Vulgate
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{{For|the Arthurian Vulgate Cycle|Lancelot-Grail Cycle}}
{{BibleRelated}}
The '''Vulgate''' is an early [[5th century|Fifth Century]] version of the [[Bible]] in [[Latin]], and largely the result of the labours of [[Jerome]], who was commissioned by [[Pope Damasus I]] in 382 to make a revision of [[Vetus Latina|old Latin translations]]. Its [[Old Testament]] is the first Latin version translated directly from the Hebrew [[Tanakh]], rather than the Greek [[Septuagint]]. It became the definitive and officially promulgated Latin version of the Bible of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. In the 13th century it came to be called ''versio vulgata'', which means "the published translation". There are 76 [[Books of the Latin Vulgate|books in the Clementine edition]] of the Vulgate Bible: 46 in the [[Old Testament]], 27 in the [[New Testament]], and three in the [[Biblical apocrypha|Apocrypha]].
==Composition==
The Vulgate is a composite work, only some parts of which are due to Jerome.<ref>''Grammar of the Vulgate'', W.E. Plater and H.J. White, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1926</ref>
* ''Old Latin'', wholly unrevised: [[Prayer of Manasses]], [[2 Esdras|4 Esdras]], [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]], [[Ecclesiasticus]], and [[1 Maccabees|1]] and [[2 Maccabees]].
* ''Old Latin'', more or less revised by a person or persons unknown: [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]], [[1 Esdras|3 Esdras]],<ref>The '''Latin Versions of First Esdras''', Harry Clinton York, ''The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures'', Vol. 26, No. 4 (Jul., 1910), pp. 253-302</ref>[[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]], [[Epistles#New Testament epistles|Epistles]], and the [[Book of Revelation|Apocalypse]].
* ''Free translation'' by Jerome from a secondary [[Aramaic]] version: [[Book of Tobit|Tobias]] and [[Book of Judith|Judith]].
* ''Translation from the [[Septuagint]]'' by Jerome: the [[Latin Psalters#Version Gallicana|Psalter]], the [[Book of Esther#Additions to Esther|Rest of Esther]].
* ''Translation from the Greek of [[Theodotion]]'' by Jerome: [[The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children|Song of the Three Children]]'', ''[[Susanna (Book of Daniel)|Story of Susanna]], and [[Bel and the Dragon|The Idol Bel and the Dragon]]
* ''Revision'' by Jerome of the Old Latin, corrected with reference to the oldest [[Greek Language|Greek]] manuscripts available: the [[Four Gospels|Gospels]].
* Jerome's independent translation from the [[Tanakh|Hebrew]]: the [[protocanonical books]] of the [[Old Testament]], with the exception of the [[Book of Psalms|Psalter]]. This was completed in 405.
== Relation with the Old Latin Bible ==
{{main|Vetus Latina}}
In Jerome's day, the word ''Vulgata'' was applied to the Greek [[Septuagint]]. The Latin Biblical texts used before the Vulgate are usually referred to collectively as the ''[[Vetus Latina]]'', or "Old Latin Bible", or occasionally the "Old Latin Vulgate". (Here "Old Latin" means that they are [[Classical antiquity|old]] and written in [[Latin Language|Latin]], not that they are written in [[Old Latin]].)
The translations in the Vetus Latina accumulated piecemeal over a century or more; they were not translated by a single person or institution, nor uniformly edited. The individual books varied in quality of translation and style, and different manuscripts witness wide variations in readings. Jerome, in his preface to the Vulgate gospels, commented that there were "as many [translations] as there are manuscripts." The Old Testament books were translated from the Greek Septuagint, not from the Hebrew.
The older Latin version remained in use in some circles even after Jerome's Vulgate became the accepted standard throughout the Western Church. Some in Gaul continued to prefer the Vetus Latina version for centuries.
