Viceroyalty of New Spain 64485 226087147 2008-07-16T19:41:16Z RussBot 279219 Robot-assisted fix [[WP:DPL|links to disambiguation page]] Liberal {{Refimprove|date=July 2007}} {{Infobox Former Country |native_name = ''Virreinato de Nueva España'' |conventional_long_name = Viceroyalty of New Spain |common_name = Spain |ag |continent = North America |region = |country = Mexico |era = |status = |status_text= Flag of New Spain.svg |empire = Spain |government_type = Monarchy | |event_start = [[Spanish Conquest of Mexico]] |year_start = 1519 |date_start = |event_end = [[Mexican War of Independence|Consummation of Mexican Independence]], [[History of Central America|Central American Independence]] |year_end = 1821 |date_end = | |event1 = Establishments |date_event1 = 1535 |event2 = [[Grito de Dolores]] |date_event2 = 1810 |event3 = |date_event3 = |s1 = Federal Republic of Central America |flag_s1 = Flag_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Central_America.svg‎ |s2 = Jamaica |flag_s2 = Flag of England.svg |s3 = Saint-Domingue |flag_s3 = Pavillon_royal_de_France.svg |s4 = Louisiana (New France) |flag_s4 = Flag of France.svg |s5 = West Florida |flag_s5 = Bonnieblue.svg |s6 = Florida Territory |flag_s6 = US flag 20 stars.svg |s7 = First Mexican Empire |flag_s7 = Flag of Mexico 1821.png |s8 = Spanish West Indies |flag_s8 = Flag_of_Spain_%281785-1873_and_1875-1931%29.svg | |flag = |flag_type = |image_flag = Flag of New Spain.svg |symbol = |symbol_type = |image_coat = |image_map = Territories_of_the_Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain.png |image_map_caption = A map of the former territories of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. |capital = [[Mexico City]] |national_motto = |national_anthem = |common_languages = Official: [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (''[[de facto]]''), [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]] (''[[de facto]]''); common: [[Mayan languages]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] |religion = [[Roman Catholicism]] |currency = [[Mexican peso|Peso]] | |<!--- Titles and names of the first and last leaders and their deputies ---> |leader1 = [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I]] |year_leader1 = 1535-1556 |leader2 = [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]] |year_leader2 = 1813-1821 |title_leader = [[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]] |deputy1 = [[Antonio de Mendoza]] |year_deputy1 = 1535-1550 |deputy2 = [[Juan O'Donojú]] |year_deputy2 = 1821-1821 |title_deputy = [[List of Viceroys of New Spain|Viceroy]] |legislature = | |<!--- Area and population of a given year ---> |stat_year1 = 1519 |stat_area1 = |stat_pop1 = 20 million |stat_year2 = 1810 |stat_pop2 = 5 to 6.5 million |political_subdiv= |footnotes = }} The '''Viceroyalty of New Spain''' ({{lang-es|Virreinato de Nueva España}}) was the name given to the [[viceroy]]-ruled territories of the [[Spanish Empire]] in [[North America]], [[Central America]], the [[Caribbean]] and the [[Asia-Pacific]] region. It was also one of the four viceroyalties that [[Spain]] created to govern its conquered lands in the [[New World]]. The majority of the dependencies of New Spain were in what was known then as ''América Septentrional'' (roughly, [[Northern America (disambiguation)|Northern America]]) <ref>[http://www1.lanic.utexas.edu/project/tavera/espana/historia/munoz.html LANIC: Colección Juan Bautista Muñoz. Archivo de la Real Academia de la Historia - España. (in Spanish)]</ref><ref>[http://international.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?intldl/esbib:@OR(@field(DOCID+@lit(ascesp000008))) Selections from the National Library of Spain: ''Conquista del Reino de Nueva Galicia en la América Septrentrional…, Texas, Sonora, Sinaloa, con noticias de la California''. (Conquest of the Kingdom of New Galicia in North America..., Texas, Sonora, Sinaloa, with news of California). (in Spanish)]</ref><ref>[http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/76823718619021992919946/p0000001.htm#I_4_ Cervantes Virtual: Historia de la conquista de México (in Spanish)]</ref><ref>[http://worldcat.org/wcpa/ow/7ac9dd70d045f27a.html Worldcat: Historia de la conquista de México, poblacion y progresos de la América Septentrional, conocida por el nombre de Nueva España (in Spanish)]</ref>. In 1821, [[Mexican War of Independence|Mexico]] and Central America achieved their independence after over 300 years of Spanish Rule. However, the most of the Spanish Caribbean—[[Cuba]] and [[Puerto Rico]]—and the [[Spanish East Indies]] (including the [[Philippines]] and the [[Mariana Islands]]) remained a part of the Spanish crown until the [[Spanish-American War|Spanish–American War]] in 1898. == History == [[Image:Flag of New Spain.svg|thumb|left|200px|During the Spanish colonization of the Americas and Asia-Pacific, the [[Cross of Burgundy Flag|Cross of Burgundy]] served as the flag of the Viceroyalties of New Spain.]] === Exploration and Settlement (1519–1643) === After the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire]] between 1519 to 1521, the [[Council of the Indies]] was formed in 1524 and the first, mainland [[Audiencia]] was created in 1527 in order to encourage further exploration and settlements of New Spain. In 1535, the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V