Virtue
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[[Image:Efez Celsus Library 2 RB.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Personification]] of virtue ([[Greek Language|Greek]] ''ἀρετή'') in [[Celsus Library]] in [[Ephesos]], [[Turkey]]]]
'''Virtue''' ([[Latin]] ''virtus''; [[Greek language|Greek]] {{Polytonic|[[ἀρετή]]}}) is [[morality|moral]] [[excellence]] of a person. A virtue is a trait [[Value (personal and cultural)|valued]] as being [[Goodness and value theory|good]]. The conceptual opposite of virtue is [[vice]].
According to its etymology the word virtue (Latin virtus) signifies manliness or courage. Taken in its widest sense virtue refers to excellence, just as vice, its contrary, denotes the absence of such. In its strictest meaning, however, as used by moral philosophers and theologians, virtue is an operative [[Habit (psychology)|habit]] essentially good, as distinguished from vice, an operative habit essentially evil. The four cardinal (hinge) virtues are Justice, Courage, Wisdom, and Moderation. These were enumerated by the Greek philosophers. The three supernatural virtues of Faith, Hope and (unselfish) Love are part of the tradition of Pauline Christianity, Judaism and Islam.
Virtue can also be meant in another way. Virtue can either have [[normative]] or moral [[goodness and value theory|value]]; i.e. the virtue of a judge is to justly convict criminals, the virtue of an excellent judge is to specialise in justly convicting criminals (this is its normative value) vs. the virtues of reason, prudence, chastity, etc. (which have moral value).
In the Greek it is more properly called {{Polytonic|ἠθικὴ ἀρετή}} (''ēthikē aretē''). It is "habitual excellence". It is something practiced at all times. The virtue of perseverance is needed for all and any virtue since it is a habit of character and must be used continuously in order for any person to maintain oneself in virtue. However, [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] stated that 'when virtue has slept, it will arise all the more vigorous'.
==Virtues and values==
Virtues can be placed into a broader context of values. Each [[individual]] has a core of underlying values that contribute to our system of beliefs, ideas and/or opinions (see [[value (Semiotics)|value]] in [[semiotics]]). Integrity in the application of a value ensures its continuity and this continuity separates a value from beliefs, opinion and ideas. In this context a value (e.g., Truth or Equality or Greed) is the core from which we operate or react. Societies have values that are shared among many of the participants in that culture. An individual's values typically are largely, but not entirely, in agreement with their culture's values.
Individual virtues can be grouped into one of four categories of values:
* [[Ethics]] ('''virtue''' - [[vice]], [[Goodness and value theory|good]] - [[bad]], [[morality|moral]] - immoral - [[Amorality|amoral]], right - wrong, [[permission|permissible]] - impermissible)
* [[Aesthetics]] ([[beauty|beautiful]], [[ugliness|ugly]], unbalanced, pleasing)
* [[Doctrine|Doctrinal]] ([[politics|political]], [[ideology|ideological]], [[religion|religious]] or [[social]] [[belief]]s and values)
* [[Innate]]/Inborn (inborn values such as [[Biological reproduction|reproduction]] and [[Survival skills|survival]], a controversial category)
A [[value system]] is the ordered and prioritized set of values (usually of the ethical and doctrinal categories described above) that an individual or society holds.