== Jerome's translation ==
[[Image:Domenico Ghirlandaio - St Jerome in his study.jpg|thumb|280px|left|Saint Jerome in his Study, [[fresco]] by [[Domenico Ghirlandaio]], 1480 (Ognissanti, Florence)]]
Jerome did not embark on the work with the intention of creating a new version of the whole Bible, but the changing nature of his program can be tracked in his voluminous correspondence. He had been commissioned by Pope Damasus in [[382]] to revise the Old Latin text of the [[four Gospels]] from the best Greek texts, and by the time of Damasus' death in [[384]] he had thoroughly completed this task, together with a more cursory revision from the Greek Septuagint of the Old Latin text of the [[Psalms]]. How much the rest of the [[New Testament]] he then revised is difficult to judge today, but little of his work survived in the Vulgate text. In [[385]] Jerome was forced out of Rome, and eventually settled in [[Bethlehem]], where he produced a new version of the Psalms, translated from the [[Hexapla]]r Greek text. He also appears to have undertaken further new translations of other Septuagint books into Latin; but again, these are not found in the Vulgate text. But from [[390]] to [[405]] Jerome switched to translating directly from the [[tanakh|Hebrew]], and translated anew all 39 books in the Hebrew Bible, including a further, third, version of the Psalms, which survives in a very few Vulgate manuscripts.
In his prologues, Jerome described those books or portions of books in the [[Septuagint]] that were not found in the Hebrew as being non-[[Biblical canon|canonical]]: he called them [[Biblical apocrypha|''apocrypha'']],<ref> [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bible/prologi.shtml ''Prologues of Saint Jerome'', Latin text]</ref> but they are found in all complete manuscripts and editions of the Vulgate. Of the [[Old Testament]] texts not found in the Hebrew, Jerome translated [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]] and [[Book of Judith|Judith]] anew from the Aramaic; and from the Greek, the additions to [[Book of Esther|Esther]] from the Septuagint, and the additions to [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] from [[Theodotion]]. The others, [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]], [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]], [[Book of Sirach|Ecclesiasticus]], [[Books of the Maccabees|1 and 2 Maccabees]], [[Esdras|3 and 4 Esdras]] and the [[Prayer of Manasses]], retain in Vulgate manuscripts their Old Latin renderings. Their style is still markedly distinguishable from Jerome's. In the Vulgate text, Jerome's translations from the Greek of the additions to Esther and Daniel are recombined with his separate translations of these books from the Hebrew.
== Psalters ==
{{main|Latin Psalters}}
Called the [[Latin_Psalters#Versio_Romana|''Versio Romana'']] or ''Psalterium Romanum'', the Roman Psalter of 384 was Jerome's first revision of the [[Psalter]]. It was made from the ''Versio Vetus Latina'', and corrected to bring it more in line with the Septuagint. This version was by and large replaced by Jerome's later versions, except in Anglo-Saxon England, where it continued to be used until the [[Norman Conquest]] (1066).<ref>[http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=10 Article on Saint Jerome, ''Catholic Online'']</ref>
Although some early manuscripts of the Vulgate contain Jerome's [[Latin_Psalters#Versio_juxta_Hebraicum|translation of the psalms from the Hebrew]], the version of the psalms that is contained in all later manuscripts and editions is the [[Latin Psalters#Versio Gallicana|''Gallicana'']] translation from the [[Hexapla]]r Greek.
=== New Psalters ===
The 20th century saw the creation of two new Psalters for liturgical use. These were the [[Latin_Psalters#Versio_Piana|Versio Piana]] of 1945 and the Versio Nova Vulgata of 1969. The 1945 version was issued by authority of Pope Pius XII by the [[Pontifical Biblical Institute]] of Rome, under Cardinal Bea and is a fresh version from the originals. It is found in most breviaries printed between 1945 and 1970 and has been influential for those who prayed the [[Liturgy of the Hours|Divine Office]] during this period. The [[Latin_Psalters#Versio_Nova_Vulgata|1969 version]] is used in the Nova Vulgata edition described below.
== Manuscripts and early editions ==
{{Vulgate manuscripts}}
A number of early manuscripts witnessing to the early Vulgate still survive today. Dating from the [[8th century]], the [[Codex Amiatinus]] is the earliest surviving [[manuscript]] of the complete Vulgate Bible. The [[Codex Fuldensis]], dating from around 545, contains most of the New Testament in the Vulgate version, but the four Vulgate [[gospel]]s are harmonized into a continuous narrative derived from the [[Diatessaron]].
Over the course of the Middle Ages, the Vulgate had succumbed to the inevitable changes wrought by human error in the countless copies made of the text in monasteries across Europe. From its earliest days, readings from the Vetus Latina were introduced. Marginal notes were erroneously interpolated into the text. No one copy was the same as the other as scribes added, removed, misspelled, or miscorrected verses in the Latin Bible.
