Viceroyalty of Peru
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TriniMuñoz
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/* Intendancies */
{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = Virreinato/Virreynato del Perú
|conventional_long_name = Viceroyalty of Peru
|common_name = Viceroyalty of Peru
|continent = South America
|country = Peru
|status = Colony
|empire = Spain
|religion = [[Roman Catholicism]]
|era = [[Spanish Empire]]
|year_start = 1542
|year_end = 1824
|date_end = July 28
|event_start =
|event_end = [[Independence of Peru|Peruvian Independence]]
|p1 = Inca Empire
|s1 = Republic of Peru
|s2 = Viceroyalty_of_Rio_de_la_Plata
|s3 = New Kingdom of Granada
|flag = Cross of Burgundy Flag
|flag_type = Military flag
|image_flag = Flag of New Spain.svg
|image_coat = CoA Charles I of Spain.png
|image_map = Location ViceroyaltyPeru.png
|image_map_caption = Location of the Viceroyalty of Peru: initial (light green) and final ''de jure'' territory (dark green)
|flag_p1 = Escudo-echenique3.gif
|flag_s1 = Flag of Peru.svg
|flag_s2 = Bandera de España(1748–1785).gif
|flag_s3 = Flag of New Spain.svg
|capital = Lima
|government_type = Monarchy
|title_leader = [[List of Spanish monarchs|King]]
|leader1 = [[Charles I of Spain|Charles I]]
|year_leader1 = 1542 - 1566
|leader2 = [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]]
|year_leader2 = 1813 - 1821
|title_representative = Viceroy
|representative1 = Blasco Núñez Vela
|year_representative1 = 1544 - 1546
|representative2 = José de la Serna e Hinojosa
|year_representative2 = 1821 - 1824
|event1 = Fall of [[Vilcabamba, Peru|Vilcabamba]]
|date_event1 = 1572
|event2 = Creation of [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|New Granada]]
|year_event2 = 1717
|event3 = Creation of [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|Río de la Plata]]
|year_event3 = 1776
|common_languages = Official: [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (''[[de facto]]''); common: [[Quechua]], [[Kichwa]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]], [[Puquina]].
|currency = [[Peso]]
}}
Created in 1542, the '''Viceroyalty of Peru''' (in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''Virreinato del Perú'') was a Spanish colonial administrative district that originally contained most of [[Spanish Empire|Spanish-ruled]] [[South America]], governed from the capital of [[Lima]]. The Viceroyalty of Peru was the more powerful of the two Spanish [[Viceroyalty|Viceroyalties]] in America from the [[16th century|sixteenth]] to the [[18th century|eighteenth]] centuries.
However, the Spanish did not resist the [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas|Portuguese expansion of Brazil]] across the meridian. The [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. The creation of Viceroyalties of [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|New Granada]] and [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|Rio de la Plata]] (at the expense of Peru's territory) reduced the importance of Lima and shifted trade to [[Caracas]] and [[Buenos Aires]], while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Eventually, the district would dissolve with much of the Spanish empire when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the 1800s.
== History ==
=== Exploration and Settlement (1542–1643) ===
{{see also|Toledo Reforms}}
[[Image:Francisco de Toledo.JPG||left|thumb|[[Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa]], Viceroy of Peru]][[Image:Reducciones.PNG|thumb|left|Location of the most important [[Jesuit Reductions]], with present political divisions.]]
After the [[Spanish conquest of Peru]] (1532–37), the first [[Audiencia]] was constituted. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castilla, that shortly afterwards would be called the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1544, [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] (King Charles I of Spain) named [[Blasco Núñez Vela]] Peru's first viceroy, but the viceroyalty was not organized until the arrival of Viceroy [[Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa|Francisco de Toledo]] in 1572. Toledo made an extensive tour of inspection of the colony.