Some virtues (a '''virtue''' is a [[Moral character|character]] trait '''valued''' as being [[Goodness and value theory|good]]) recognized in various [[Western culture]]s of the world include:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-5}}
*[[acceptance]]
*[[altruism]], unselfishness
*[[appreciation]]
*[[assertiveness]]
*[[attention]], focus
*[[Wiktionary:autonomy|autonomy]]
*[[awareness]]
*[[balance (metaphysics)|balance]]
*[[being beautiful in spirit]]
*[[benevolence]]
*[[charity (virtue)|charity]]
*[[chastity]]
*[[cleanliness]]
*[[personal commitment|commitment]]
*[[compassion]]
*[[confidence]]
*[[consciousness]]
*[[consideration]]
*[[sexual continence|continence]]
*[[co-operation|cooperativeness]]
*[[courage]]
*[[courtesy|courteousness]]
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*[[creativity]]
*[[critical thinking]]
*[[Wiktionary:cunning|cunning]]
*[[curiosity]]
*[[dependability]]
*[[detachment]]
*determination
*[[diligence]]
*[[discipline]]
*[[empathy]]
*[[endurance]]
*[[enthusiasm]]
*equanimity
*equity
*[[excellence]]
*[[fairness]]
*[[faith]]
*[[fidelity]]
*[[physical fitness|fitness]]
*[[flexibility]]
*[[foresight]]
*[[forgiveness]]
*[[fortitude]]
*[[free will]]
*[[freedom (philosophy)|freedom]]
*[[friendship|friendliness]]
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*[[generosity]]
*[[happiness]]
*[[health]], health-minded
*[[helpfulness]]
*[[honesty]], truthfulness
*[[honour]]
*[[hope]]fulness
*[[hospitality]]
*[[humility]]
*[[humor]]
*[[idealism]]
*[[imagination]]
*[[impartiality]]
*[[independence]]
*[[innocence]]
*[[integrity]]
*[[intuition (knowledge)|intuition]]
*[[inventiveness]]
*[[joy]]
*[[justice]]
*[[kindness]]
*[[love|lovingness]]
*[[loyalty]]
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*[[manners]]
*[[mercy]]
*[[moderation]]
*[[modesty]]
*[[morality]]
*[[nonviolence]]
*[[nurture|nurturing]]
*[[obedience]]
*[[openness]]
*[[optimism]]
*[[patience]]
*[[peace]]fulness
*[[perfection]]
*[[perseverance]]
*[[philanthropy]]
*[[Philomath|philomathy]]
*[[piety]]
*[[potential]]
*[[prudence]]
*[[purity]]
*[[purpose]]fulness
*[[respect]]fulness
*[[moral responsibility]]
*[[social responsibility]]
*[[restraint]]
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*[[self-awareness]]
*[[self-confidence]]
*[[self-discipline]]
*[[self-esteem]]
*[[self-reliance]]
*[[self-respect]]
*[[sensitivity (human)|sensitivity]]
*[[sharing]]
*[[sincerity]]
*[[spirituality]]
*[[Physical strength|strength]]
*[[sympathy]]
*[[tact]]fulness
*[[temperance (virtue)| temperance]]
*[[tenacity]]
*[[thankfulness]]
*[[tolerance]]
*[[trustworthiness]]
*[[truth]]
*[[understanding]]
*[[wisdom]]
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==Four classic Western virtues==
{{Main|Cardinal virtues}}
The four classic Western [[Cardinal virtues|cardinal virtues]] are:
*[[temperance (virtue)|temperance]] : {{Polytonic|σωφροσύνη}} (''sōphrosynē'')
*[[prudence]] : {{Polytonic|φρόνησις}} (''phronēsis'')
*[[fortitude]] : {{Polytonic|ανδρεία}} (''andreia'')
*[[justice (virtue)|justice]] : {{Polytonic|δικαιοσύνη}} (''dikaiosynē'')
This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy, and was listed at least by [[Plato]], if not also by [[Socrates]], from whom no attributable written works exist. Plato also mentions "Holiness".
It is likely that Plato believed that virtue was, in fact, a single thing, and that this enumeration was created by others in order to better define virtue. In [[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]] and [[Meno]], he states that the separate virtues cannot exist independently, and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with wisdom (prudence), yet in an unjust way, or acting with bravery (fortitude), yet without wisdom (prudence).
==Aristotle's golden mean==
In his [[Nicomachean Ethics]], Aristotle describes every virtue as a balance point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait. The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a "golden mean" closer to one of the extremes than the other. E.g.:
*courage is the balance between cowardice (deficit of courage) and foolhardiness (excess of courage), lying closer to foolhardiness;
*proper pride is the balance between undue humility (deficit of pride) and empty vanity (excess of pride), lying closer to vanity;
*generosity is the balance between miserliness (deficit of generosity) and prodigality (excess of generosity), lying closer to prodigality.