of Spain]] named [[Antonio de Mendoza]] as the first viceroy of New Spain. (An earlier Audiencia had been established in [[Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo|Santo Domingo]] in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements.) Mendoza encouraged the exploration of Spain's new territories, as he commissioned the expeditions of [[Francisco Vásquez de Coronado]] into the American Southwest in 1540-1542, [[Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo]] along the western coast of [[Alta California]] in 1542 to 1543, and [[Ruy López de Villalobos]] to the Philippine Islands in 1542 to 1543. During the 16th century, many Spanish cities were established in North and Central America. [[Spain]] attempted to establish missions in what is now the United States including [[Spanish missions in Georgia|the mission to Georgia]] and [[Spanish missions in the Carolinas|South Carolina]] between 1568 to 1587. Despite the effort, the Spaniards were only successful in what is now the region of Florida, where they founded [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]] in 1565. Seeking to develop trade between the [[East Indies]] and the [[Americas]] across the Pacific Ocean, [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] established the first Spanish settlement in the Philippine Islands in 1565, which became the town of [[San Miguel, Cebu|San Miguel]]. [[Andrés de Urdaneta]] discovered an efficient sailing route from the Philippine Islands returning to Mexico. In 1570, the native city of [[Manila]] was conquered and trade soon began in the [[Manila galleon|Manila-Acapulco Galleons]]. The Manila-Acapulco galleons shipped products gathered from both Asia-Pacific and the Americas, such as silk, spice, silver, gold, slaves, and other Asian and Pacific products between Asia and the Americas. Products brought from Asia-Pacific were sent to [[Veracruz]] and shipped to Spain and, via trading, to the rest of Europe. There were attacks on these shipments in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] by British and Dutch pirates or privateers led by [[Francis Drake]] in 1586 and [[Thomas Cavendish]] in 1587. In addition, the cities of [[Huatulco]] (Oaxaca) and [[Barra de Navidad]] in [[Jalisco]] were sacked. [[Lope Díez de Armendáriz, marqués de Cadereyta|Lope Díez de Armendáriz]], the first American-born viceroy of New Spain, formed the ''Armada de Barlovento'', based in Veracruz, to patrol the coastal regions and protect the forts and the trade organization from [[piracy|pirates]] and [[privateers]]. In 1591, [[Luis de Velasco, marqués de Salinas|Luis de Velasco]] pacified many of the semi-nomadic [[Chichimeca]] tribes of northern Mexico. In 1598, [[Juan de Oñate]] founded the [[San Juan, New Mexico|San Juan]] colony on the [[Rio Grande]] and pioneered the grandly named [[El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro]]. The Native Americans at [[Acoma Pueblo|Acoma]] revolted against this Spanish encroachment and faced severe suppression. In 1602, [[Sebastián Vizcaíno]] sailed as far north as [[Monterey Bay]], [[Alta California]]. In 1609, [[Pedro de Peralta]], a later [[Spanish governors of New Mexico|governor of the Province of New Mexico]], established the settlement of [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] at the region of the [[Sangre de Cristo Mountains]]. === The last Spanish [[Habsburgs]] (1643–1713) === {{Unreferencedsection|date=November 2007}} The ''[[presidio]]s'' (military towns), ''[[pueblo]]s'' (civilian towns) and the ''[[List of Spanish missions|misiones]]'' (missions) were the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown to extend its borders and consolidate its [[colonial]] territories in these territories. The U.S. (modern day [[New Mexico]]) town of [[Albuquerque|Alburquerque]] was founded in 1660, the Mexican towns of Paso del Norte (now known as [[Ciudad Juárez]]) was founded in 1667, Santiago de la [[Monclova]] in 1689, Panzacola, Texas in 1681 or San Francisco de Cuéllar (now the city of [[Chihuahua]]) in 1709. From 1687, [[Father Kino|Father Eusebio Francisco Kino]] founded over twenty [[Spanish missions in the Sonoran Desert|missions]] in the areas between the [[Mexico|Mexican]] state of [[Sonora]] and the state of [[Arizona]] in the [[United States]]. From 1697, Jesuits established other 18 [[Spanish missions in California#Missions in present&ndash;day Baja California (Mexico)|missions throughout the Baja California Peninsula]]. In 1668 Padre [[Diego Luis de San Vitores|San Vitores]] established the first mission in the [[Mariana Islands]] (now [[Guam]]). Between 1687 and 1700 several [[Spanish missions in Trinidad|Missions were founded in Trinidad]], but only four survived as Amerindian villages throughout the eighteenth century. In 1691, explorers and [[missionary|missionaries]] visited the interior of [[Texas]] and came upon a river and Amerindian settlement on June 13, the feast day of [[Anthony of Padua|St. Anthony]], and named the location and river "[[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]]" in his honor. Immersed in a low intensity war with Great Britain (mostly over the Spanish ports and trade routes harassed by British pirates), the defenses of [[Veracruz]] and [[San Juan de Ulúa]], Jamaica, Cuba and Florida were strengthened. [[Santiago de