Francisco de Toledo, "one of the great administrators of human times",<ref>Mabry, Donald J., ''Colonial Latin America''. Coral Springs, Fla.: Llumina Press, 2002.</ref> established the [[Inquisition]] and promulgated laws that applied to both Indians and Spanish alike, breaking the power of the [[Encomienda|encomenderos]] and reducing the old system of ''[[mita]]'', or forced native labor. He improved the safety in the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges and ''la Armada del Mar del Sur'' (the Southern Fleet) against the pirates. Francisco de Toledo also ended the indigenous state of [[Vilcabamba, Peru|Vilcabamba]], executing the [[Tupac Amaru|Inca Tupac Amaru]], and promoted economic development from the commercial monopoly and the mineral extraction, mainly, from silver mines of [[Potosí]].
The [[Amazon basin]] and some large adjoining regions had been considered Spanish territory since the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] and explorations such as that by [[Francisco de Orellana]], but the Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. However, [[Luis Jerónimo Fernández de Cabrera]] sent out the third expedition to explore the [[Amazon River]], under [[Cristóbal de Acuña]]. (This was part of the return leg of the expedition of [[Pedro Teixeira]].)
Many Pacific islands were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century, but they made no effort to trade with or colonize them. These included [[New Guinea]] (by [[Yñigo Ortiz de Retez]] in 1545), the [[Solomon Islands]] (by [[Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa]] in 1568) and the [[Marquesas Islands]] (by [[Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira]] in 1595).
The first [[Jesuit Reductions|Jesuit reduction]] to convert and "civilize" the Indigenous population was founded in 1609, but some areas were occupied by Brazilians as [[Bandeirantes]] gradually extended their activities throughout much of the basin and adjoining [[Matto Grosso]] in the 17th and 18th centuries. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon (which was in Portuguese territory) making it impossible for the Spanish authorities to control them. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60 000 indigenous people.<ref>An early bandeira in 1628, led by Antônio Raposo Tavares), composed of 2.000 allied Indians, 900 Mamluks (Mestizos) and 69 white Paulistanos, to find precious metals and stones and / or to capture Indians for slavery. This expedition alone was responsible for the destruction of most of the Jesuit missions of Spanish Guairá and the enslavement of over 60.000 indigenous people. In response the missions that followed were militarized.</ref> In fact as time passed they were used as a self funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low level war of territorial conquest. Finally the reality of the situation was recognized with the transfer of sovereignty over the much of the basin and surrounding areas to Portugal in the [[Treaty of Madrid (1750)]]. This settlement led to the [[Guarani War]] of 1756. In 1617, [[Francisco de Borja y Aragón]] divided the government of Río de la Plata into two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Viceroy Borja y Aragón also established the ''Tribunal del Consulado'', a special court and administrative body for commercial affairs in the viceroyalty. [[Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar]] reformed the fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain.
Other viceroys, such as [[Fernando Torres de Portugal y Mesía|Fernando Torres]], Borja y Aragón, Fernández de Cabrera or Fernández Córdoba also expanded the colonial navy and fortified the ports to fight against pirate attacks, as those lead by the Englishman [[Thomas Cavendish]]. Fernández de Cabrera suppressed an insurrection of the [[Uru]] and [[Araucano]] Indians.
=== The last Spanish Habsburgs (1643–1713) ===
[[Image:Theviceroyaltyofperu.png|thumb|400px|Colonized area in its maximum extension ca 1650
(dark green) and the Viceroyalty in 1816 (dark Brown)]]
Viceroys had to protect the Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports of [[Valdivian fort system|Valdivia]], [[Valparaíso]], [[Arica]] and [[Callao]] and constructed city walls in Lima (1686) and [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]]) (1685–1687). Nevertheless, the famous English privateer [[Henry Morgan]] took [[Chagres]] and captured and sacked the city of [[Panama City|Panama]] in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled the attacks by [[Edward David]] (1684 and 1686), [[Charles Wager]] and [[Thomas Colb]] (1708) and [[Woldes]] (1709–1711). The [[Peace of Utrecht]] allowed the British to send ships and merchandise to the fair at [[Portobelo, Panama|Portobello]].
In this period, revolts were common. Around 1656, [[Pedro Bohórquez]] crowned himself Inca (emperor) of the [[Calchaquí]] Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and [[Gaspar Salcedo]] revolted against the colonial government. The clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. Viceroy [[Diego Ladrón de Guevara]] had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at the [[hacienda]] of Huachipa de Lima. There were terrible earthquakes (1655, 1687) and epidemics, too.
