same Prince later [[Prince of Venice]], i.e. heir apparent to that royal crown, while excluded from the French imperial throne which was reserved for his son by the empress, a born Habsburg archduchess).
*The [[Congress of Vienna]] combined the territories of Lombardy and Venetia into the [[Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia|Kingdom of Lombardy and Venetia]], under the [[Austrian Habsburgs]]. The [[king]] was the Austrian Emperor, locally represented by a [[viceroy]]: Francis Joseph ruled over the Kingdom but his younger brother [[Maximilian I of Mexico|Maximilian]], who later became [[Emperor of Mexico]], served as his [[viceroy]] in [[Milan]] (1857-1859).
*[[Viceroy of Norway]], during the [[Union between Sweden and Norway]].
*under the Romanov Emperors of [[Russia]]:
**[[Poland]], while in personal union under the Emperors of Russia as Kings (styled Tsar; [[20 June]] [[1815]]–[[5 November]] [[1916]]), had only one Viceroy, [[9 December]] [[1815]]–[[1 December]] [[1830]]: [[Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia|Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich Romanov]] (b. 1779–d. 1831)
**[[Transcaucasia]] (Armenia, Azerbaidjan and Georgia; first under Governors in Tiblisi 1802–1844) had Viceroys of Transcaucasia:
***1845–1853: [[Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov|Mikhail Semyonovich Prince Vorontsov]] (b. 1782–d. 1856).
***1853–1854: Nikolay Andreyevich Read (acting) (b. 1792–d. 1855);
***1854–1856: Nikolay Nikolayevich Muravyev (b. 1794–d. 1866);
***1856–1862: Prince [[Aleksandr Baryatinskiy|Aleksandr Ivanovich Baryatinsky]] (b. 1814–d. 1879);
***1862–1881: Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolayevich Romanov (b. 1832–d. 1909); next a series of Chief Heads of the Civil Administration of the Caucasus, including several imperial princes, 1882–1905, then again Viceroys:
***1905–1915: Count Illaryon Ivanovich, Vorontsov-Dashkov (b. 1837–d. 1916);
***1915–February 1917: Grand Duke Nikolay Nikolayevich Romanov (b. 1837–d. 1929).
*The American leader of [[Coalition Provisional Authority]] after the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], was referred to by [[Time Magazine]]<ref>http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,658147,00.html</ref> and the [[Washington Post]]<ref> http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/19/AR2006011902695_pf.html</ref>as a "[[viceroy]]."
==In fiction==
*[[Nute Gunray]]: A viceroy in the ''[[Star Wars]]'' universe.
*[[Bail Organa]]: Viceroy of [[Alderaan]] in the ''Star Wars'' universe.
*[[Reman]] Viceroy: Praetor [[Shinzon]]'s henchman in ''[[Star Trek Nemesis]]''.
*[[Roodaka]]: An evil viceroy and queen of the [[Visorak]] in the [[Bionicle]] franchise.
*Viceroy of Area 11 (Japan) in [[Code Geass|Code Geass: Lelouch of the Rebellion]]
**[[Clovis La Britannia]]
**[[Cornelia Li Britannia]]
**[[List of Code Geass characters#Area 11 governmental officials|Carares]]
**[[Nunnally Lamperouge|Nunnally Vi Britannia]]
==Non-Western counterparts==
As many princely and administrative titles, viceroy is often used, generally unofficially, to render somewhat equivalent titles and offices in non-western cultures.
===Ottoman empire===
*The [[khedive]] of Egypt, especially with the dynasty initiated by [[Muhammad Ali Pasha]] (1805-1848). This officer established an almost autonomous regime in Egypt, which officially still was under Ottoman rule. Although Mehemet Ali/Muhammad Ali used different symbols to mark his independence from the [[Sublime Porte]], he never openly declared himself independent. Adopting the title of viceroy was yet another way to walk the thin line between challenging the Sultan's power explicitly and respecting his jurisdiction. Muhammad Ali Pasha's son, [[Ismail Pasha]], subsequently received the title of [[Khedive]] which was almost an equivalent to viceroy.
===China===
In [[imperial China]], ''viceroy'' was the English translation of the title "general supervisor-protector" ([[Zongdu|Zǒngdū]] 總督), otherwise translated as the ''Governor General'', who were heading large administrative divisions, directly under the [[imperial court]]. These divisions are usually two or three provinces. The regions included [[Zhili]], [[Huguang]], Liangjiang, [[Liangguang]], Shangan, Minzhe, Yungui and Sichuan. [[Li Hongzhang]] was viceroy of Huguang from 1867 to 1870, and [[Yuan Shikai]] was once [[Viceroy of Chihli|Viceroy of Zhili]].
===Sri Lankan and Southeast Asian tradition===
*[[Uparaja]], variations and compounds such as Maha Uparaja
==Sources and references==
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen — click each present country]
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[[Category:Gubernatorial titles]]
[[Category:Noble titles]]
[[Category:Spanish colonization of the Americas]]
[[Category:Spanish colonial period in the Philippines]]
[[Category:Viceroys|*]]
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[[fr:Vice-roi]]
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