Vietnamese phonology 1557692 225721736 2008-07-15T02:12:07Z Jidanni 769882 {{vague|also please mention how many if tones are ignored}} {{IPA notice}} {{citations needed|date=February 2008}} This article is a technical description the sound system of the [[Vietnamese language]], including [[phonetics]] and [[phonology]]. ==Consonants== Two main varieties of Vietnamese, [[Hanoi]] and [[Ho Chi Minh City]], are described below. ===Hanoi=== The 21 [[consonant]]s of the Hanoi variety: :{| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan="2" | &nbsp; ! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]] ! [[Labiodental|Labio-<br />dental]] ! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! colspan=2 align=center| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | align=center|{{IPA|m}} | &nbsp; | align=center|{{IPA|n}} | align=center|{{IPA|ɲ}} | align=center|{{IPA|ŋ}} | &nbsp; |- ! rowspan=3 align=center | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]] ! align=center| <small>[[unaspirated]]</small> | align=center|{{IPA|p}} | &nbsp; | align=center|{{IPA|t}} | align=center|{{IPA|c}} | align=center|{{IPA|k}} | align=center|({{IPA|ʔ}}){{ref label|glottal stop|1|1}} |- ! align=center| <small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small> | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | align=center|{{IPA|tʰ}} | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; |- !align=center | <small>[[glottalization|glottalized]]</small> | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ɓ}} | &nbsp; | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ɗ}} | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; |- ! colspan=2 align=center | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] | &nbsp; | align=center|{{IPA|f}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|v}} | align=center|{{IPA|s̪}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|z̪}} | &nbsp; | align=center|{{IPA|x}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|ɣ}} | align=center|{{IPA|h}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; |- ! colspan=2 align=center | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | align=center|{{IPA|l}} | align=center|{{IPA|j}} | align=center|{{IPA|w}} | &nbsp; |} :{{note label|glottal stop|1|1}}Thompson<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Thompson|1959}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Thompson|1965}}</ref> posits a glottal stop [[phoneme]] in a more abstract analysis of Hanoi Vietnamese that would eliminate the phonemes {{IPA|/ɓ, ɗ, v/}} by involving sequences of glottal stop + consonant {{IPA|(ʔC)}}. Specifically, he proposes: * {{IPA|/p/ → [p]}} * {{IPA|/ʔp/ → [ʔɓ]}} * {{IPA|/t/ → [t]}} * {{IPA|/ʔt/ → [ʔɗ]}} * {{IPA|/w/ → [v]}} * {{IPA|/ʔw/ → [ʔw]}} This analysis also simplifies the syllable description so that all syllables have obligatory onsets. * {{IPA|/w/}} is [[labial-velar]] and always preceded by a consonant or glottal stop ({{IPA|/ʔ/}}) (though {{IPA|[ʔ]}} does not occur before {{IPA|[w]}} in the southern varieties) * {{IPA|/p/}} occurs word-initially only in borrowed vocabulary derived from French. {{IPA|/p/}} in Native Vietnamese words occurs only word-finally. * The glottalized stops are preglottalized and voiced: {{IPA|[ʔɓ, ʔɗ]}} (i.e., the [[glottis]] is always closed before the oral closure). This glottal closure is often not released before the release of the oral closure, resulting in the characteristic [[implosive]] pronunciation. However, sometimes the glottal closure is released prior to the oral release in which case the stops are pronounced as {{IPA|[ʔb, ʔd]}}. Therefore, the primary characteristic is preglottalization with implosion being secondary. * Among the [[Coronal consonant|coronal]]s: ** {{IPA|/tʰ, s, z, l/}} are [[Dental consonant|dental]]: {{IPA|[t̪ʰ, s̪, z̪, l̪]}}. ** {{IPA|/t, ɗ, n/}} are [[alveolar]]: {{IPA|[t͇, ɗ͇, n͇]}}. ** {{IPA|/tʰ, l, t, ɗ, n/}} are [[Apical consonant|apical]] {{IPA|[t̺ʰ, l̺, t̺, ɗ̺, n̺]}} (i.e. with the [[tongue]] tip). ** {{IPA|/s, z, c, ɲ/}} are [[Laminal consonant|laminal]] {{IPA|[s̻, z̻, c̻, ɲ̻]}} (i.e. with the tongue blade). ** HCMC {{IPA|/j/}} is not present * {{IPA|/c, ɲ/}} are phonetically [[palatoalveolar]] {{IPA|[ṯ, ṉ]}} (i.e. the blade of the tongue makes contact behind the [[alveolar ridge]]). * {{IPA|/c/}} is often slightly [[affricate]]d {{IPA|[ṯʃ]}}, although much less than English {{IPA|[tʃʰ]}}. (Note that the English affricate is also [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] and