During [[Baltasar de la Cueva Enríquez]]'s administration, the laws of the Indies were compiled..<ref>Follow this [http://www.amazonia.bo/historia_p.php?id_contenido=34 link].</ref> [[Diego de Benavides y de la Cueva]] issued the ''Ordenanza de Obrajes'' (Ordenance of Manufactures) in 1664 and [[Pedro Álvarez de Toledo y Leiva]] introduced the ''papel sellado'' (literally, sealed paper). In 1683 [[Melchor de Navarra y Rocafull]] reestablished the Lima mint, which had been closed since 1572. Viceroy [[Diego Ladrón de Guevara]] increased the production of silver in the mines of [[Potosí]], and stimulated production in other mines at [[San Nicolás]], [[Cojatambo]] and [[Huancavelica]]. He limited the manufacture of [[aguardiente]] from [[sugar cane]] to authorized factories, which he taxed heavily.
The Churches of Los Desamparados (1672), La Buena Muerte and the convent of Mínimos de San Francisco de Paula were finished and opened. The Hospital of Espiritu Santo in Lima and San Bartolomé hospital were built.
===The Bourbon Reforms (1713–1806)===
{{main|Bourbon Reforms}}
In 1717 the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]] was created from the northern territories, the ''[[Audiencia]]s'' of [[Bogotá]], [[Royal Audience of Quito|Quito]] and [[Panamá]]. This viceroyalty initially lasted only until 1724, but was reestablished permanently in 1740. With the creation of the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] from southern areas that are now [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Paraguay]] and [[Uruguay]] in 1776, the [[Real Audiencia of Charcas|Charcas]] and [[Real Audiencia of Buenos Aires|Buenos Aires ''audiencias'']] were similarly lost. The 256-year-old [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] was superseded by the [[Treaty of Madrid (1750)|1750 Treaty of Madrid]] which granted Portugal control of the lands it had occupied in South America in the intervening centuries.
<center>
<gallery>
Image:Brazil states1534.png|1534<br/>''[[Brazil]] according to the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]]''
Image:Brazil states1789.png|1789<br/>''Brazil according to the [[Treaty of Madrid (1750)]]''
</gallery></center>
Several viceroys had scientific, political and economic impact on the Viceroyalty. [[Manuel de Amat y Juniet]] organized an expedition to [[Tahiti]]. Viceroy [[Teodoro de Croix]] also decentralized the government through the creation of eight ''[[intendencia]]s'' in the area of the [[Real Audiencia of Lima|''Audiencia'' of Lima]], and two in the [[Captaincy General of Chile]]. [[Francisco Gil de Taboada]] reincorporated the region of [[Puna]] into the Viceroyalty of Peru. [[José de Armendáriz]] stimulated the production of silver and took steps against fraud, corruption and smuggling. Amat y Juniet established the first Regulation of Commerce and Organization of Customs rules, which led to the building of the customshouse in Callao.<ref>[http://www.regioncallao.gob.pe/historia01.asp]</ref> Teodoro de Croix collaborated in the creation of the ''Junta Superior de Comercio'' and the ''Tribunal de Minería'' (1786).
An earthquake demolished [[Lima, Peru|Lima]] and [[Callao]], in 1746. Viceroy Amat y Juniet constructed various public works in Lima, including the first bull ring. [[Manuel de Guirior]] also improved the medical care at ten hospitals in Lima and established a foundling home.
War between Spain and Britain again broke out (the [[War of Jenkins' Ear]], 1739-1748). Amat y Juniet constructed the fortress of Real Felipe in [[Callao]] in 1774.
Nevertheless, throughout this period, the [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Native peoples]] were not entirely suppressed. In the eighteenth century alone, there were fourteen large uprisings, the most important of which were that of [[Juan Santos Atahualpa]] in 1742, and the [[Sierra Uprising]] of [[Tupac Amaru II]] in 1780. The [[Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)|Comunero Revolt]] broke out in [[Paraguay]] from 1721 to 1732). In 1767, the [[Suppression of the Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] were expelled from the colony.