About 550, [[Cassiodorus]] made an attempt at restoring the Vulgate to its original purity. [[Alcuin]] of York oversaw efforts to make a corrected Vulgate, which he presented to [[Charlemagne]] in 801. Similar attempts were made by [[Theodulphus]], [[Bishop of Orléans]] (787?-821); [[Lanfranc]], Archbishop of Canterbury (1070-1089); [[Stephen Harding]], Abbot of Cîteaux (1109-1134); and Deacon Nicolaus Maniacoria (about the beginning of the 13th century). The University of Paris assembled lists of "correctoria" - approved readings where variants had been noted. Unfortunately, many of the readings recommended are now known to be interpolations.
Though the advent of printing greatly reduced the potential of human error and increased the consistency and uniformity of the text, the earliest editions of the Vulgate merely reproduced the manuscripts that were readily available to the publishers. Of the hundreds of early editions, the most notable today is [[Gutenberg Bible|Mazarin edition]] published by [[Johann Gutenberg]] and [[Johann Fust]] in 1455, famous for its beauty and antiquity. In 1504 the first Vulgate with variant readings was published in Paris. One of the texts of the [[Complutensian Polyglot]] was an edition of the Vulgate made from ancient manuscripts and corrected to agree with the Greek.
[[Erasmus]] published an edition corrected to agree better with the Greek and Hebrew in 1516. Other corrected editions were published by [[Santes Pagnino|Xanthus Pagninus]] in 1518, [[Thomas Cardinal Cajetan|Cardinal Cajetan]], [[Agostino Steuco|Augustinus Steuchius]] in 1529, Clarius in 1542, and others. In 1528, [[Robert Estienne|Robertus Stephanus]] published the first critical edition, which formed the basis of the later Sistine and Clementine editions. The critical edition of [[John Hentenius]] of Louvain followed in 1547.<ref>[http://www.bible-researcher.com/vulgate1.html Article, ''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia], 1915</ref>
In [[1550]], Stephanus fled to [[Geneva]] where in [[1555]] he issued his final critical edition of the Vulgate, which was the first complete Bible with full chapter and verse divisions, and which became the standard Biblical reference text for late 16th century Reformed theology.
== Later editions ==
The title "Vulgate" is currently applied to three distinct online texts which can be found from various sources on the Internet. Which text is used can be ascertained from the spelling of [[Eve (Bible)|Eve]]'s name in Genesis 3:20.
* '''Heva''': the ''Clementine Vulgate'', the official Latin Bible of the Roman Catholic Church from [[1592]] to [[1979]].
* '''Hava''': the ''Stuttgart edition'' of the Vulgate. This edition seeks to recover a text as close as possible to that of early manuscripts, especially in respect of the removal of many interpolated readings that found their way into the Clementine Vulgate.
* '''Eva''': the ''Nova Vulgata'', the official Latin Bible of the Roman Catholic Church since 1979. Amended and modified; it is in some passages more a new version rather than a revision.
=== The Clementine Vulgate ===<!-- This section is linked from [[Deuterocanonical books]] 1. REDIRECT Vulgate#The Clementine Vulgate
-->
[[Image:Prologus Ioanni Vulgata Clementina.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Prologue of the [[gospel of John]], Clementine Vulgate, 1922 edition]]
The Clementine Vulgate (''Biblia Sacra Vulgatae Editionis Sixti Quinti Pontificis Maximi iussu recognita atque edita'') is the edition most familiar to Catholics who have lived prior to the liturgical reforms following [[Vatican II]].
After the [[Reformation]], when the Catholic Church strove to counter the attacks and refute the doctrines of [[Protestantism]], the Vulgate was reaffirmed in the [[Council of Trent]] as the sole, authorized Latin text of the Bible.<ref>Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, [http://www.bible-researcher.com/trent1.html Fourth Session, [[April 8]] [[1546]]].</ref> To reinforce this declaration, the council commissioned the pope to make a standard text of the Vulgate out of the countless editions produced during the [[Renaissance]] and manuscripts produced during the Middle Ages. The actual first manifestation of this authorized text did not appear until 1590. It was sponsored by [[Pope Sixtus V]] (1585-90) and known as the Sistine Vulgate. It was based on the edition of Robertus Stephanus corrected to agree with the Greek, but it was hurried into print and suffered from many printing errors. It was soon replaced by a new edition by [[Pope Clement VIII|Clement VIII]] (1592-1605) who immediately ordered corrections and revisions to be made. This new revised version was based more on the Hentenian edition. It is called today the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate, or simply the Clementine, although it is Sixtus' name which appears on the title page. Clement published three printings of this edition, in 1592, 1593 and 1598.