usually apical, unlike Vietnamese). This affrication, however, is not obligatory. ====Analysis of final ''ch'', ''nh''==== The analysis of syllable-final ''ch'' and ''nh'' in Hanoi Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis, that of {{Harvcoltxt|Thompson|1965}} has them as being phonemes {{IPA|/c, ɲ/}}, where {{IPA|/c/}} contrasts with both syllable-final ''t'' {{IPA|/t/}} and ''c'' {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɲ/}} contrasts with syllable-final ''n'' {{IPA|/n/}} and ''ng'' {{IPA|/ŋ/}}. Final {{IPA|/c, ɲ/}} is, then, identified with syllable-initial {{IPA|/c, ɲ/}}. Another analysis has final ''ch'' and ''nh'' as representing predictable [[allophonic]] variants of the velar phonemes {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ŋ/}} that occur after upper front vowels {{IPA|/i/}} (orthographic ''i'') and {{IPA|/e/}} (orthographic ''ê''). Arguments for the second analysis include the limited distribution of final {{IPA|[c]}} and {{IPA|[ɲ]}}, the gap in the distribution of {{IPA|[k]}} and {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, which do not occur after {{IPA|[i]}} and {{IPA|[e]}}, and the patterning of {{IPA|[k]}}/{{IPA|[c]}} and {{IPA|[ŋ]}}/{{IPA|[ɲ]}} in certain reduplicated words. Additionally, final {{IPA|[c]}} is not usually articulated as far forward as the initial {{IPA|[c]}}: {{IPA|[c]}} and {{IPA|[ɲ]}} are pre-velar {{IPA|[k̟, ŋ̟]}}. The preceding upper front vowels are [[Assimilation (linguistics)|co-articulated]] as well, resulting in [[Centralization (phonetics)|centralized]] variants: :{| cellspacing="5" | {{IPA|/ik/}} || → || ''ich'' || {{IPA|[ïk̟]}} |- | {{IPA|/iŋ/}} || → || ''inh'' || {{IPA|[ïŋ̟]}} |- | {{IPA|/ek/}} || → || ''êch'' || {{IPA|[ëk̟]}} or {{IPA|[əɪk̟]}} |- | {{IPA|/eŋ/}} || → || ''ênh'' || {{IPA|[ëŋ̟]}} or {{IPA|[əɪŋ̟]}} |} Finally, this analysis interprets orthographic ''ach'' and ''anh'' as having a vowel nucleus with a front component. One interpretation considers the orthographic ''a'' in these sequences as underlyingly a diphthong {{IPA|/aj/}} with a high front off-glide (thus equating it with orthographic ''ay'') — in other words, {{IPA|[ac]}} is {{IPA|/ajk/}} and {{IPA|[aɲ]}} is {{IPA|/ajŋ/}}. Another interpretation of the orthographic ''a'' is that it is underlyingly the vowel {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, which becomes phonetically centralized and diphthongized: {{IPA|/ɛk/}} → {{IPA|[aɪk̟]}}, {{IPA|[/ɛŋ/}} → {{IPA|[aɪŋ̟]}}.<ref>Although there are some words where ''c'' and ''ng'' occur after orthographic {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, these words are few and are mostly loanwords or [[onomatopoeia]]</ref> The first analysis closely follows the surface pronunciation of a slightly different Hanoi dialect than the second. In this dialect, the {{IPA|[a]}} in {{IPA|[ac]}} and {{IPA|[aɲ]}} is not diphthongized but is actually articulated more forward, approaching a front vowel {{IPA|[æ]}}. This results in a three-way contrast between the rimes ''ăn'' {{IPA|[æ̈n]}} vs. ''anh'' {{IPA|[æ̈ŋ̟]}} vs. ''ăng'' {{IPA|[æ̈ŋ]}}. For this reason, a separate phonemic {{IPA|/ɲ/}} is posited. ====Phonological processes==== * A [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}} is inserted before words that begin with a vowel or the glide {{IPA|/w/}}:{{ref label|glottal stop|1|1}} :{| cellpadding="5" style="line-height: 1.0em;" | ''ăn'' | 'to eat' | {{IPA|/an/}} | {{unicode|→}} | {{IPA|[ʔan]}} |- | ''uỷ'' | 'to delegate' | {{IPA|/wi/}} | {{unicode|→}} | {{IPA|[ʔwij]}} |} * When stops {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} occur at the end of words, they are [[unreleased]] and with accompanying glottal closure {{IPA|[ʔp̚, ʔt̚, ʔk̚]}}: :{| cellpadding="5" style="line-height: 1.0em;" | ''đáp'' | 'to reply' | {{IPA|/ɗaːp/}} | {{unicode|→}} | {{IPA|[ʔɗaːʔp̚]}} |- | ''mát'' | 'cool' | {{IPA|/maːt/}} | {{unicode|→}} | {{IPA|[maːʔt̚]}} |- | ''khác'' | 'different' | {{IPA|/xaːk/}} | {{unicode|→}} | {{IPA|[xaːʔk̚]}} |} * When the velar consonants {{IPA|/k, ŋ/}} follow {{IPA|/u, w/}}, they are articulated with a simultaneous bilabial closure {{IPA|[k͡p, ŋ͡m]}} (i.e. [[doubly-articulated]]) or are strongly [[labialization|labialized]] {{IPA|[kʷ, ŋʷ]}}. :{| cellpadding="5" style="line-height: 1.0em;" | ''đục'' | 'muddy' | {{IPA|/ɗuk/}} | {{unicode|→}} | {{IPA|[ʔɗuʔk͡p̚]}} |- | ''độc'' | 'poison' | {{IPA|/ɗɜwk/}} | {{unicode|→}} | {{IPA|[ʔɗɜwʔk͡p̚]}} |- | ''ung'' | 'cancer' | {{IPA|/uŋ/}} | {{unicode|→}} | {{IPA|[ʔuŋ͡m]}} |- | ''ong'' | 'bee' | {{IPA|/awŋ/}} | {{unicode|→}} | {{IPA|[ʔawŋ͡m]}} |} ===Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon)=== The 22 consonants of the Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) variety (a.k.a. Saigon variety): :{| class="wikitable" ! colspan="2" | &nbsp; ! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]] ! [[Labiodental|Labio-<br />dental]] ! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar]] ! [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |-align=center ! colspan=2 | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA|m}} | &nbsp; | {{IPA|n}} | &nbsp; | {{IPA|ɲ}} | {{IPA|ŋ}} | &nbsp; |-align=center ! rowspan=3 align=center | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]] <br>and <br> [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]] ! <small>[[unaspirated]]</small> | {{IPA|p}} | &nbsp; | {{IPA|t}} | {{IPA|ʈʂ}} | {{IPA|c}} | {{IPA|k}} | ({{IPA|ʔ}}) |-align=center ! <small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small> | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | {{IPA|t̺ʰ}} | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; |-align=center ! <small>[[glottalization|glottalized]]</small> | {{IPA|ɓ}} | &nbsp; | {{IPA|ɗ}} | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; |- align=center ! colspan=2 | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] | &nbsp; | {{IPA|f}}&nbsp;({{IPA|vʲ}}) | {{IPA|s}} | {{IPA|ʂ}}&nbsp;{{IPA|r}} | &nbsp; | {{IPA|x}}&nbsp;{{IPA|ɣ}} | {{IPA|h}} |-align=center ! colspan=2 | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | {{IPA|l}} | &nbsp; | {{IPA|j}} | {{IPA|w}} | &nbsp; |} ====Phonetics==== The HCMC Vietnamese variety is essentially the same as the Hanoi with the following exceptions: * {{IPA|/v/}} is generally not present in HCMC. When it is pronounced, it is often a [[spelling pronunciation]] in which case it always occurs [[palatalization|palatalized]] with a {{IPA|[j]}} following it: {{IPA|[vʲj]}}. In addition to this {{IPA|[vj]}}, there is {{IPA|[bj, βj]}} that is present among other speakers. These pronunciations are remnants of a merger and [[sound change]] involving {{IPA|/v, z/}} in southern speech ({{IPA|/v/}} is generally still present in the northern and central regions). * Hanoi {{IPA|/z/}} is not present in HCMC. * HCMC {{IPA|/l/}} is generally slightly more palatalized than the Hanoi variety: {{IPA|[lʲ]}}. * In southern speech, the phoneme {{IPA|/r/}} has a number of variant pronunciations that depend on the speaker. More than one pronunciation may even be found within a single speaker. It may occur as a [[Voiced retroflex fricative|retroflex fricative]] {{IPA|[ʐ]}}, a [[Voiced postalveolar fricative|postalveolar fricative]] {{IPA|[ʒ]}}, a [[Alveolar tap|flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}}, a [[Alveolar trill|trill]] {{IPA|[r]}}, or a [[Raised (phonetics)|fricative]] flap/trill {{IPA|[ɾ̝, r̝]}}. This sound is generally represented in Vietnamese linguistics by the symbol < r >. * Among the coronals: ** {{IPA|/tʰ/}} is dental: {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}}. ** {{IPA|/t, ɗ, s, n, l/}} are alveolar: {{IPA|[t͇, ɗ͇, s͇, n͇, l͇]}}. ** {{IPA|/t, tʰ, ɗ, s, n/}} are apical: {{IPA|[t̺, t̺ʰ, ɗ̺, s̺, n̺]}} . ** {{IPA|/l, c, ɲ/}} are laminal: {{IPA|[l̻ʲ, c̻, ɲ̻]}}. * Unlike Hanoi, the glide {{IPA|/w/}} in HCMC when at the beginning of a syllable is not preceded by a glottal stop. ===Regional consonant variation===<!-- This section is linked from [[Vietnamese language]] --> At the beginning of syllables, Hanoi {{IPA|/v, z/}} appear as HCMC {{IPA|/j/}}. HCMC {{IPA|/r/}} appears as Hanoi {{IPA|/z/}}, HCMC {{IPA|/c, ʈʂ/}} appear as Hanoi {{IPA|/c/}}, and HCMC {{IPA|/s, ʂ/}} appear as Hanoi {{IPA|/s/}}. The table below summarizes these sound correspondences: :{| border="1" cellpadding="6" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.4em; text-align: center;" |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! colspan="5" | [[Syllable onset]]s |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! rowspan="2" | Hanoi ! rowspan="2" | HCMC ! colspan="3" | Example |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! word ! Hanoi ! HCMC |- | {{IPA|/v/}} | rowspan=2 | {{IPA|/j/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''vợ'' &nbsp; "wife" | {{IPA|/vəː/}} | {{IPA|/(v)jəː/}} |- | rowspan=2 | {{IPA|/z/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''da'' &nbsp; "skin" | {{IPA|/zaː/}} | {{IPA|/jaː/}} |- | {{IPA|/r/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''ra'' &nbsp; "to