=== End of the Viceroyalty (1806–1824)===
Viceroy [[José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa]] promoted educational reforms, reorganized the army, and stamped out local rebellions. During his administration, the [[Inquisition]] of Lima was temporarily abolished as a result of the reforms taken by the Cortes in Spain.
When the wars of independence broke out in 1810, Peru was the center of Royalist reaction. Abascal reincorporated the provinces of [[Córdoba Province (Argentina)|Córdoba]], [[Potosí Department|Potosí]], [[La Paz Department (Bolivia)|La Paz]], [[Charcas Province|Charcas]], [[Chile]] and [[Quito]] (Ecuador) into the Viceroyalty of Peru.
In 1812 occurred the great fire of [[Guayaquil]] that destroyed half the city.
[[Lord Thomas Cochrane]], in command of the newly created [[Chilean Navy]], unsuccessfully attacked Guayaquil and El Callao, but on [[4 February]] he [[Capture of Valdivia|captured Valdivia]], called at the time ''The Key of the South Seas'' and the ''Gibraltar of the Pacific'', due to its [[Valdivian fort system|huge fortifications]]. However the viceroyalty managed to defend [[Chiloé Island]] until 1826.
On [[September 8]], [[1820]], the ''Expedición Libertadora'' of Peru, organized in Chile, landed on the beach at [[Paracas]], near the city of [[Pisco, Peru]]. The army was under the command of [[José de San Martín]]. After fruitless negotiations with the viceroy, San Martín occupied the Peruvian capital of Lima on [[July 21]], [[1821]]. The independence of Peru was proclaimed on [[July 28]], [[1821]]. Viceroy [[José de la Serna e Hinojosa]], still in command of a sizable military force, retired to [[Jauja]], and later to [[Cusco]].
On [[July 26]], [[1822]], San Martín and [[Simón Bolívar]] met in [[Guayaquil]] to define a strategy for the liberation of the rest of Peru. The meeting was secret, and exactly what occurred is not known. However, afterwards San Martín returned to Argentina while Bolívar prepared to launch an offensive against the remaining royalist forces in Alto Peru. In September 1823 Bolívar arrived in Lima with [[Antonio José de Sucre]] to plan the offensive.
In February 1824 the royalists briefly regained control of Lima. Having regrouped in [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]], Bolívar in June led his rebel forces south to confront the Spanish under [[Field Marshal]] [[José de Canterac]]. The two armies met on the plains of [[Battle of Junín|Junín]] on [[August 6]], [[1824]], and the Peruvians were victorious in a battle fought entirely without firearms. The Spanish troops subsequently evacuated Lima for a second time.
As a result of a decree of the Congress of [[Gran Colombia]], Bolívar turned over command of the rebel troops to Sucre on [[October 7]], [[1824]].
[[Image:Battle of Ayacucho.jpg|rigth|thumb|''The [[Battle of Ayacucho]]'']]
Royalist control was now reduced to a small area around the city of [[Ayacucho]], located in the south-central highlands. It was there that the final battle for the independence of Peru would be fought.
On [[9 December]] [[1824]], the Battle of Ayacucho, or Battle of La Quinua, took place at Pampa de La Quinua, a few kilometers away from Ayacucho, near the town of [[Quinua]]. This battle — between royalist (Spanish) and [[nationalist]] ([[republicanism|republican]]) troops — sealed the independence of Peru and South America. The victorious nationalist forces were led by [[Antonio José de Sucre]], Bolívar's lieutenant. Viceroy Serna was wounded and taken prisoner. The Spanish army had 2,000 dead and wounded and lost 3,000 prisoners, with the remainder of the army entirely dispersed. After the battle, Serna signed the final capitulation whereby the Spaniards agreed to leave Peru. Serna was released soon afterwards and sailed for Europe.
Spain made futile attempts to regain its former colonies, such as at the [[Battle of Callao]], but in 1879 it finally recognized Peru's independence.