Cuba]] (1662), [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]] [[Spanish Florida]] (1665) or Campeche 1678 were sacked by the British. The [[Tarahumara]] Indians were in revolt in the mountains of [[Chihuahua]] for several years. In 1670 [[Chichimeca]]s invaded [[Durango]], and the governor, Francisco González, abandoned its defense. In 1680, 25,000 previously subjugated Indians in 24 pueblos of [[New Mexico]] rose against the Spanish and killed all the Europeans they encountered. In 1685, after a revolt of the [[Chamorros]], the Marianas islands were incorporated to the New Spain. In 1695, this time with the British help, the viceroy [[Gaspar de la Cerda Sandoval Silva y Mendoza, 8th conde de Gelves|Gaspar de la Cerda]] attacked the French who had established a base on the island of [[Española]]. Early in the [[Queen Anne's War]], in 1702, the English captured and burned Spanish-held [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]], [[Florida]]. However, the English were unable to take the main fortress of St. Augustine, resulting in the campaign being condemned by the English as a failure. The Spanish maintained St. Augustine and [[Pensacola]] for more than a century after the war, but their mission system in Florida was destroyed and the [[Apalachee]] were decimated in what became known as the [[Apalachee Massacre]] of 1704. In 1704 the viceroy [[Francisco Fernández de la Cueva Enríquez, 10th Duke of Alburquerque|Francisco Fernández de la Cueva]] suppressed a rebellion of the [[Pima]] Indians in [[Nueva Vizcaya, New Spain|Nueva Vizcaya]]. [[Diego Osorio de Escobar y Llamas]] reformed the postal service and the marketing of mercury. In 1701 the Tribunal de la Acordada (literally, ''Court of Agreement''), an organization of volunteers intended to capture and quickly try bandits, was founded. The church of [[Virgin of Guadalupe]], patron of Mexico, was finished in 1702. ===The Bourbon Reforms (1713–1806)=== {{Unreferencedsection|date=November 2007}} {{main article|Bourbon Reforms}} Unlike in the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], the new Bourbon kings did not split the New Spanish viceroyalty into smaller ones. The prime innovation was the introduction of [[Intendant|intendancies]], and institution borrowed from France. They were first introduced on a large scale in New Spain, by the minister of the Indies, [[José de Gálvez]], in the 1780s, who originally envisioned that they would replace the viceregal system all together. With broad powers over tax collection and the public treasury and with a mandate to help foster economic growth over their districts, intendants encroached on the traditional powers of viceroys, governors and local officials, such as the ''corregidores'', which were phased out as intendancies were established. The Crown saw the intendants as a check on these other officers. Over time accommodations were made. For example, after a period of experimentation in which an independent intendant was assigned to Mexico City, the office was thereafter given to the same person who simultaneously held the post of viceroy. Nevertheless, the creation of scores of autonomous intendancies throughout the Viceroyalty, created a great deal of decentralization, and in the [[Captaincy General of Guatemala]], in particular, the intendancy laid the groundwork for the future independent nations of the 19th century. The focus on the economy (and the revenues it provided to the royal coffers) was also extended to society at large. Economic associations were promoted, such as the [[Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País|Economic Society of Friends of the Country]] Governor-General [[José Basco y Vargas]] established in the Philippines in [[1781]]. Similar "Friends of the Country" economic societies were established throughout the Spanish world, including Cuba and Guatemala.<ref>Shafer, Robert J. ''The Economic Societies in the Spanish World, 1763-1821''. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1958.</ref> A secondary feature of the Bourbon Reforms was that it was an attempt to end the significant amount of local control that had crept into the bureaucracy under the Habsburgs, especially through the sale of offices. The Bourbons sought a return to the monarchical ideal of having "outsiders," who in theory should be disinterested, staff the higher echelons of regional government. In practice this meant that there was a concerted effort to appoint mostly ''[[peninsulares]]'', usually military men with long records of service (as opposed to the Habsburg preference for prelates), who were willing to move around the global empire. The intendancies were one new office that could be staffed with ''peninsulares'', but throughout the 18th century significant gains were made in the numbers of governors-captain generals, ''audiencia'' judges and bishops, in addition to other posts, who were Spanish-born. ====18th Century Military Conflicts==== {{Unreferencedsection|date=November 2007}} {{see also|Louisiana (New Spain)}} The the first century that saw the Bourbons on the Spanish throne coincided with series of [[Second Hundred Years' War|global conflicts]] that pitted primarily France against Great Britain. Spain as an ally of Bourbon France was drawn into these conflicts. In fact part of the motivation for the Bourbon Reforms was