go out" | {{IPA|/zaː/}} | {{IPA|/raː/}} |- | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/c/}} | {{IPA|/c/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''chi'' &nbsp; "what/why/how" | {{IPA|/ci/}} | {{IPA|/cɪ/}} |- | {{IPA|/ʈʂ/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''trắng'' &nbsp; "white" | {{IPA|/caŋ/}} | {{IPA|/ʈʂaŋ/}} |- | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/s/}} | {{IPA|/s/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''xa'' &nbsp; "far" | {{IPA|/saː/}} | {{IPA|/saː/}} |- | {{IPA|/ʂ/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''số'' &nbsp; "number" | {{IPA|/so/}} | {{IPA|/ʂo/}} |} There are also sound mergers involving syllable-final consonants among the different regional varieties. These correspondences differ from the initial consonant correspondences discussed above. Coronals {{IPA|/t, n/}} in Hanoi appear as velars {{IPA|/k, ŋ/}} in HCMC, except when the coronals occur after the higher front vocalics {{IPA|/i, e, j/}}, in which case HCMC {{IPA|/t, n/}} remain the same as Hanoi {{IPA|/t, n/}}. Additionally, Hanoi {{IPA|/k, ŋ/}} appear as HCMC {{IPA|/t, n/}} when they occur after {{IPA|/i, e, j/}} (otherwise they are {{IPA|/k, ŋ/}}): :{| border="1" cellpadding="6" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.4em; text-align: center;" |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! colspan="5" | [[Syllable coda]]s |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! rowspan="2" | Hanoi ! rowspan="2" | HCMC ! colspan="3" | Example |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! word ! Hanoi ! HCMC |- | style="text-align: left;" | {{IPA|/t/}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/k/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''hát'' &nbsp; "to sing" | {{IPA|/haːt/}} | {{IPA|/haːk/}} |- | style="text-align: left;" | {{IPA|/k/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''thác'' &nbsp; "waterfall" | {{IPA|/tʰaːk/}} | {{IPA|/tʰaːk/}} |- | style="text-align: left;" | {{IPA|/n/}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ŋ/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''xuân'' &nbsp; "spring" | {{IPA|/swɜn/}} | {{IPA|/swɨŋ/}} |- | style="text-align: left;" | {{IPA|/ŋ/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''vâng'' &nbsp; "to obey" | {{IPA|/vɜŋ/}} | {{IPA|/(v)jɜŋ/}} |- | style="text-align: left;" | {{IPA|/t/}} after {{IPA|/i, e, j/}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/t/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''ít'' &nbsp; "few, small in quantity" | {{IPA|/it/}} | {{IPA|/ɪt/}} |- | style="text-align: left;" | {{IPA|/k/}} after {{IPA|/i, e, j/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''ếch'' &nbsp; "frog" | {{IPA|/ɜjk/}} | {{IPA|/ɜt/}} |- | style="text-align: left;" | {{IPA|/n/}} after {{IPA|/i, e, j/}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/n/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''đến'' &nbsp; "to arrive" | {{IPA|/ɗen/}} | {{IPA|/ɗɜn/}} |- | style="text-align: left;" | {{IPA|/ŋ/}} after {{IPA|/i, e, j/}} | style="text-align: left;" | ''lính'' &nbsp; "soldier" | {{IPA|/liŋ/}} | {{IPA|/lɨn/}} |} As can be seen above, vowels also vary among different regions. ==Vowels== ===Monophthongs=== The [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] vowel chart of [[monophthong]]s (i.e., simple [[vowel]]s) below is a composite of the phonetic descriptions of {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1997}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Thompson|1965}}, and {{Harvcoltxt|Han|1966}}.{{ref label|monophthongs|2|2}} This is a vowel description of Hanoi Vietnamese (i.e., other regions of [[Vietnam]] may have different inventories). :{| class="wikitable" ! &nbsp; ! [[Front vowel|Front]] ! [[Central vowel|Central]] ! [[Back vowel|Back]] |-align=center ! [[Close vowel|Close]] | {{IPA|i}} | {{IPA|ɨ}} | {{IPA|u}} |-align=center ! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]] | {{IPA|e}} | {{IPA|əː}} | {{IPA|o}} |-align=center ! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]] | {{IPA|ɛ}} | {{IPA|ɜ}} | {{IPA|ɔ}} |-align=center ! [[Open vowel|Open]] | &nbsp; | {{IPA|a}} &nbsp; {{IPA|aː}} | &nbsp; |} * All vowels are [[Roundedness|unrounded]] except for the three back rounded vowels: {{IPA|/u, o, ɔ/}}. * {{IPA|/ɜ/}} and {{IPA|/a/}} are pronounced [[Vowel length|short]] — shorter than the other vowels. ** {{IPA|/a/ vs. /aː/}}: Short {{IPA|/a/}} ([[orthography|orthographic]] ''ă'') and long {{IPA|/aː/}} (orthographic ''a'') are different [[phoneme|phonemic]] vowels, differing in [[Vowel length|length]] only (and not quality). (The {{IPA|[ː]}} symbol indicates a long vowel.) ** {{IPA|/ɜ/ vs. /əː/}}: {{Harvcoltxt|Han|1966}} suggests that short {{IPA|/ɜ/}} and long {{IPA|/əː/}} differ in both height and length, but that the difference in length is probably the primary distinction. {{Harvcoltxt|Thompson|1965}} seems to suggest that the distinction is due to height (as he does for all Vietnamese vowels), although he also notes the length difference. * {{IPA|/ɨ/}} is [[Close central unrounded vowel|close central unrounded]] and [[Retracted (phonetics)|backed]] and [[Lowered (phonetics)|lowered]]: {{IPA|[ɨ̞̠]}}. Many descriptions, such as Thompson,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Thompson|1959}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Thompson|1965}}</ref> {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1970}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1997}}, consider this vowel to be [[Close back unrounded vowel|close back unrounded]]: {{IPA|[ɯ]}}. However, Han's<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Han|1966}}</ref> instrumental analysis indicates that it is more central than back. {{Harvcoltxt|Brunelle|2003}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Pham|2003}} also transcribe this vowel as central. * The high and upper-mid vowels {{IPA|/i, ɨ, u, e, əː, o/}} have phonetic offglides: {{IPA|[ɪj, ɨɰ, ʊw, ej, əːɰ, ow]}}, particularly in open syllables: :{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1.0em;" | ''chị'' | 'elder sister' | {{IPA|/ci/}} | → | {{IPA|[cɪj]}} | | ''quê'' | 'countryside' | {{IPA|/kwe/}} | → | {{IPA|[kwej]}} |- | ''tư'' | 'fourth' | {{IPA|/tɨ/}} | → | {{IPA|[tɨɰ]}} | | ''mơ'' | 'to dream' | {{IPA|/məː/}} | → | {{IPA|[məːɰ]}} |- | ''thu'' | 'autumn' | {{IPA|/tʰu/}} | → | {{IPA|[tʰʊw]}} | | ''cô'' | 'paternal aunt' | {{IPA|/ko/}} | → | {{IPA|[kow]}} |} ===Diphthongs and triphthongs=== In addition to monophthongs, Vietnamese has many [[diphthong]]s and [[triphthong]]s. Most of these consist of a vowel followed by {{IPA|/j/}} or {{IPA|/w/}}. Below is a chart<ref>From {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1997}}</ref> listing the diphthongs & triphthongs of general northern speech. :{| class="wikitable" |- ! align="center" | {{IPA|/ɜ/}} Diphthongs ! align="center" | {{IPA|/j/}} Diphthongs/<br>Triphthongs ! align="center" | {{IPA|/w/}} Diphthongs/<br>Triphthongs |- | align="center" | {{IPA|/iɜ/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/əːj/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/iw/}} |- | align="center" | {{IPA|/ɨɜ/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/ɜj/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/ew/}} |- | align="center" | {{IPA|/uɜ/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/aːj/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/ɛw/}} |- | | align="center" | {{IPA|/aj/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/əːw/}} |- | | align="center" | {{IPA|/ɨj/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/ɜw/}} |- | | align="center" | {{IPA|/uj/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/aːw/}} |- | | align="center" | {{IPA|/oj/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/aw/}} |- | | align="center" | {{IPA|/ɔj/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/ɨw/}} |- | | align="center" | {{IPA|/ɨɜj/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/iɜw/}} |- | | align="center" | {{IPA|/uɜj/}} | align="center" | {{IPA|/ɨɜw/}} |} * {{IPA|/j/}} never follows front vowels {{IPA|/i, e, ɛ/}}. * {{IPA|/w/}} never follows rounded vowels {{IPA|/u, o, ɔ/}}. ===Regional vowel variation=== {{Harvcoltxt|Thompson|1965}} says that in Hanoi, words spelled with ''ưu'' and ''ươu'' are pronounced as {{IPA|/iw, iɜw/}}, respectively, whereas other dialects in the Tonkin delta pronounce them as {{IPA|/ɨw/}} and {{IPA|/ɨɜw/}}. Hanoi speakers that do pronounce these words with {{IPA|/ɨw/}} and {{IPA|/ɨɜw/}} are using a [[spelling pronunciation]]. {{Harvcoltxt|Thompson|1965}} also notes that in Hanoi the diphthongs, ''iê'' {{IPA|/iɜ/}}, ''ươ'' {{IPA|/ɨɜ/}}, ''uô'' {{IPA|/uɜ/}}, may be pronounced as {{IPA|/ie, ɨəː, uo/}}, respectively (as the spelling suggests), but before {{IPA|/k, ŋ/}} and in open syllables these are always pronounced {{IPA|/iɜ, ɨɜ, uɜ/}}. ==Tone== {{Sectstub|date=May 2008}} Vietnamese vowels are all pronounced with an inherent [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]]. Tones differ in * pitch * length * contour melody * intensity * [[phonation]] (with or without accompanying constricted vocal cords) Unlike many Native American, African, and Chinese languages, Vietnamese tones do not rely solely on [[pitch contour]]. Vietnamese often uses instead a '''''[[register complex]]''''' (which is a combination of phonation type, pitch, length, vowel quality, etc.). So perhaps a better description would be that Vietnamese is a register language and not a "pure" tonal language.