== Politics ==
[[Image:Audencias of Viceroyalty of Peru.PNG|thumb|right|250px|The political subdivisions of the Viceroyalty of Peru ca.1650{{fact}}]]
The town of [[Lima]], founded by Pizarro on [[January 18]], [[1535]] as the "Ciudad de los Reyes" (City of the Kings/[[Biblical Magi|Magi]]), became the seat of the new viceroyalty. As the seat of a viceroy, who had oversight over all of Spanish South America except for [[Portugal|Portuguese]]-dominated [[Brazil]], Lima grew into a powerful city. During the 16th, 17th and most of the 18th centuries, all of the colonial wealth of South America created by the silver mines passed through Lima on its way to the [[Isthmus of Panama]] and from there to [[Seville, Spain]]. The rest of the viceroyalty dependent upon Lima in administrative matters, in a pattern that persists until today in Peru. By the start of 18th century, Lima had become a distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital, seat of the 250-year-old [[National University of San Marcos|Royal and Pontifical University of San Marcos]] and the chief Spanish stronghold in the Americas.
At ground level during the first century, Spanish ''encomenderos'' depended on local chieftains (''[[curaca]]s'') to gain access to the Indian population's tribute labor, even the most remote settlements, and therefore, many ''encomenderos'' developed reciprocal, if still hierarchical, relationships with the ''curacas''.<ref>Steve Stern. “The Rise and Fall of Indian-White Alliances: a Regional View of ‘Conquest’ History,” ''Hispanic American Historical Review'', 61:3 (1981), 461-491</ref> By the end of the 16th century the quasi-private ''encomienda'' had been replaced by the ''[[repartimiento]]'' system (known in Peru by the Quechua term, ''mita''), which was controlled by local crown officials.
Politically the viceroyalty was further divided into ''[[audiencia]]s'', which were primarily superior tribunals, but which also had administrative and legislative functions. Each of these was responsible to the Viceroy of Peru in administrative matters (though not in judicial ones). Audiencias further incorporated the older, smaller divisions known as "governorships" (''gobernaciones'', roughly [[provinces]]) headed by a governor. ''(See, [[Adelantado]].)'' Provinces which were under military threat were grouped into [[Captaincy|captaincies general]], such as the [[Kingdom of Chile]] (established in 1541 and established as a Bourbon captaincy general in 1789), and which were joint military and political commands with a certain level of autonomy. (The viceroy was captain-general of the provinces which remained directly under his command).
At the local level there were hundreds of districts, in both Indian and Spanish areas, which were headed by either a ''[[Corregidor (position)|corregidor]]'' (also known as an ''alcalde mayor'') or a ''[[Cabildo (council)|cabildo]]'' (town council), both of which had judicial and administrative powers. In the late 18th century the Bourbon dynasty began phasing out the ''corregidores'' and introduced [[intendant]]s, whose broad fiscal powers cut into the authority of the viceroys, governors and ''cabildos''. (''See [[Bourbon Reforms]].'')
=== Audiencias ===
With dates of creation:
'''1.''' [[Real Audiencia of Lima|Lima]] (1543)<br>
'''2.''' [[Real Audiencia of Charcas|La Plata de los Charcas]] (1559)†<br>
'''3.''' [[Royal Audience of Quito|Quito]] (1563)*<br>
'''4.''' [[Real Audiencia of Santa Fe de Bogotá|Santa Fe de Bogotá]] (1548)*<br>
'''5.''' [[Real Audiencia of Chile|Chile]] (1563-1573; 1606)<br>
'''6.''' [[Real Audiencia of Panamá|Panamá]] (2nd one, 1564 - 1751)*
Later Audiencias
* [[Real Audiencia of Buenos Aires|Buenos Aires]] (1661-1672; 1776)†
* [[Real Audiencia of Cusco|Cuzco]] (1787)
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Later part of the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]]<br>
†Later part of the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]]
===Autonomous Captaincy General===
'''1.''' [[Kingdom of Chile|Chile]] (1789)
===Intendancies===
Listed under year of creation:<ref>Harding, C. H., ''The Spanish Empire in America''. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1947), 133-135</ref><ref>Lombardi, Cathryn L., John V. Lombardi and K. Lynn Stoner, ''Latin American History: A Teaching Atlas''. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), 50. ISBN 0-299-09714-5</ref>
[[1783]]<br>
1. [[Lima]], 2. [[Puno]]
[[1784]]<br>
3. [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]], 4. [[Tarma]], 5. [[Huancavelica]], 6. [[Cusco]], 7. [[Arequipa]], (10. [[Chiloé Province|Chiloé]], abolished in 1789)
[[1786]]<br>
8. [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], 9. [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]]
== Economy ==
[[Image:Potosi1.jpg|thumb|[[Potosí]] with Cerro Rico]]
Once the Viceroyalty of Peru was established, [[gold]] and [[silver]] from the Andes enriched the conquerors, and Peru became the principal source of Spanish wealth and power in [[South America]]. The first coins minted for Peru (and indeed for South America) appeared between 1568 and 1570. Viceroy [[Manuel de Oms y de Santa Pau]] was able to send back an enormous sum of money (1,600,000 pesos) to the king to cover some of the costs of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]. This was possible in part because of the discovery of the mines in [[Caraboya]]. The silver from mines at Potosí circulated around the world.