the perceived need to prepare the empire administratively, economically and militarily for what was the next expected war. The Seven Years' War proved to be catalyst for most of the reforms in the overseas possessions, just like the War of the Spanish Succession had been for the reforms on the Peninsula. In 1720, the [[Villasur expedition]] from [[Province of New Mexico, Mexico|Santa Fe]] met and attempted to parley with [[French colonization of the Americas|French]]- allied [[Pawnee]] in what is now [[Nebraska]]. Negotiations were unsuccessful, and a battle ensued; the Spanish were badly defeated, with only 13 managing to return to New Mexico. Although this was a small engagement, it is significant in that it was the deepest penetration of the Spanish into the [[Great Plains]], establishing the limit to Spanish expansion and influence there. The [[War of Jenkins' Ear|War of Jenkins’s Ear]] broke out in 1739 between the Spanish and British and was confined to the [[Caribbean]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. The major action in the War of Jenkins' Ear was a major amphibious attack launched by the British under Admiral Edward Vernon in March, 1741 against [[Battle of Cartagena de Indias|Cartagena de Indias]], one of Spain's major gold-trading ports in the [[Caribbean]] (today [[Colombia]]). Although this episode is largely forgotten, it ended in a decisive victory for Spain, who managed to prolong its control of the Caribbean and indeed secure the [[Spanish Main]] until the 19th century. Following the [[French and Indian War]]/[[Seven Years War]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] troops invaded and captured the Spanish cities of [[Havana]] in [[Cuba]] and [[Manila]] in the Philippines in 1762. The [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]] gave Spain control over the [[New France]] [[Louisiana Territory]] including [[New Orleans, Louisiana]] creating a Spanish empire that stretched from the [[Mississippi River]] to the Pacific Ocean, but Spain also ceded Florida to Great Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war. Louisiana settlers, hoping to restore the territory to France, in the bloodless [[Rebellion of 1768]] forced the [[Louisiana Governor]] [[Antonio de Ulloa]] to flee to Spain. The rebellion was crushed in 1769 by the next governor [[Alejandro O'Reilly]] who executed five of the conspirators. The Louisiana territory was to be administered by superiors in Cuba with a governor onsite in New Orleans. The 21 northern [[Spanish missions in California#Missions in present&ndash;day Alta California (U.S.)|Missions in present–day Alta California (U.S.)]] were established along California's [[El Camino Real (California)|El Camino Real]] from 1769. In an effort to exclude [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] and [[Russia]] from the eastern [[Pacific]], King [[Charles III of Spain]] sent forth from [[Mexico]] a number of [[Attempted Spanish colonization of Alaska|expeditions to explore the Pacific Northwest between 1774 and 1791]]. [[Image:Spanish troops at Pensacola.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A Spanish army defeats British soldiers in the [[Battle of Pensacola (1781)|Battle of Pensacola]] in 1781. In 1783 the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] returns all of [[Florida]] to Spain for the return of the [[Bahamas]].]] Spain entered the [[American Revolutionary War]] as an ally of France in June 1779, a renewal of the [[Bourbon Family Compact]]. In 1781, a Spanish expedition during the [[American Revolutionary War]] left [[St. Louis, Missouri]] (then under Spanish control) and reached as far as [[Fort St. Joseph (Niles)|Fort St. Joseph]] at [[Niles, Michigan]] where they captured the fort while the British were away. On [[May 8]], [[1782]], Count [[Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez|Bernardo de Gálvez]], the Spanish governor of [[Louisiana]], captured the British naval base at [[New Providence]] in [[the Bahamas]]. On the [[Gulf Coast]], the actions of Gálvez led to Spain acquiring [[East Florida|East]] and [[West Florida]] in the peace settlement, as well as controlling the mouth of the Mississippi River after the war&mdash;which would prove to be a major source of tension between Spain and the United States in the years to come. [[Image:frank bond 1912 louisiana and the louisiana purchase.jpg|right|thumb|350px|From Frank Bond, "Louisiana" and the Louisiana Purchase. <br>Government Printing Office, 1912 Map No. 4.]] In the second [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]], which ended the American Revolution, Britain ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain The Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. Spain then had control over the river south of 32°30' north latitude, and, in what is known as the [[Spanish Conspiracy]], hoped to gain greater control of Louisiana and all of the west. These hopes ended when Spain was pressured into signing [[Pinckney's Treaty]] in 1795. France reacquired 'Louisiana' from Spain in the secret [[Third Treaty of San Ildefonso|Treaty of San Ildefonso]] in 1800. The United States bought the territory from France in the [[Louisiana Purchase]] of 1803. The [[Nootka Convention]] (1791) resolved the dispute between Spain and Great Britain about the British settlements in