==Prudence and virtue==
[[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], the Roman [[Stoic]], said that perfect [[prudence]] is indistinguishable from perfect virtue. Thus, in considering all consequences, a prudent person would act in the same way as a virtuous person.
The same rationale was followed by Plato in Meno, when he wrote that people only act for what they perceive will maximize the good. It is the lack of wisdom which results in the making of a bad choice, rather than a good one. In this way, wisdom is the central part of virtue. However, he realized that if virtue was synonymous with wisdom, then it could be taught, a possibility he had earlier discounted. He then added "correct belief" as an alternative to knowledge, proposing that knowledge is merely correct belief that has been thought through and "tethered".
==Roman virtues==
*[[Auctoritas]] — "Spiritual Authority" — The sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria.
*[[Comitas]] — "Humour" — Ease of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness.
*[[Constantinum]] — "Perseverance" — Military stamina, mental and physical endurance.
*[[Clementia]] — "Mercy" — Mildness and gentleness.
*[[Dignitas (Roman concept)|Dignitas]] — "Dignity" — A sense of self-worth, personal pride.
*[[Disciplinae]] — "Discipline" — Military oath under Roman protective law & citizenship.
*[[Firmitas]] — "Tenacity" — Strength of mind, the ability to stick to one's purpose.
*[[Frugalitas]] — "Frugalness" — Economy and simplicity of style, without being miserly.
*[[Gravitas]] — "Gravity" — A sense of the importance of the matter at hand, responsibility and earnestness.
*[[Honestas]] — "Respectability" — The image that one presents as a respectable member of society.
*[[Humanitas]] — "Humanity" — Refinement, civilization, learning, and being cultured.
*[[Industria]] — "Industriousness" — Hard work.
*[[Iustitia]] — "Justice" — Sense of moral worth to an action.
*[[Pietas]] — "Dutifulness" — More than religious piety; a respect for the natural order socially, politically, and religiously. Includes the ideas of patriotism and devotion to others.
*[[Prudentia]] — "Prudence" — Foresight, wisdom, and personal discretion.
*[[Salubritas]] — "Wholesomeness" — Health and cleanliness.
*[[Severitas]] — "Sternness" — Gravity, self-control.
*[[Veritas]] — "Truthfulness" — Honesty in dealing with others.
==The Jewish tradition==
In the [[Judaism|Jewish tradition]] [[God]] is the Compassionate and is invoked as the Father of Compassion: hence ''Raḥmana'' or Compassionate becomes the usual designation for His revealed word. (Compare, below, the frequent use of ''raḥman'' in the [[Qur'an]]).<ref>http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=699&letter=C&search=compassion | The Jewish Enclopedia</ref>
Sorrow and pity for one in distress, creating a desire to relieve, is a feeling ascribed alike to man and God: in [[Biblical Hebrew]], ("riḥam," from "reḥem," the mother, womb), "to pity" or "to show mercy" in view of the sufferer's helplessness, hence also "to forgive" (Hab. iii. 2); , "to forbear" (Ex. ii. 6; I Sam. xv. 3; Jer. xv. 15, xxi. 7.) The [[Rabbi]]s speak of the "thirteen attributes of compassion." The [[Hebrew Bible|Biblical]] conception of compassion is the feeling of the parent for the child. Hence the prophet's appeal in confirmation of his trust in God invokes the feeling of a mother for her offspring (Isa. xlix. 15).