The Clementine differed from the manuscripts on which it was ultimately based in that it grouped the various prefaces of St. Jerome together at the beginning, and it removed [[1 Esdras|3]] and [[2 Esdras|4 Esdras]] and the [[Prayer of Manasses]] from the [[Old Testament]] and placed them in an appendix.
The Psalter of the Clementine Vulgate, like that of almost all earlier editions, is the [[Latin Psalters#Versio Gallicana|Gallicanum]].
The Clementine Vulgate of 1592 became the standard Bible text of the [[Roman Rite]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] until [[1979]], when the Nova Vulgata was promulgated.
==== Later printings ====
After Clement's 1598 printing of the Vulgate, the [[Holy See|Vatican]] issued no other official printings, leaving the task to other printers. Although the other printers of the Clementine Vulgate faithfully reproduced the words of the official edition, they were often quite free in matters of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and paragraph boundaries. In 1906, [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin friar]] Fr. Michael Hetzenauer produced an edition restoring the original Clementine text while taking into account variations in Clement's three printings as well as correctoria officially issued by the Vatican.
In 1982, Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos published a reprint of the Clementine Vulgate (ISBN 8-479-14021-6) omitting the Apocrypha, but containing excerpts from various [[Magisterium|magisterial]] documents and the ''[[Latin Psalters#Versio Piana|Piana]]'' version of the psalms in addition to the [[Latin Psalters#Versio Gallicana|vulgate version]].
=== Newer critical editions ===
After the publication of the Clementine Vulgate, few [[Textual criticism|critical editions]] were published. In 1734 Vallarsi published a corrected edition of the Vulgate. Most other later editions limited themselves to the [[New Testament]], most notably Fleck's edition<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC14064762&id=7R7rgfv_Fp0C&pg=PP7&lpg=PP7&dq=%22vulgatae+editionis%22&as_brr=1#PPR1,M1 ''Novum Testamentum Vulgatae Editionis''], Ferdinandus Florens Fleck, 1840. A comparison of the Clementine edition with [[Codex Amiatinus]]</ref> of 1840, [[Constantin von Tischendorf]]'s edition of 1864, and the [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] edition of Bishop [[John Wordsworth]] and [[Henry Julian White]] in 1889.
In 1907 Pope [[Pius X]] commissioned the monks of the Benedictine Abbey of St. Jerome in Rome to prepare a critical edition of Jerome's Vulgate as a basis for a revision of the Clementine.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15515b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia, ''Vulgate, Revision of the''], 1917</ref><ref>''Biblia Sacra iuxta latinam vulgatam versionem ad codicum fidem, iussu Pii PP. XI, Pii PP. XII, Ioannis XXIII, Pauli VI, Ioannis Pauli PP. II, cura et studio monachorum Abbatiae Pontificiae Sancti Hieronymi in Urbe Ordinis Sancti Benedicti edita. Textus ex interpretatione Sancti Hieronymi. Romae'': Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1926-1995. 18 vols.</ref> Only the Old Testament was ever completed, which however complemented the New Testament edition of Wordsworth and White; the fruit of this labour led to the creation of the ''Nova Vulgata''. The Benedictine critical edition was used as a basis for much of the Old Testament of the Stuttgart Vulgate.<ref name="Stuttgart">Prefaces of ''Biblia Sacra Vulgata'', American Bible Society, ISBN 3-438-05303-9</ref>
=== Stuttgart edition ===
{|class="wikitable collapsible" align="right"
!colspan=5|'''Edition [[Siglum|sigla]] per ''Biblia Sacra Vulgata'''''
|-
|*||'''Dates'''||'''Contents'''||'''Editor'''||'''Location'''
|-
|b||1951–1954||[[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]||Bonifatius Fischer||[[Freiburg]]<!-- im Breisgau -->
|-
|b||1977–1985||[[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]]; [[General epistles|Cath]]||Walter Thiele||[[Freiburg]]<!-- im Breisgau -->
|-
|b||1962–1991||[[Pauline epistles|Paul]]; [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]]||HJ Frede||[[Freiburg]]<!-- im Breisgau -->
|-