Oregon to British Columbia. === End of the Viceroyalty (1806-1821)=== Spanish Florida would ultimately be acquired by the United States in 1819 under the [[Adams-Onís Treaty]]. After priest [[Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla]]'s [[Grito de Dolores]] (call for independence), the insurgent army began an eleven-year war that would culminate in triumph by the Mexicans, who then offered the crown of the new [[Mexican Empire]] to [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]] or to a member of the nobility that he would designate. After the refusal of the Spanish monarchy to recognize the independence of Mexico the ''{{lang|es|ej&eacute;rcito Trigarante}}'' ([[Army of the Three Guarantees]]) cut all political and economic ties with the Kingdom of Spain. However, Cuba, the Philippine Islands, Guam and Puerto Rico remained a part of the Spanish empire until the [[Spanish-American War|Spanish–American War]] in 1898. == Politics == The Viceroyalty of New Spain united many regions and provinces of the Spanish Empire throughout half a world. These included on the North American mainland, New Spain proper (central Mexico), [[Nueva Extremadura]], [[Nueva Galicia]], [[Nueva Vizcaya, New Spain|Nueva Vizcaya]] and [[Nuevo Santander]], as well as the [[Captaincy General of Guatemala]]. In the Caribbean it included Cuba, [[Colony of Santo Domingo|Santo Domingo]], most of the [[Venezuela|Venezuelan mainland]] and the other islands in the Caribbean controlled by the Spanish. In Asia and the Pacific the Viceroyalty included the [[Spanish East Indies|Captaincy General of the Philippines]], which covered all of the Spanish possessions in the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, the Viceroyalty's former territories included what is now the present day countries of [[Mexico]], [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Belize]], [[Costa Rica]]; the United States regions of [[California]], [[Texas]], [[New Mexico]], [[Arizona]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], [[Wyoming]], [[Florida]]; the Caribbean nations of [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]], the [[Dominican Republic]], the island of [[Hispaniola]], [[Jamaica]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]]; the Asia-Pacific nations of the [[Philippines|Philippine Islands]], [[Guam]], [[Mariana Islands]], [[Palau]] and [[Caroline Islands]]. The Viceroyalty was ruled by a [[Mexico City]]-based [[viceroy]] appointed by the [[Spanish monarchy|Spanish monarch]], who had administrative oversight of all of these regions, although most matters were handled by the local governmental bodies into which the viceroyalty was further divided. First among these were the ''[[audiencia]]s'', which were primarily superior tribunals, but which also had administrative and legislative functions. Each of these was responsible to the Viceroy of New Spain in administrative matters (though not in judicial ones). ''Audiencia'' districts further incorporated the older, smaller divisions known as "governorships" (''gobernaciones'', roughly equivalent to [[provinces]]) headed by a governor. ''(See, [[Adelantado]].)'' Provinces, which were under military threat, were grouped into [[Captaincy|captaincies general]], such as the Captaincies General of Guatemala (established in [[1609]]) and of the Philippines (established [[1574]]) mentioned above, and which were joint military and political commands with a certain level of autonomy. (The viceroy was captain-general of those provinces, which remained directly under his command). At the local level there were over two hundred districts, in both Indian and Spanish areas, which were headed by either a ''[[Corregidor (position)|corregidor]]'' (also known as an ''alcalde mayor'') or a ''[[Cabildo (council)|cabildo]]'' (town council), both of which had judicial and administrative powers. In the late 18th century the Bourbon dynasty began phasing out the ''corregidores'' and introduced [[intendant]]s, whose broad fiscal powers cut into the authority of the viceroys, governors and ''cabildos''. The intendancies had such an impact in the formation of regional identity that they became the basis for the nations of Central America and the first Mexican states after independence. === Audiencias === With dates of creation: '''1.''' [[Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo|Santo Domingo]] ([[1511]], effective [[1526]], predated the Viceroyalty)<br> '''2.''' [[Real Audiencia of Mexico|Mexico]] ([[1527]], predated the Viceroyalty)<br> '''3.''' [[Real Audiencia of Panama|Panama]] (1st one, [[1538]] - [[1543]])<br> '''4.''' [[Real Audiencia of Guatemala|Guatemala]] ([[1543]])<br> '''5.''' [[Real Audiencia of Guadalajara|Guadalajara]] ([[1548]])<br> '''6.''' [[Real Audiencia of Manila|Manila]] ([[1583]]) === Autonomous Captaincies General === With dates of creation: '''1.''' [[Colony of Santo Domingo|Santo Domingo]] ([[1535]])<br> '''2.''' [[Spanish East Indies|Philippines]] ([[1574]])<br> '''3.''' [[Captaincy General of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]] ([[1580]])<br> '''4.''' [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Cuba]] ([[1607]])<br> '''5.''' [[Captaincy General of Guatemala|Guatemala]] ([[1609]])<br> '''6.''' [[Captaincy General of Yucatán|Yucatán]] ([[1617]]) '''7.''' ''Comandancia General de las Provincias Internas'' ([[1776]]) (Analogous to a captaincy general.) ===Intendancies=== Listed under year of creation:<ref>Harding, C. H., ''The Spanish Empire in America''. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1947), 133-135</ref><ref>Lombardi, Cathryn L., John V. Lombardi and K. Lynn Stoner, ''Latin American History: A Teaching Atlas''. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), 50. ISBN 0-299-09714-5</ref> [[1764]]<br> 1. [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Havana]] [[1766]]<br> 2. [[Spanish Louisiana|New Orleans]] [[1784]]<br> 3. [[Captaincy General of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]] [[1786]]<br> 4. [[Mexico State|Mexico]], 5. [[Chiapas]], 6. [[Guatemala]], 7. [[El Salvador|San Salvador]], 8. [[Honduras|Comayagua]], 9. [[Nicaragua|Léon]], 10. [[Camagüey|Puerto Príncipe]] (separated from the Intendancy of Havana), 11. [[Santiago de Cuba]] (separated from the Intendency of Havana) [[1787]]<br> 12. [[Guanajuato]], 13. [[Michoacán|Valladolid]], 14. [[Jalisco|Guadalajara]], 15. [[Zacatecas]], 16. [[San Luis Potosí]], 17. [[Veracruz]], 18. [[Puebla]], 19. [[Oaxaca]], 20. [[Durango]], 21. [[Sonora]] [[1789]]<br> 22. [[Yucatán|Mérida]] == Economy == In order to pay of the debts incurred by the conquistadors and their companies, the new Spanish governors awarded their men grants of native tribute and labor, known as ''{{lang|es|[[encomiendas]]}}''. In New Spain these grants were modeled after the tribute and [[corvee]] labor that the [[Mexica]] rulers had demanded from native communities. This system came to signify the oppression and exploitation of natives, although its originators may not have set out with such intent. In short order the upper echelons of patrons and priests in the society lived off the work of the lower classes. Due to some horrifying instances of abuse against the indigenous peoples, Bishop [[Bartolomé de las Casas]] suggested bringing black slaves to replace them. Fray Bartolomé later repented when he saw the even worse treatment given to the black slaves. The other discovery that perpetuated this system was extensive silver mines discovered at Potosi and other places that were worked for hundreds of years by forced native labor and contributed most of the wealth flowing to Spain. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was the principal source of income for Spain among the Spanish colonies, with important mining centers like [[Guanajuato]], [[San Luis Potosi]] and [[Hidalgo (Mexico)|Hidalgo]]. There were several major ports in New Spain. There were the ports of [[Veracruz]] the viceroyalty's principal port on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], [[Acapulco]] on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], and [[Manila]] near the [[South China Sea]]. The ports were fundamental for overseas trade, stretching a trade route from [[Asia]], through the [[Manila Galleon]] (also known as the Nao de China) to the Spanish mainland. There were ships that made two voyages a year between [[Manila]] and Acapulco, whose goods were then transported overland from Acapulco to Veracruz and later reshipped from Veracruz to [[Cádiz]] in Spain. So then, the ships that set sail from Veracruz were generally loaded with merchandise from the Orient originating from the commercial centers of the [[Philippines]], plus the [[precious metal]]s and natural resources of [[Mexico]], [[Central America]] and the [[Caribbean]]. During the sixteenth century, Spain held the equivalent of [[USD|US$]]1.5 trillion (1990 terms) in [[gold]] and silver received from New Spain. Nevertheless, these resources did not translate into development for the [[Metropolis]] (mother country) due to Spanish Roman Catholic Monarchy's frequent preoccupation with European wars (enormous amounts of this wealth were spent hiring mercenaries to fight the [[Protestant Reformation]]), as well as the incessant decrease in overseas transportation caused by assaults from companies of British [[buccaneer]]s, Dutch [[corsairs]] and [[piracy|pirates]] of various origin. These companies were initially financed by, at first, by the [[Amsterdam]] [[stock market]] — the first in history and whose origin is owed precisely to the need for funds to finance pirate expeditions —, as later by the London market. The above is what some authors call the "historical process of the transfer of wealth from the south to the north." == Demographics == === The role of epidemics === Spanish settlers also brought with them [[smallpox]], [[typhus]], and other diseases. Most of the settlers had developed an immunity from childhood, but the indigenous peoples lacked the needed [[antibodies]] since these diseases were totally alien to the American native population at the time. There were at least three separate epidemics that decimated the population: Smallpox (1520–21), measles (1545–48) and typhus (1576–81). Of the estimated 8 to 20 million of the original prehispanic population, less than two million are believed to have survived. At the end of the 16th century, New Spain was a depopulated country with abandoned cities and [[maize]] fields. === The role of interracial mixing === A new ethnic group was created: The [[mestizo]] population emerged as a result of Spanish colonizers intermarrying with indigenous women, which brought