<ref>http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=699&letter=C&search=compassion | The Jewish Enclopedia</ref>
Lack of compassion, by contrast, marks a people as cruel (Jer. vi. 23). The repeated injunctions of the Law and the [[Prophet]]s that the widow, the orphan and the stranger should be protected show how deeply, it is argued, the feeling of compassion was rooted in the hearts of the righteous in [[ancient Israel]].<ref>http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=699&letter=C&search=compassion |The Jewish Enclopedia</ref>
A classic articulation of the Golden Rule (see above) came from the first century [[Hillel the Elder|Rabbi Hillel the Elder]]. Renowned in the Jewish tradition as a sage and a scholar, he is associated with the development of the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]] and, as such, one of the most important figures in [[Jewish history]]. Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion in the most concise terms, Hillel replied (reputedly while standing on one leg): "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is the explanation; go and learn." <ref>[[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]], tractate Shabbat 31a. See also the [[ethic of reciprocity]] or "The [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden rule]]."</ref>
Post [[9/11]], the words of Rabbi Hillel are frequently quoted in public lectures and interviews around the world by the prominent writer on comparative religion [[Karen Armstrong]].
==The Christian tradition==
{{See also|Seven virtues}}
In [[Christianity]], the [[three theological virtues|theological virtues]] are [[faith]], [[hope]] and [[Charity (virtue)|charity]] or [[love]]/[[agape]], a list which comes from 1 Corinthians 13:13 (νυνι δε μενει ''πιστις ελπις αγαπη'' τα τρια ταυτα μειζων δε τουτων η αγαπη ''pistis, elpis, agape''). These are said to perfect one's love of God and Man and therefore (since God is super-rational) to harmonize and partake of [[prudence]].
There are many listings of virtue additional to the traditional Christian virtues (faith, hope and love) in the Christian Bible. One is the so-called "Fruit of the Spirit," found in Galatians 5:22-23:
: "By contrast, the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, generosity, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. There is no law against such things."
The Holy Bible : New Revised Standard Version (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1989).
22 Ὁ δὲ καρπὸς τοῦ πνεύματός ἐστιν ἀγάπη χαρὰ εἰρήνη, μακροθυμία χρηστότης ἀγαθωσύνη, πίστις 23 πραΰτης ἐγκράτεια· κατὰ τῶν τοιούτων οὐκ ἔστιν νόμος.
Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger and Allen Wikgren, The Greek New Testament, 4th ed. (Federal Republic of Germany: United Bible Societies, 1993, c1979).
==The Muslim tradition==
[[Image:Nomad prayer.jpg|right|thumb|320px| The virtue of humility embodied: a 1930s photograph of a desert traveler, as he seeks the assistance of God the Compassionate, the Merciful.]]
In the Muslim tradition the [[Qur'an]] is, as the word of God, the great repository of all virtue in earthly form, and the [[Muhammad|Prophet]], particularly via his [[hadiths]] or reported sayings, the exemplar of virtue in human form.
The very name of Islam, meaning "acceptance," proclaims the virtue of submission to the will of God, the acceptance of the way things are. Foremost among [[Allah|God's]] [[99 Names of Allah#List of Names|attributes]] are mercy and [[compassion]] or, in the canonical language of Arabic, ''Rahman'' and ''Rahim''. Each of the 114 chapters of the [[Qur'an]], with one exception, begins with the verse, "In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful". <ref>http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/tawheed/conceptofgod.html | University of Southern California</ref>
The Arabic for compassion is ''rahmah''. As a cultural influence, its roots abound in the Qur'an. A good muslim is to commence each day, each prayer and each significant action by invoking God the Merciful and Compassionate, i.e. by reciting ''Bi Ism-i-Allah al-Rahman al-Rahim''. The Muslim scriptures urge compassion towards captives as well as to widows, orphans and the poor. Traditionally, ''[[Zakah| Zakat]]'', a toll tax to help the poor and needy, was obligatory upon all muslims (9:60). One of the practical purposes of fasting or [[sawm]] during the month of [[Ramadan]] is to help one empathize with the hunger pangs of those less fortunate, to enhance sensitivity to the suffering of others and develop compassion for the poor and destitute. <ref>http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/15122001/1512200144.html</ref>
The list of Muslim virtues is a long one: prayer, repentance. honesty, loyalty, sincerity, frugality, prudence, moderation, self-restraint, discipline, perseverance, patience, hope, dignity, courage, justice, tolerance, wisdom, good speech, respect, purity, courtesy, kindness, gratitude, generosity and contentment.