|b||1895||[[2 Esdras|4 Esdras]]||[[Robert Lubbock Bensly]]||[[Cambridge]]
|-
|c||1592–1598||[[Bible]]||[[Pope Clement VIII]]||[[Rome]]
|-
|d||1932||[[Maccabees]]||Donatien de Bruyen||[[Maredsous Abbey|Maredsous]]<!-- Abbey -->
|-
|h||1922||[[Psalms]]||JM Harden||[[London]]
|-
|h||1931||[[Epistle to the Laodiceans|Laodiceans]]||[[Adolf von Harnack]]||[[Berlin]]
|-
|r||1926–1994||[[Old Testament]]||[[Benedictine]]s of Jerome||[[Rome]]
|-
|s||1954||[[Psalms]]||Henri de Sainte-Marie||[[Rome]]
|-
|v||1889–1954||[[New Testament]]||[[John Wordsworth|Wordsworth]] & [[Henry Julian White|White]]||[[Oxford]]
|-
|v||1910||[[2 Esdras|4 Esdras]]||B Violet||[[Leipzig]]
|-
|w||1911||[[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Cor]]–[[Epistle to the Ephesians|Eph]]||[[Henry Julian White]]||[[Oxford]]
|}
This Vulgate was first published in 1969 (5th edition, 2007) by the German Bible Society (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft), based in Stuttgart. This edition, alternatively titled ''Biblia Sacra Vulgata'' or ''Biblia Sacra iuxta vulgatam versionem'' (ISBN 3438053039 and ISBN 1598561782 for North America), is a "manual edition" in that it reduces much of the information in the big multi-volume critical editions that preceded it into a single compact volume. It seeks to reconstruct an early Vulgate text closer to that which Jerome produced 1,600 years ago. It is based on earlier critical editions of the Vulgate,<ref>Index Codicum et Editionum, ''Biblia Sacra iuxta vulgatam versionem'', 4th edition, 1994.</ref><ref>I. Wordsworth, H.I. White, H.F.D Sparks, ''Novum Testamentum Domini nostri Iesu Christi latine secundum editionem S. Hieronymi'', Oxford, 1889-1954. Cited in ''Index'' supra.</ref><ref>''Biblia Sacra iuxta latinam vulgatam versionem ad codicum fidem cura et studio monachorum Pont. Abbatiae S. Hieronymi in Urbe edita'', Romae. 1926-1994. Cited in ''Index'' supra.</ref><ref>Henri de Saint-Marie, ''Sancti Hieronymi Psalterium iuxta Hebraeos'', Collectanea Biblica Latina vol. XI, Roma, 1954. Cited in ''Index'' supra.</ref><ref>Donatien De Bruyne et Bonaventure Sodar, ''Les anciennes traductions latines des Machabees'', Anecdota Maredsolana vol. IV, Maredsous, 1932. Cited in ''Index'' supra.</ref> including the Benedictine edition and the Latin New Testament produced by [[John Wordsworth|Wordsworth]] and [[Henry Julian White|White]], which provided variant readings from the diverse manuscripts and printed editions of the Vulgate and comparison of different wordings in their footnotes. The Stuttgart Vulgate attempts, through critical comparison of important, historical manuscripts of the Vulgate, to recreate an early text, cleansed of the scribal errors of a millennium.
An important feature in the Stuttgart edition for those studying the Vulgate is the inclusion of all of Jerome's prologues to the Bible, the Testaments, and the major books and sections (Pentateuch, Gospels, Minor Prophets, etc.) of the Bible. This adheres to the style of medieval editions of the Vulgate, which were never without Jerome's prologues. In its spelling, the Stuttgart also retains a more medieval Latin orthography than the Clementine, sometimes using ''oe'' rather than ''ae'', and having more proper nouns beginning with ''H'' (i.e., ''Helimelech'' instead of ''Elimelech''), but the spelling is inconsistent throughout, as in the manuscripts. The Stuttgart Vulgate also follows the medieval manuscripts in using line breaks, rather than the modern system of punctuation marks, to indicate the structure of each verse. Because of these features, it initially presents an unfamiliar appearance to readers accustomed to the Clementine text.
It contains two Psalters, both the traditional ''[[Latin Psalters#Versio Gallicana|Gallicanum]]'' and the ''[[Latin Psalters#Versio juxta Hebraicum|juxta Hebraicum]]'', which are printed on facing pages to allow easy comparison and contrast between the two versions. It has an expanded [[Biblical apocrypha|Apocrypha]], containing [[Psalm 151]] and the [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] in addition to [[1 Esdras|3]] and [[2 Esdras|4 Esdras]] and the [[Prayer of Manasses]].
In addition, its modern prefaces are a source of valuable information about the history of the Vulgate.