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Pham|2003|p=?}}</ref> In Vietnamese orthography, tone is indicated by diacritics written above or below the vowel. ===Six-tone analysis=== There is much variation among speakers concerning how tone is realized phonetically. There are differences between varieties of Vietnamese spoken in the major geographic areas (i.e. northern, central, southern) and smaller differences within the major areas (e.g. Hanoi vs. other northern varieties). In addition, there seems to be variation among individuals. More research is needed to determine the remaining details of tone realization and the variation among speakers. ====Northern varieties==== The six tones in the Hanoi and other northern varieties are: :{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! Name ! Description ! Chao Tone Contour ! Diacritic ! Example |- | ''ngang'' "level" | mid level | {{IPA|˧}} (33) | align="center" | (no mark) | ''ba'' 'three' |- | ''huyền'' "hanging" | low falling (breathy) | {{IPA|˨˩}} (21) or (31) | align="center" | '''`''' | ''bà'' 'lady' |- | ''hỏi'' "asking" | mid falling(-rising), harsh | {{IPA|˧˩˧}} (313) or (323) or (31) | align="center" | '''&nbsp;̉''' | ''bả'' 'poison' |- | ''ngã'' "tumbling" | mid rising, glottalized | {{IPA|˧ˀ˥}} (3ˀ5) or (4ˀ5) | align="center" | '''˜''' | ''bã'' 'residue' |- | ''sắc'' "sharp" | mid rising, tense | {{IPA|˧ˀ˥}} (3ˀ5) | align="center" | '''´''' | ''bá'' 'governor' |- | ''nặng'' "heavy" | mid falling, glottalized, short | {{IPA|˧ˀ˨ʔ}} (3ˀ2ʔ)<small> or </small>{{IPA|˧ˀ˩ʔ}} (3ˀ1ʔ) | align="center" | '''&nbsp;̣''' | ''bạ'' 'at random' |} [[Image:VietnameseToneNorthern.png|thumb|425px|Northern Vietnamese (non-Hanoi) tones as uttered by a male speaker in isolation. From {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|Edmondson|1998}}]] [[Image:VietnameseToneHanoi.png|thumb|425px|Hanoi tones as uttered by a female speaker in isolation. From {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|Edmondson|1998}}]] [[Image:VietnameseToneHanoi2.png|thumb|425px|Hanoi tones as uttered by a different female speaker in isolation. From {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|Edmondson|1998}}]] '''Ngang tone:''' *The ''ngang'' tone is level at around the mid level (33) and is produced with [[modal voice]] [[phonation]] (i.e. with "normal" phonation). Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "level"; {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1997}} describes it as "high (or mid) level". '''Huyền tone:''' *The ''huyền'' tone starts low-mid and falls (21). Some Hanoi speakers start at a somewhat higher point (31). It is sometimes accompanied by [[breathy voice]] (or lax) phonation in some speakers, but this is lacking in other speakers: ''bà'' = {{IPA|[ʔɓɐ̤ː˨˩]}} or {{IPA|[ʔɓaː˨˩]}}.<ref>For example, {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|Edmondson|1998}} show a male speaker from [[Nam Dinh Province|Nam Định]] with [[lax voice]] and a female speaker from Hanoi with breathy voice for the ''huyền'' tone while another male speaker from Hanoi has modal voice for the ''huyền''.</ref> Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "grave-lowering"; {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1997}} describes it as "low falling". '''Hỏi tone:''' * The ''hỏi'' tone starts a mid level and falls. It starts with modal voice phonation, which moves increasingly toward [[tense voice]] with accompanying [[harsh voice]] (although the harsh voice seems to vary according to speaker). In Hanoi, the tone is mid falling (31). In other northern speakers, the tone is mid falling and then rises back to the mid level (313 or 323). This characteristic gives this tone its traditional description as "dipping". However, the falling-rising contour is most obvious in citation forms or when syllable-final; in other positions and when in fast speech, the rising contour is negligible. The ''hỏi'' also is relatively short compared with the other tones, but not as short as the ''nặng'' tone. Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "smooth-rising"; {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1997}} describes it as "dipping-rising". '''Ngã tone:''' * The ''ngã'' tone is mid rising (35). Many speakers begin the vowel with modal voice, followed by strong [[creaky voice]] starting toward the middle of the vowel, which is then lessening as the end of the syllable is approached. Some speakers with more dramatic glottalization have a [[glottal stop]] closure in the middle of the vowel (i.e. as {{IPA|[VʔV]}}). In Hanoi Vietnamese, the tone starts at a higher pitch (45) than other northern speakers. Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "chesty-raised"; {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1997}} describes it as "creaking-rising". '''Sắc tone:''' *The ''sắc'' tone starts as mid and then rises (35) in much the same way as the ''ngã'' tone. It is accompanied by [[tense voice]] phonation throughout the duration of the vowel. In some Hanoi speakers, the ''ngã'' tone is noticeably higher than the ''sắc'' tone, for example: ''sắc'' = {{IPA|˧˦}} (34); ''ngã'' = {{IPA|˦ˀ˥}} (45). Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "acute-angry"; {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1997}} describes it as "high (or mid) rising". '''Nặng tone:''' * The ''nặng'' tone starts mid or low-mid and rapidly falls in pitch (32 or 21). It starts with tense voice that becomes increasing tense until the vowel ends in a glottal stop closure. This tone is noticeably shorter than the other tones. Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "chesty-heavy"; {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1997}} describes it as "constricted". ====Southern varieties==== {{Sectstub|date=May 2008}} ====North-central and Central varieties==== {{Sectstub|date=May 2008}} North-central and Central Vietnamese varieties are fairly similar with respect to tone although within the North-central dialect region there is considerable internal variation. ===Eight-tone analysis=== {{Sectstub|date=May 2008}} * See {{Harvcoltxt|Pham|2003}} ==Syllables and phonotactics== According to {{Harvcoltxt|Hannas|1997}}, ''[[Quốc Ngữ]]'' can represent 6,200 syllables (tones included {{vague|also please mention how many if tones are ignored}} ), but only about 4,500 to 4,800 are used depending on dialect (''Quốc Ngữ'' is designed to accommodate different dialects).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hannas|1997|p=88}}</ref> The Vietnamese [[syllable|syllable structure]] follows the scheme: :: (C<sub>1</sub>)(w)V(C<sub>2</sub>)+T where :{| cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" style="background: #f9f9f9;" | valign="top" | * C<sub>1</sub> = initial consonant onset * w = bilabial glide {{IPA|/w/}} * V = vowel nucleus | valign="top" | * C<sub>2</sub> = final consonant coda * T = tone. |} In other words, a syllable can optionally have one [[syllable onset|onset]] consisting of single consonant or a consonant and the glide {{IPA|/w/}} and an optional [[syllable coda|coda]]. The vowel nucleus may have an additional glide element. More explicitly, the syllable types are as follows: :{| class=wikitable |- style="font-size: 85%; background: #f2f2f2;" ! Syllable ! Example ! Syllable ! Example |- | V | | wV | |- | VC | | wVC | |- | VC | | wVC | |- | CV | | CwV | |- | CVC | | CwVC | |- | CVC | | CwVC | |} '''C<sub>1</sub>:''' Any consonant may occur in as an onset with the following exceptions: * {{IPA|/p/}} does not occur in native Vietnamese words * {{IPA|/j/}} does not occur in Hanoi, but it does occur in HCMC and other varieties (due to sound change) '''w:''' * {{IPA|/w/}} does not occur after labial consonants {{IPA|/ɓ, f, v, m, w/}} * {{IPA|/w/}} does not occur after {{IPA|/n/}} in native Vietnamese words (it occurs in uncommon Sino-Vietnamese borrowings) * the sequences {{IPA|/hw, kw/}} appears in HCMC as {{IPA|[w]}}, excepting spelling pronunciations '''V:''' The vowel nucleus V may be any of the following 14 monophthongs or diphthongs: {{IPA|/i, ɨ, u, e, əː, o, ɛ, ɜ, ɔ, a, aː, iɜ, ɨɜ, uɜ/}}. '''G:''' '''C<sub>2</sub>:''' The optional coda C<sub>2</sub> is restricted to labial, coronal, & velar stops {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} and nasals {{IPA|/m, n, ŋ/}}. '''T:''' Syllables