==Hindu virtues==
Hinduism, or [[Sanatana Dharma]] (Dharma means moral duty), has pivotal virtues that everyone keeping their Dharma is asked to follow. For they are distinct qualities of manusya (mankind), that allow one to be in the mode of goodness. There are three modes of material nature (guna), as described in the Vedas and other Indian Scriptures: Sattva (goodness, creation, stillness, intelligence), Rajas (passion, maintenance, energy, activity) , and Tamas (ignorance, restraint, inertia, destruction). Every person harbours a mixture of these modes in varying degrees. A person in the mode of Sattva has that mode in prominence in his nature, which he obtains by following the virtues of the Dharma .
The modes of Sattva are as following.
* [[Altruism]]: Selfless Service to all humanity
* [[Restraint]] and [[Moderation]]: This is having restraint and moderation in all things. Sexual relations, eating, and other pleasurable activities should be kept in moderation. Some orthodox followers also believe in sex only in marriage, and being chaste. It depends on the sect and belief system, some people believe this means celibacy... While others believe in walking the golden path of moderation, i.e. Not to far to the side of forceful control and total abandon of human pleasures, but also not too far to the side of total indulgence and total abandon for moderation.
* [[Honesty]]: One is require to be honest with themselves, honest to their family, friends, and all of humanity.
* [[Cleanliness]]: Outer cleaniness is to be cultivated for good health and hygiene, inner cleaniness is cultivated through devotion to god, selflessness, non-violence and all the other virtues; which is maintained by refraining from intoxicants.
* [[Protection]] and reverence for the Earth.
* [[Universalism|Universality]]: Showing tolerance and respect for everyone, everything and the way of the Universe.
* [[Peace]]: One must cultivate a peaceful manner in order to benefit themselves and those around them.
* [[Non-Violence]]/Ahimsa: This means not killing, or being violent in any way to any life form or sentient being. This is why those who practice this Dharma are vegetarians because they see the slaughter of animals for the purpose of food as violent, when there are less violent ways to maintain a healthy diet.
* [[Reverence]] for elders and teachers: This is virtue is very important to learn respect and reverence for those who have wisdom and those who selflessly teach in love. The Guru or spiritual teacher is one of the highest principals in many Vedic based spiritualities, and is likened to that of God.
==The Buddhist tradition==
Buddhist practice as outlined in the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues.
#Right View - Realizing the [[Four Noble Truths]] '''{{unicode|(samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)}}'''
#Right Intention - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation '''{{unicode|(samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)}}'''
#Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way '''{{unicode|(samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)}}'''
#Right Action - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm '''{{unicode|(samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)}}'''
#Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly '''{{unicode|(samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva}}}'''
#Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve '''{{unicode|(samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)}}'''
#Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness '''{{unicode|(samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)}}'''
#Right Concentration - Wholesome one-pointedness of mind '''{{unicode|(samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)}}'''
Buddhism's four ''[[brahmavihara]]'' ("Divine States") can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. They are:
# [[Metta]]/Maitri: loving-kindness towards all; the hope that a person will be well; loving kindness is ''"the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy."''<ref>http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables</ref>
# [[Karuna]]: compassion; the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; compassion is the ''"wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering."''<ref>http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables</ref>
# [[Mudita]]: altruistic joy in the accomplishments of a person, oneself or other; sympathetic joy, ''"is the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings."''<ref>http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables</ref>
# Upekkha/[[Upeksa|Upeksha]]: equanimity, or learning to accept both loss and gain, praise and blame, success and failure with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others; equanimity means ''"not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind - not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness or agitation."''<ref>http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/immeasurables_love_compassion_equanimity_rejoicing.html A View on Buddhism, THE FOUR IMMEASURABLES: Love, Compassion, Joy and Equanimity</ref>
There are also the [[Paramitas]] ("perfections").