[[Luis Jerónimo Fernández de Cabrera]] prohibited direct trade between Peru and [[New Spain]] (Mexico) and the persecution of Portuguese Jews, the principal traders in [[Lima]].
== Demographics ==
A census taken by the last Quipucamayoc indicated that there were 12 million inhabitants of Inca Peru; 45 years later, under viceroy Toledo, the census figures amounted to only 1,100,000 Indians. While the attrition was not an organized attempt at [[genocide]], the results were similar. Inca cities were given Spanish Christian names and rebuilt as Spanish towns, each centered around a [[plaza]] with a church or cathedral facing an official residence. A few Inca cities like Cuzco retained native masonry for the foundations of their walls. Other Inca sites, like [[Huanuco Viejo]], were abandoned for cities at lower altitudes more hospitable to the Spanish.
Viceroy [[José de Armendáriz]] reestablished the system whereby Inca nobles who could prove their ancestry were recognized as [[Hidalgo (Spanish nobility)|hijosdalgo]]s of Castile. This led to a frenzy on the part of the Indigenous nobility to legitimate their status.
In the 1790s Viceroy Francisco Gil de Taboada ordered the first official census of the population.
The last cargo of black slaves in Peru was landed in 1806. At that time an adult male slave sold for 600 pesos.
== Culture ==
Viceroy Francisco de Borja y Aragón reorganized the [[National University of San Marcos|University of San Marcos]] and [[Luis Jerónimo Fernández de Cabrera]] founded two chairs of medicine. In the 1710s, Viceroy [[Diego Ladrón de Guevara]] established a chair of anatomy. [[Teodoro de Croix]] and Francisco Gil de Taboada founded anatomy centers. In 1810 the medical school of San Fernando was founded.
On the death of the Peruvian astronomer Doctor [[Francisco Ruiz Lozano]], Viceroy [[Melchor Liñán y Cisneros]] (with the approval of the Crown) gave mathematics a permanent position in the University of San Marcos. Mathematics was attached to the chair of cosmography. Doctor [[Juan Ramón Koening]], a Belgian by birth, was named to the chair.<sup>[http://sisbib.unmsm.edu.pe/Bibvirtual/Tesis/Ingenie/Ccente_P_E/cap2.htm]</sup>. Viceroy Manuel de Guirior created two new chairs at the university.
[[Luis Enríquez de Guzmán, conde de Alba de Liste]] founded the Naval Academy of the colony. Francisco Gil de Taboada supported the navigation school. [[Teodoro de Croix]] began the Botanic Garden of Lima.
Francisco de Borja y Aragón also founded, in [[Cusco|Cuzco]], the ''Colegio del Príncipe'' for sons of the Indigenous nobility and the ''Colegio de San Francisco'' for sons of the conquistadors. Manuel de Amat y Juniet founded the Royal College of San Carlos.