are spoken with an inherent [[tone (linguistics)|tone contour]]. All tone contours are possible for open syllables (syllables without consonant codas). If the syllable is closed only 2 contours are possible, that is the ''sắc'' and the ''nặng'' tone. ==Notes== :{{note label|monophthongs|2|2}} Below is a table comparing four linguists' different transcriptions of Vietnamese vowels as well as the orthographic representation. Notice that this article is mostly following {{Harvcoltxt|Han|1966}}. :{| class="wikitable" |- |+ comparison of orthography & vowel descriptions |-align=center ! Orthography ! Wikipedia ! Thompson<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Thompson|1965}}</ref> ! Han<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Han|1966}}</ref> ! Nguyễn<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1997}}</ref> ! Đoàn<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Đoàn|1980}}</ref> |-align=center | i | {{IPA|i}} | {{IPA|iː}} | {{IPA|i}} | {{IPA|i}} | {{IPA|i}} |-align=center | ê | {{IPA|e}} | {{IPA|eː}} | {{IPA|e}} | {{IPA|e}} | {{IPA|e}} |-align=center | e | {{IPA|ɛ}} | {{IPA|ɛː}} | {{IPA|ɛ}} | {{IPA|a}} | {{IPA|ɛ}} |-align=center | ư | {{IPA|ɨ}} | {{IPA|ɯː}} | {{IPA|ɨ}} | {{IPA|ɯ}} | {{IPA|ɯ}} |-align=center | u | {{IPA|u}} | {{IPA|uː}} | {{IPA|u}} | {{IPA|u}} | {{IPA|u}} |-align=center | ô | {{IPA|o}} | {{IPA|oː}} | {{IPA|o}} | {{IPA|o}} | {{IPA|o}} |-align=center | o | {{IPA|ɔ}} | {{IPA|ɔː}} | {{IPA|ɔ}} | {{IPA|ɔ}} | {{IPA|ɔ}} |-align=center | ơ | {{IPA|əː}} | {{IPA|ɤː}} | {{IPA|ɜː}} | {{IPA|əː}} | {{IPA|ɤː}} |-align=center | â | {{IPA|ɜ}} | {{IPA|ʌ}} | {{IPA|ɜ}} | {{IPA|ə}} | {{IPA|ɤ}} |-align=center | a | {{IPA|aː}} | {{IPA|æː}} | {{IPA|ɐː}} | {{IPA|ɐː}} | {{IPA|aː}} |-align=center | ǎ | {{IPA|a}} | {{IPA|ɐ}} | {{IPA|ɐ}} | {{IPA|ɐ}} | {{IPA|a}} |} {{Harvcoltxt|Thompson|1965}} says that the vowels {{IPA|[ʌ]}} (orthographic '''â''') and {{IPA|[ɐ]}} (orthographic '''ă''') are shorter than all of the other vowels, which is shown here with the length mark {{IPA|[ː]}} added to the other vowels. His vowels above are only the basic vowel phonemes. Thompson gives a very detailed description of each vowel's various allophonic realizations. {{Harvcoltxt|Han|1966}} uses acoustic analysis, including spectrograms and format measuring & plotting, to describe the vowels. She states that the primary difference between orthographic ''ơ'' & ''â'' and ''a'' & ''ă'' is a difference of length (a ratio of 2:1). ''ơ'' = {{IPA|/ɜː/}}, ''â'' = {{IPA|/ɜ/}}; ''a'' = {{IPA|/ɐː/}}, ''ă'' = {{IPA|/ɐ/}}. Her format plots also seem show that {{IPA|/ɜː/}} may be slightly higher than {{IPA|/ɜ/}} in some contexts (but this would be secondary to the main difference of length). Another thing to mention about Han's studies is that she uses a rather small number of participants and, additionally, although her participants are native speakers of the Hanoi variety, they all have lived outside of Hanoi for a significant period of their lives (i.e. in [[France]] or [[Ho Chi Minh City]]). {{Harvcoltxt|Nguyễn|1997}} has a simpler, more symmetrical description. He says that his work is not a "complete grammar" but rather a "descriptive introduction." So, his chart above is more a phonological vowel chart rather than a phonetic one. ==See also== *[[Vietnamese alphabet]] *[[Vietnamese language]] *[[List of phonetics topics]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== * {{citation |last=Brunelle |first=Marc |year=2003 |chapter=[http://aix1.uottawa.ca/~mbrunell/Viet%20coarticulation.pdf Coarticulation effects in northern Vietnamese tones]. |title=Proceedings of the 15th International Conference of Phonetic Sciences }} * {{citation |last=Đoàn |first=Thiện Thuật |year=1980 |title=Ngữ âm tiếng Việt |place=[[Hanoi|Hà Nội]] |publisher=Đại học và Trung học Chuyên nghiệp }} * Đoàn, Thiện Thuật; Nguyễn, Khánh Hà, Phạm, Như Quỳnh. (2003). ''A Concise Vietnamese Grammar (For Non-Native Speakers)''. Hà Nội: Thế Giới Publishers, 2001. * Earle, M. A. (1975). ''An acoustic study of northern Vietnamese tones''. Santa Barbara: Speech Communications Research Laboratory, Inc. * Ferlus, Michel. (1997). 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''Diachronica'', ''19'' (2), 333-363. ==External links== *[http://ngonngu.net/index.php?fld=nnh&sub=nguam&pst=nguamhoc Ngữ âm học] {{Language phonologies}} [[Category:Language phonologies]] [[Category:Vietnamese language]] [[nl:Vietnamese fonologie]] [[vi:Âm vị học tiếng Việt]] [[wuu:越南语音系]] [[zh:越南語音系]]