In [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]]'s [[Pali Canon|canonical]] [[Buddhavamsa]]<ref>Buddhavamsa, chapter 2. For an on-line reference to the Buddhavamsa's seminality in the Theravada notion of ''parami'', see [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/wheel409.html Bodhi (2005).]<br>In terms of other examples in the [[Pali literature]], Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), p. 454, [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:2679.pali entry for "Pāramī,"] (retrieved 2007-06-24) cites [[Jataka]] i.73 and [[Dhammapada]] [[Atthakatha]] i.84. Bodhi (2005) also mentions Acariya [[Dhammapala]]'s treatise in the [[Cariyapitaka]]-[[Atthakatha]] and the [[Brahmajala Sutta (Theravada)|Brahmajala Sutta]] [[Subcommentaries, Theravada|subcommentary (''tika'')]].</ref> the Ten Perfections (''dasa pāramiyo'') are (original terms in Pali):
# ''[[Dāna]] parami'' : generosity, giving of oneself
# ''[[Sīla]] parami'' : virtue, morality, proper conduct
# ''[[Nekkhamma]] parami'' : renunciation
# ''[[Pañña|Paññā]] parami'' : transcendental wisdom, insight
# ''[[Viriya]] (also spelt vīriya) parami'' : energy, diligence, vigour, effort
# ''[[Khanti]] parami'' : patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance
# ''[[Sacca]] parami'' : truthfulness, honesty
# ''[[Adhitthana|{{IAST|Adhiṭṭhāna}}]] (adhitthana) parami'' : determination, resolution
# ''[[Metta|Mettā]] parami'' : loving-kindness
# ''[[Upekkha|Upekkhā]] (also spelt upekhā) parami'' : equanimity, serenity
In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, the [[Lotus Sutra]] (''Saddharmapundarika''), lists the Six Perfections as (original terms in Sanskrit):
# ''[[Dāna]]'' paramita: generosity, giving of oneself (in Chinese, 布施波羅蜜)
# ''[[Sila|Śīla]] paramita'' : virtue, morality, discipline, proper conduct (持戒波羅蜜)
# ''[[Kshanti|{{IAST|Kṣānti}}]] (kshanti) paramita'' : patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance (忍辱波羅蜜)
# ''[[Virya|Vīrya]] paramita'' : energy, diligence, vigour, effort (精進波羅蜜)
# ''[[Dhyāna]] paramita'' : one-pointed concentration, contemplation (禪定波羅蜜)
# ''[[Prajña|Prajñā]] paramita'' : wisdom, insight (智慧波羅蜜)
In the [[Dasabhumika Sutra|Ten Stages]] (''Dasabhumika'') Sutra, four more Paramitas are listed:
:7. ''[[Upāya]] paramita'': skillful means
:8. ''[[Pranidhana|{{IAST|Praṇidhāna}}]] (pranidhana) paramita'': vow, resolution, aspiration, determination
:9. ''[[Bala (Buddhism)|Bala]] paramita'': spiritual power
:10. ''[[Jñāna]] paramita'': knowledge
==Virtue in Chinese philosophy==
"Virtue", translated from Chinese [[De (Chinese)|''de'']] ([[Wikt:德|德]]), is also an important concept in [[Chinese philosophy]], particularly [[Daoism]]. ''De'' ({{zh-cpw|c=德|p=''dé''| w=''te''}}) originally meant normative "virtue" in the sense of "personal character; inner strength; integrity", but semantically changed to moral "virtue; kindness; morality". Note the semantic parallel for English ''[[Wikt:virtue|virtue]]'', with an archaic meaning of "inner potency; divine power" (as in "by virtue of") and a modern one of "moral excellence; goodness".
Confucian moral manifestations of "virtue" include ''[[Confucianism#Humaneness|ren]]'' ("[[Human nature|humanity]]"), ''[[xiao]]'' ("[[filial piety]]"), and ''[[zhong]]'' ("[[loyalty]]") In [[Confucianism]] the notion of [[Confucianism#Humaneness|ren]] according to Simon Leys means "humanity" and "goodness". Originally [[Confucianism#Humaneness|ren]] had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of "virility", then progressively took on shades of ethical meaning. (On the origins and transformations of this concept see Lin Yu-sheng: "The evolution of the pre-Confucian meaning of jen and the Confucian concept of moral autonomy," Monumenta Serica, vol31, 1974-75.)