about the beginning of a mixing of both cultures. Most of these lands were dominated by Spanish landowners and their descendants. Europeans mostly dominated the politics and economy of colonial Mexico. Mestizos came next, and indigenous peoples occupied the lowest rank of society. The majority of the Spanish colonists were either men or women with no wives or husbands. They married or were made concubines of the indigenous population, and were even encouraged to do so by [[Isabella of Castile|Queen Isabel]] during the earliest days of colonization. As a result of these unions, as well as concubinage and secret mistresses, a vast class of people known as mestizos, [[zambos]] and [[mulattos]] came into being. But even if mixes were common, the white population tried, largely successfully even today, to keep their status. After the native population was decimated by epidemics and forced labor, black slaves were imported. A system was created to keep each mix in a different social level: ''{{lang|es|El sistema de castas}}'' (the [[casta]] system). Each different mix had a name and different privileges or prohibitions. There were even two different kinds of whites, those born in Spain, later referred to as ''{{lang|es|peninsulares}}'' (in Spanish, people born in the Peninsula, i.e. the [[Iberian Peninsula]]), who received all the upper level positions and higher paying jobs. At a lower level, those born in America, or ''{{lang|es|[[Criollo (people)|criollos]]}}'' took the next lower layer of desirable jobs. Mestizos followed, and mulattos were next, followed by the unmixed natives, zambos (Amerindian mixed with negro), and negros, respectively. The Spanish peninsulares tried by all means to keep their status, even if they took native women. Those who were wealthy enough also tried to have a Spanish wife, who was sent to give birth in Spain to prevent their children from becoming criollos. In spite of the ''sistema de castas'', the Amerindians and the Mestizos were taught the Roman Catholic religion and the language of Spain, and they were even allowed to become members of the religious orders or even priests. Moreover, efforts were made to keep the Amerindian cultural aspects which did not violate the Catholic traditions. As an example, some Spaniards learned some of the Amerindian languages (as early as in the sixteenth century) and developed a Grammar for them so that they could be more easily translated. This was similarly practiced by the French colonists. On the other hand, the idea of sharing the language and the religion of the natives was deeply rejected in the British colonies of North America (and later in the United States of America) and their culture was ignored, despised and eventually obliterated. Mestizos and criollos were nevertheless not allowed in the upper levels of the government or any other position of power, and eventually they joined forces for the independence of Mexico. With independence, the caste system and slavery were theoretically abolished, however it can be argued that, despite the peninsulares returning to Europe or merging with the criollos, the latter replaced them in terms of power. Thus, mestizos, while they no longer have a separate legal status from other groups, comprise approximately 47-49% of the population. White people, who no longer have a special legal status, are thought to be about 10% of the population and still have most of the desirable jobs. In modern Mexico, mestizo has become more a cultural term, since a Native American that abandons his traditional ways is considered a mestizo. Also, most Afro-Mexicans prefer to be considered mestizo, since they identify closely with this group. === The population of New Spain in 1810 === Population estimates from the first decade of the 19th century varied between 6,122,354 as calculated by [[Francisco Navarro y Noriega]] in 1810,<ref>{{sp icon}} {{cite book |last=Navarro y Noriega |first=Fernando |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Report on the population of the kingdom of New Spain. |year=1820 |publisher=Mexico: in the Office of D. Juan Bautista de Arizpe |language= |isbn= }}</ref> to 6.5 million as figured by [[Alexander von Humboldt]] in 1808.<ref>{{fr icon}} {{cite book |last=Humboldt |first=Alexander von |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain |year=1811 |publisher=Paris: F. Schoell |location= |isbn= }}</ref> Navarro y Noriega figured that half of his estimate constituted indigenous peoples. More recent data suggests that the actual population of New Spain in 1810 was closer to 5 or 5.5 million individuals.