====Electronic Vulgate====
One reason for the Stuttgart edition's importance rests in the fact that it is the one most disseminated on the Internet. This electronic version is usually mutilated, lacking all formatting, notes, prefaces and apparatus, and lacking the Gallican Psalter, Apocrypha, and [[Deuterocanonical books]], and often containing only the first three chapters of Daniel, stopping at the point where the deuterocanonical ''Song of the Three Holy Children'' would begin.
=== Nova Vulgata ===
The '''Nova Vulgata''' (''Bibliorum Sacrorum nova vulgata editio'', ISBN 88-209-2163-4) is currently the typical Latin edition published by the [[Holy See|See of Rome]] and approved for use in the [[liturgy]]. The [[Second Vatican Council]] in ''[[Sacrosanctum Concilium]]'' mandated a revision of the [[Latin Psalters|Latin Psalter]] in accord with modern textual and linguistic studies, while preserving or refining its Christian Latin style. In 1965 [[Pope Paul VI]] appointed a commission to revise the rest of the Vulgate following the same principles.<ref name="NTL">''Novum Testamentum Latine'', 1984, "Praefatio in editionem primam".</ref> The Commission published its work in eight annotated sections, inviting criticism from Catholic scholars as the sections were published. The Latin Psalter was published in 1969; the New Testament was completed by 1971 and the entire Nova Vulgata was published in 1979.<ref>[http://cba.cua.edu/clifnv.cfm The Authority of the ''Nova Vulgata'', Richard J. Clifford, 2001]</ref> A second edition was published in 1986.
The foundational text of most of the ''Nova Vulgata's'' Old Testament is the critical edition done by the monks of the Benedictine Abbey of St. Jerome under [[Pius X]]. The foundational text of the books of Tobit and Judith are from manuscripts of the [[Vetus Latina]] rather than the Vulgate. The New Testament was based on the 1969 edition of the Stuttgart Vulgate. All of these base texts were revised to accord with the modern critical editions in Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic.<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/archive/bible/nova_vulgata/documents/nova-vulgata_praenotanda_lt.html Praenotanda], Nova Vulgata</ref> There are also a number of changes where the modern scholars felt that Jerome had failed to grasp the meaning of the original languages, or had rendered it obscurely.<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/archive/bible/nova_vulgata/documents/nova-vulgata_praefatio_lt.html ''Praefatio ad Lectorem''], ''Bibliorum Sacrorum nova vulgata editio''</ref>
The ''Nova Vulgata'' does not contain [[Biblical apocrypha|some books]] found in the earlier editions but omitted by the [[Biblical canon|canon]] of [[Council of Trent|Trent]], namely the [[Prayer of Manasseh|Prayer of Manasses]], the [[3 Esdras|3rd]] & [[4 Esdras|4th Book of Esdras]], and the [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]].
In 1979, after decades of preparation, the ''Nova Vulgata'' was published and declared the Catholic Church's current official Latin version in the [[Apostolic constitution]] ''[[Scripturarum Thesaurus]]''<ref>[http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/JPTHESAU.HTM ''Scripturarum Thesaurus''], English translation, 1979</ref> promulgated by the Pope [[John Paul II]].
The ''Nova Vulgata'' has not been widely embraced by conservative Catholics, many of whom see it as being in some verses of the Old Testament a new translation rather than a revision of Jerome's work. Also, some of its readings sound unfamiliar to those who are accustomed to the Clementine.
In 2001, the [[Holy See|Vatican]] released the instruction ''[[Liturgiam Authenticam]]'',<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccdds/documents/rc_con_ccdds_doc_20010507_liturgiam-authenticam_en.html ''Liturgiam Authenticam''], English translation, 2001</ref> establishing the Nova Vulgata as a point of reference for all translations of the [[liturgy]] of the [[Roman rite]] into the vernacular from the original languages, "in order to maintain the tradition of interpretation that is proper to the Latin Liturgy".
==== Novum Testamentum Latine ====
In 1984 and 1992 Kurt and Barbara Aland published the ''Novum Testamentum Latine'' (ISBN 1-598-56175-8). The text is a reprint of the [[New Testament]] of the ''Nova Vulgata'' to which has been added a critical apparatus giving the variant readings of earlier editions. The editions described in the apparatus are the Stuttgart edition, the [[Gutenberg Bible]], the Latin text of the [[Complutensian Polyglot]], the edition from [[Wittenberg]] (which was favored by [[Martin Luther|Luther]]), the editions of [[Desiderius Erasmus]], [[Robert Estienne|Robertus Stephanus]], [[Hentenius|Hentenius of Louvain]], [[Christoffel Plantijn|Christophorus Plantinus]], Pope Sixtus V, Pope Clement VIII, and Wordsworth and White.