The Daoist concept of ''De'', however, is more subtle, pertaining to the "virtue" or ability that an individual realizes by following the [[Tao|Dao]] ("the Way"). One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates rather than from one's birth. In the ''[[Analects]]'', [[Confucius]] explains ''de'': "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it." (2/1, tr. [[James Legge]])[http://www.afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?no=17&l=Lunyu]
==Chinese Martial Morality==
* '''Morality of deed'''
** [[Humility]] (Qian Xu; 謙虛)
** [[Loyalty]] (Zhong Cheng; 忠誠)
** [[Respect]] (Zun Jing; 尊敬)
** [[Righteousness]] (Zheng Yi; 正義)
** [[Trust (social sciences)|Trust]] (Xin Yong; 信用)
* '''Morality of mind'''
** [[Courage]] (Yong Gan; 勇敢)
** [[Endurance]] (Ren Nai; 忍耐)
** [[Patience]] (Heng Xin; 恆心)
** [[Perseverance]] (Yi Li; 毅力)
** [[Will]] (Yi Zhi; 意志)
==Samurai values==
In [[Hagakure]], the quintessential book of the [[samurai]], Yamamoto Tsunetomo encapsulates his views on 'virtue' in the four vows he makes daily:
# Never to be outdone in the way of the samurai or [[Bushidō]]
# To be of good use to the master.
# To be filial to my parents.
# To manifest great compassion, and act for the sake of Man.
Tsunetomo goes on to say:
<blockquote>If one dedicates these four vows to the gods and Buddhas every morning, he will have the strength of two men and never slip backward. One must edge forward like the inchworm, bit by bit. The gods and Buddhas, too, first started with a vow.</blockquote>
==Nietzsche on virtue==
Philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] often took a more cynical view on virtue. A few of his key thoughts:
* ''"One virtue is more of a virtue than two, because it is more of a knot for one's destiny to cling to."''
* ''"Virtue itself is offensive."''
* ''"When virtue has slept, it will arise all the more vigorous."''
* ''"Genuine honesty, assuming that this is our virtue and we cannot get rid of it, we free spirits – well then, we will want to work on it with all the love and malice at our disposal, and not get tired of ‘perfecting’ ourselves in our virtue, the only one we have left: may its glory come to rest like a gilded, blue evening glow of mockery over this aging culture and its dull and dismal seriousness!" ([[Beyond Good and Evil]], §227)
==Virtue and vice==
The opposite of a virtue is a [[vice]]. One way of organizing the vices is as the corruption of the virtues. Thus the cardinal vices would be [[folly]], [[venality]], [[cowardice]] and [[lust]]. The Christian theological vices would be [[blasphemy]], [[wiktionary:despair|despair]], and [[hatred]].
However, as [[Aristotle]] noted, the virtues can have several opposites. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes, as the Latin maxim dictates ''in medio stat virtus'' - in the centre lies virtue. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over-caution and insufficient caution. A more "modern" virtue, [[tolerance]], can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow-mindedness on the one hand and soft-headedness on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues, but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other.
==Capital vices==
The seven capital vices or [[seven deadly sins]] suggest a classification of vices and were enumerated by Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century. The Catechism of the Catholic Church mentions them as "capital sins which Christian experience has distinguished, following St. John Cassian and St. Gregory the Great."[1] "Capital" here means that these sins stand at the head (Latin caput) of the other sins which proceed from them, e.g., theft proceeding from avarice and adultery from lust.