<ref>{{cite web |author=McCaa, Robert |title=The Peopling of Mexico from Origins to Revolution |publisher=Richard Steckel and Michael Haines (ed.). Cambridge University Press |date=[[1997-12-08]] |work=The Population History of North America |url=http://www.hist.umn.edu/~rmccaa/mxpoprev/cambridg3.htm |accessdate=2007-11-18 }}</ref> === The role of the Roman Catholic church === The {{lang|es|[[conquistadores]]}} brought with them the Catholic faith (and many priests) to which the population was seemingly rapidly converted. Because of their joint action in getting rid of the [[Moors]] in Spain, the Catholic Church was basically regarded as an arm of the Spanish government, since the Spanish Crown at the time can't be understood nowadays without considering its ties to [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]] as opposed to Islam and [[Protestantism]]. It was soon found that most of the natives had adopted "the god of the heavens", as they called it, as just another one of their many gods. While it was an important god, because it was the god of the conquerors, they did not see why they had to abandon their old beliefs. As a result, a second wave of missionaries began a process attempting to completely erase the old beliefs, and thus wiped out many aspects of Mesoamerican culture. Hundreds of thousands of Aztec [[codex|codices]] were destroyed, Aztec priests and teachers were persecuted, and the temples and statues of the old gods were destroyed. Even some foods associated with religion, like [[amaranto]], were forbidden. Eventually, in some areas, some of the natives were declared [[minors]] and forbidden to learn to read and write, so they would always need a government manager in charge of them to be responsible of their indoctrination. Despite this, many clerics, such as Bartolome de las Casas, tried to protect the natives from forced enslavement to the Spanish, and obtained from the crown decrees and promises to protect native Mesoamericans. Unfortunately, the crown was too far to enforce them, and many abuses, even among the clergy, against the natives continued. During the following centuries, under Spanish rule, a new culture developed that combined the customs and traditions of the indigenous peoples with that of Catholic Spain. Numerous churches and other buildings were constructed by native labor in the Spanish style, and cities were named after various saints and various religious topics such as "[[San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí|San Luis Potosí]]" (after St. Louis) and "[[Veracruz, Veracruz|Vera Cruz]]" ("True Cross"). The [[Spanish Inquisition]], and its descendant, the [[Mexican Inquisition]], continued to operate in the Americas until Mexico declared its independence. == Culture == The Viceroyalty of New Spain was one of the principal centers of European cultural expansion in America. The viceroyalty was the basis for a racial and cultural mosaic of the Spanish American colonial period. The first printing press in the New World was brought to Mexico in 1539, by printer [[Juan Pablos]] (Giovanni Paoli). The first book printed in Mexico was entitled ''La escala de San Juan Climoca''. In 1568, [[Bernal Díaz del Castillo]] finished ''La Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España''. Figures such as [[Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz]] and [[Juan Ruiz de Alarcón]] stand out as some of the viceroyalty's most notable contributors to [[Spanish Literature]]. In 1693, [[Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora]] published ''El Mercurio Volante'', the first newspaper in New Spain. Architects [[Pedro Martínez Vázquez]] and [[Lorenzo Rodriguez]] produced some fantastically extravagant and visually frenetic architecture known as [[Baroque architecture#Spanish America|Mexican Churrigueresque]] in the own capital, [[Ocotlan]], [[Puebla, Puebla|Puebla]] or remote silver-mining towns. The magnificent fourth [[Manila Cathedral]] was constructed in 1654 to 1671. The Spanish viceregal government blocked the diffusion of [[Liberalism|liberal]] ideas during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], the [[French Revolution]] and the [[United States War of Independence]] at a time when it tolerated no other religion than the [[Catholic]] faith. == See also == * [[Colonialism]] * [[List of Viceroys of New Spain]] * [[List of Governors in the Viceroyalty of New Spain]] * [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]] * [[Spanish Empire]] == References == {{reflist}} == External links == *[http://www.mexconnect.com/mex_/travel/dpalfrey/dpcolonial1.html MEXICO'S COLONIAL ERA--PART I: The Settlement of New Spain] at mexconnect.com *[http://www.tamu.edu/ccbn/dewitt/Spaincon.htm Index to the DeWitt Colony Region under New Spain] at Texas A&M University *[http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/1492.exhibit/e-Eur.claims.Amer/midamer.html 1492 -- Middle America] at ibiblio.org ''the public's library and digital archive'' *[http://www.britannica.com/hispanic_heritage/article-9055514 Encyclopedia Britannica : Hispanic Heritage in The Americas] {{missions-by-country}} {{Spanish America}} [[Category:New Spain| ]] [[Category:Former Spanish colonies]] [[Category:Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonization of the Americas]] [[Category:Spanish colonial period in the Philippines]] [[Category:1535 establishments]] [[Category:1821 disestablishments]] [[Category:Nobility of the Americas]] [[bg:Нова Испания]] [[ca:Nova Espanya]] [[da:Nyspanien]] [[de:Vizekönigreich Neuspanien]] [[el:Νέα Ισπανία]] [[es:Virreinato de Nueva España]] [[eo:Nova Hispanio]] [[fr:Nouvelle-Espagne]] [[it:Vicereame della Nuova Spagna]] [[he:מלכות המשנה של ספרד החדשה]] [[lt:Naujoji Ispanija]] [[nah:Yancuīc Caxtillān]] [[nl:Nieuw-Spanje]] [[ja:ヌエバ・エスパーニャ]] [[no:Ny-Spania]] [[pl:Nowa Hiszpania]] [[pt:Vice-Reino da Nova Espanha]] [[qu:Wirrinatu Musuq Ispaña]] [[ru:Новая Испания]] [[simple:New Spain]] [[sr:Вицекраљевство Нова Шпанија]] [[fi:Uusi-Espanja]] [[sv:Nya Spanien]] [[th:เขตการปกครองนิวสเปน]] [[uk:Нова Іспанія]] [[zh:新西班牙總督轄區]]