This new edition of the ''Novum Testamentum Latine'' is an updating of an older publication of the same name from 1906, which presented the Clementine Vulgate text with a critical apparatus comparing it to the editions of Sixtus V (1590), Wordsworth and White, Lachman (1842), and Tischendorf (1854), as well as the manuscripts [[Codex Amiatinus]] and [[Codex Fuldensis]].
== Issues of translation ==
The Vulgate was translated from a Greek source for the [[New Testament]], the [[Psalms]], most of the [[deuterocanonical books]], and the [[Biblical apocrypha|apocrypha]]<ref name="Stuttgart"/> in the [[Old Testament]].
In translating the 39 books of the Hebrew Bible, Jerome was relatively free in rendering their text into Latin, but it is possible to determine that the oldest surviving complete manuscripts of the [[Masoretic Text]], which date from nearly 600 years after Jerome, nevertheless transmit a consonantal Hebrew text very close to that used by Jerome. Consequently, these books of the Vulgate - though of high literary quality - have little independent interest in text critical debate. Jerome translated the books of Judith and Tobit under sufferance, engaging a Jewish intermediary to render the Aramaic into oral Hebrew, for him then to paraphrase into Latin. Their textual value is small. The Vulgate Old Testament texts that were translated from the Greek - whether by Jerome himself, or preserving unrevised Old Latin versions - are however early and important secondary witnesses to the Septuagint.
Damasus had instructed Jerome to be conservative in his revision of the Old Latin Gospels, and it is possible to see Jerome's obedience to this injunction in the preservation in the Vulgate of variant Latin vocabulary for the same Greek terms. Hence, "high priest" is rendered "princeps sacerdotum" in Vulgate Matthew; as "summus sacerdos" in Vulgate Mark; and as "pontifex" in Vulgate John. Comparison of Jerome's Gospel texts with those in Old Latin witnesses, suggests that his revision was substantially concerned with redacting the expanded phraseology characteristic of the [[Western text-type]], in accordance with [[Alexandrian text-type|Alexandrian]], or possibly early [[Byzantine text-type|Byzantine]], witnesses. Given Jerome's conservative methods, and that manuscript evidence from outside Egypt at this early date is very rare; these Vulgate readings have considerable critical interest. More interesting still - because effectively untouched by Jerome - are the Vulgate books of the rest of the New Testament; which demonstrate rather more of supposed "Western" expansions, and otherwise transmit a very early Old Latin text. Most valuable of all from a text-critical perspective is the Vulgate text of the [[Book of Revelation|Apocalypse]], a book where there is no clear [[majority text]] in the surviving Greek witnesses.
However, all the above evaluations refer to the critical Vulgate text re-established from the late 19th century onwards, reconstituting the form of text current in Italy in the mid 6th Century AD. The standard Clementine text differs in numerous significant readings - such as the [[Comma Johanneum]] (1 John 5: 7-8), the gloss from Psalm 22 (Matthew 27:35), and the Angel at Bethesda (John 5:4) - and is much less valuable for textual study.