These vices are [[pride]], [[envy]], [[avarice]], [[anger]], [[lust]], [[gluttony]], and [[sloth]]. The opposite of these vices are the following virtues: [[meekness]], [[humility]], [[generosity]], [[tolerance]], [[chastity]], [[moderation]], and [[zeal]] (meaning enthusiastic devotion to a good cause or an ideal). These virtues are not exactly equivalent to the Seven Cardinal or Theological Virtues mentioned above. Instead these capital vices and virtues can be considered the "building blocks" that rule human behaviour. Both are acquired and reinforced by practice and the exercise of one induces or facilitates the others.
Ranked in order of severity as per [[Dante]]'s [[Divine Comedy]] (in the Purgatorio), the seven deadly vices are:
#[[Pride]] or [[Vanity]] — an excessive love of self (holding self out of proper position toward God or fellows; Dante's definition was "love of self perverted to hatred and contempt for one's neighbor"). In the Latin lists of the [[Seven Deadly Sins]], pride is referred to as superbia.
#[[Avarice]] (covetousness, [[Greed]]) — a desire to possess more than one has need or use for (or, according to Dante, "excessive love of money and power"). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, avarice is referred to as avaritia.
#[[Lust]] — excessive sexual desire. Dante's criterion was "lust detracts from true love". In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, lust is referred to as luxuria.
#[[Wrath]] or [[Anger]] — feelings of hatred, revenge or even denial, as well as punitive desires outside of justice (Dante's description was "love of justice perverted to revenge and spite"). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, wrath is referred to as ira.
#[[Gluttony]] — overindulgence in food, drink or intoxicants, or misplaced desire of food as a pleasure for its sensuality ("excessive love of pleasure" was Dante's rendering). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, gluttony is referred to as gula.
#[[Envy]] or [[jealousy]]; resentment of others for their possessions (Dante: "Love of one's own good perverted to a desire to deprive other men of theirs"). In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, envy is referred to as invidia.
#[[Sloth]] or [[Laziness]]; idleness and wastefulness of time allotted. Laziness is condemned because others have to work harder and useful work can not get done. (also accidie, acedia)
Several of these vices interlink, and various attempts at causal hierarchy have been made. For example, pride (love of self out of proportion) is implied in gluttony (the over-consumption or waste of food), as well as sloth, envy, and most of the others. Each sin is a particular way of failing to love God with all one's resources and to love fellows as much as self. The Scholastic theologians developed schema of attribute and substance of will to explain these sins.
The 4th century Egyptian monk Evagrius Ponticus defined the sins as deadly "passions," and in Eastern Orthodoxy, still these impulses are characterized as being "Deadly Passions" rather than sins. Instead, the sins are considered to invite or entertain these passions. In the official [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] published in 1992 by [[Pope John Paul II]], these seven vices are considered moral transgression for Christians and the virtues should complement the Ten Commandments and the Beatitudes as the basis for any true Morality.
==Virtue in modern psychology==
[[Martin Seligman]], [[Christopher Peterson]], and other researchers involved in the [[positive psychology]] movement, recognizing the deficiency inherent in [[psychology]]'s tendency to focus on dysfunction rather than on what makes a healthy and stable [[Wiktionary:personality|personality]], set out to develop a list of "[[Character Strengths and Virtues (Book)|Character Strengths and Virtues]]"<ref>Peterson, C., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). ''Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification''. Oxford University Press. (ISBN 0195167015)</ref>
==See also==
{{multicol}}
*[[Aretology]]
*[[Bushido]]
*[[Chivalry]]
*[[Consequentialism]]
*[[Epistemic virtue]]
*[[Ethics]]
*[[Five Virtues]] (Sikh)
*[[Goodness]]
{{multicol-break}}
*[[Intellectual virtues]]
*[[Knightly Virtues]]
*[[Morality]]
*[[Paideia]]
*[[Seven Deadly Sins]]
*[[Sin]]
*[[Social justice]]
*[[Three Jewels of the Tao]]
{{multicol-break}}
*[[Three theological virtues]]
*[[Tree of virtues]]
*[[Value theory]]
*[[Vice]]
*[[Virtue ethics]]
*[[Virtus (deity)]]
*[[Virtues of Ultima]]
{{multicol-end}}
==Notes==
<references/>
{{Philosophy topics}}
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