The first books printed in Peru were produced by Antonio Ricardo, a printer from Turin who settled in Lima. Diego de Benavides y de la Cueva built the first theater in Lima. Manuel de Oms y de Santa Pau founded a literary academy in 1709 and promoted weekly literary discussions in the palace that attracted some of Lima's best writers. These included the famous [[Criollo]] scholar [[Pedro Peralta y Barnuevo]] and several Indigenous poets. Oms introduced French and Italian fashions in the viceroyalty. The Italian musician [[Rocco Cerruti]] (1688–1760) arrived in Peru. Francisco Gil de Taboada supported the foundation of the newspaper ''El Mercurio Peruano'' in 1791 and founded the Academy of Fine Arts.
[[Image:Flora Peruviana, et Chilensis.jpg|thumb|rigth|Title page, ''Flora Peruviana, et Chilensis'']]
Jesuit [[Barnabé de Cobo]] (1582–1657), who explored Mexico and Peru, brought the cinchona bark from Lima to Spain in 1632, and afterwards to Rome and other parts of Italy.
In 1737 [[Jorge Juan y Santacilia]] and [[Antonio de Ulloa]], Spanish scientists sent by the [[French Academy]] on a [[French Geodesic Mission|scientific mission]] to measure a degree of meridian at the equator, arrived in the colony. They also had the mission of reporting on disorganization and corruption in the government and smuggling. Their report was published later, under the title ''Noticias Secretas de América'' (''[[Secret News From America]]'').
[[Image:Sta Rosa de Lima por Claudio Coello.jpg|left|thumb|Santa Rosa de Lima]]
Manuel de Guirior assisted the scientific expedition of [[Hipólito Ruiz López]], [[José Antonio Pavón]] and [[Joseph Dombey]], sent to study the flora of the viceroyalty. The expedition lasted from 1777 to 1788. Their findings were later published as ''La flora peruana y chilena'' (''The Flora of Peru and Chile''). Again a major concern was stimulating the economy, which Guirior did by adopting liberal measures in agriculture, mining, commerce and industry.
Another French influence on science in the colony was [[Louis Godin]], another member of the meridian expedition. He was appointed ''cosmógrafo mayor'' by Viceroy Mendoza.<sup>[http://www.chimpum-callao.com/historia/manso.html]</sup> The duties of ''cosmógrafo mayor'' included publishing almanacs and sailing instructions. Another French scientist in Peru at this time was [[Charles Marie de La Condamine]].
The [[Balmis Expedition]] arrived in Lima on [[May 23]], [[1806]]. At the same time these viceroys adopted rigorous measures to suppress the thought of the Encyclopedists and revolutionaries in the United States and France.
On 1671, [[Saint Rose of Lima]] was canonized by [[Pope Clement X]]. Rose was the first native-born American to become a Catholic saint. [[Pope Benedict XIII]] elevated another two important Peruvian saints, [[Toribio Alfonso de Mogrovejo]] and [[Francis Solanus|Francisco de Solano]].
[[Diego Quispe Tito]] was a famous artist before the age of Independence.
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==See also==
*[[Colonialism]]
*[[List of Viceroys of Peru]]
*[[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Spanish Empire]]
*[[Viceroyalty of New Spain]]
{{Spanish America}}
[[Category:History of South America]]
[[Category:Viceroyalties|Peru]]
[[Category:Colonial Peru]]
[[Category:Colonial Colombia]]
[[Category:Nobility of the Americas]]
[[ca:Virregnat del Perú]]
[[da:Vicekongedømmet i Peru]]
[[de:Vizekönigreich Peru]]
[[es:Virreinato del Perú]]
[[fr:Vice-royauté du Pérou]]
[[it:Vicereame del Perù]]
[[he:מלכות המשנה של פרו]]
[[la:Viceregnum Peruvianum]]
[[lt:Peru vicekaralystė]]
[[nl:Onderkoninkrijk Peru]]
[[no:Visekongedømmet i Peru]]
[[pl:Wicekrólestwo Peru]]
[[pt:Vice-Reino do Peru]]
[[qu:Wirrinatu Piruw]]
[[simple:Viceroyalty of Perú]]
[[th:เขตการปกครองเปรู]]
[[tr:Peru Valiliği]]