==Prologues==<!-- This section is linked from [[Deuterocanonical books]] -->
In addition to the [[Bible|biblical text]] the Vulgate contains 17 prologues, 16 of which were written by [[Jerome]]. Jerome's prologues are in a sense misnamed, as they were written not so much as prologues than as cover letters to specific individuals to accompany copies of his translations. Because they were not intended for a general audience, some of his comments in them are quite cryptic. These prologues are to
the Pentateuch<ref>,[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=214 Jerome's prologue to Genesis]</ref> to ''Joshua'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=217 Jerome's prologue to Joshua]</ref> and to ''Kings'', which is also called the ''Prologus Galeatus''.<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=218 Jerome's prologue to Kings]</ref> Following these are prologues to ''Chronicles'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=220 Jerome’s Prologue to Chronicles]</ref> ''Esdras'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=222 Jerome’s Prologue to Ezra]</ref> ''Tobias'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=223 Jerome’s Prologue to Tobias]</ref> ''Judith'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=224 Jerome’s Prologue to Judith]</ref>
''Esther'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=225 Jerome’s Prologue to Esther]</ref>
''Job'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=228 Jerome’s Prologue to Job]</ref>
''Psalms'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=229 Jerome’s Prologue to Psalms (LXX)]</ref>
''Solomon'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=231 Jerome’s Prologue to the Books of Solomon]</ref>
''Isaias'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=232 Jerome’s Prologue to Isaiah]</ref>
''Jeremias'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=233 Jerome’s Prologue to Jeremiah]</ref>
''Ezechiel'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=234 Jerome’s Prologue to Ezekiel]</ref>
''Daniel'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=235 Jerome’s Prologue to Daniel]</ref>
''Minor prophets'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=236 Jerome’s Prologue to the Twelve Prophets]</ref>
the ''Gospels'',<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=237 Jerome’s Prologue to the Gospels]</ref> and the final prologue which is to the
''Pauline Epistles'' and is better known as ''Primum quaeritur''.<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=238 Vulgate Prologue to Paul’s Letters]</ref> Related to these are Jerome's
''Notes on the Rest of Esther''<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=226 Jerome’s Notes to the Additions to Esther]</ref> and his
''Prologue to the Hebrew Psalms''.<ref>[http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=230 Jerome’s Prologue to Psalms (Hebrew)]</ref>
A recurring theme of the [[Old Testament]] prologues is Jerome's preference for the [[Tanakh|''Hebraica veritas'']] (i.e., Hebrew truth) to the [[Septuagint]], a preference which he defended from his detractors. He stated that the Hebrew text more clearly prefigures [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] than the Greek. Among the most remarkable of these prologues is the ''Prologus Galeatus'', in which Jerome described an [[Old Testament]] canon of 22 books, which he found represented in the 22-letter [[Hebrew Language|Hebrew]] alphabet. Alternatively, he numbered the books as 24, which he described as the 24 elders in the [[Book of Revelation]] casting their crowns before the [[Lamb of God|Lamb]].
Also of note is the ''Primum quaeritur'', which defended the Pauline authorship of the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], and compared Paul's ten letters to the churches with the ten commandments. The author of the ''Primum quaeritur'' is unknown. The editors of the Stuttgart Vulgate remark that this version of the epistles first became popular among the [[Pelagians]].
In addition to ''Primum quaeritur'', many manuscripts contain brief notes to each of the epistles indicating where they were written, with notes about where the recipients dwelt. [[Adolf von Harnack]],<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/origin_nt.v.i.html ''Origin of the New Testament'', Adolf von Harnack, 1914]</ref> argued that these notes were written by [[Marcion of Sinope]] or one of his followers. Harnack noted: "We have indeed long known that [[Marcionite]] readings found their way into the ecclesiastical text of the Pauline epistles, but now for seven years we have known that Churches actually accepted the Marcionite prefaces to the Pauline epistles! De Bruyne has made one of the finest discoveries of later days in proving that those prefaces, which we read first in [[Codex Fuldensis]] and then in numbers of later manuscripts, are Marcionite, and that the Churches had not noticed the cloven hoof."
== Influence on Western culture ==
In terms of its importance to the culture, art, and life of the Middle Ages, the Vulgate stands supreme. Through the [[Middle Ages]] and onto the Renaissance and Reformation, St. Jerome's monumental work stood as a last pillar of Roman glory and the bedrock of the Latin church as it strove to unite a fractured Europe through the Catholic faith. As the version of the Bible familiar to and read by the faithful for over a thousand years (c. AD 400–1530), the Vulgate exerted a powerful influence, especially in art and music, as it served as inspiration for countless paintings, hymns and popular [[mystery plays|religious plays]]. Even while the Genevan Reformed tradition sought to replace the Latin Vulgate with vernacular versions translated from the original languages, it nevertheless retained and extended the use of the Vulgate in theological debate. In both the published Latin sermons of [[John Calvin]], and the Greek New Testament editions of [[Theodore Beza]], the accompanying Latin reference text is the Vulgate; and where Protestant churches took their lead from the Genevan example - as in [[England]] and [[Scotland]] - the result was a broadening appreciation of Jerome's translation in its dignified style and flowing prose. The closest equivalent in English, the [[King James Version]] or Authorized Version, shows a marked influence from the Vulgate (especially by comparison with the earlier vernacular version of [[Tyndale]]), in respect of Jerome's demonstration of how a technically exact Latinate religious vocabulary may be combined with dignified prose and vigorous poetic rhythms.
===Translations based on the Vulgate===
Before the publication of [[Pius XII]]'s [[Divino Afflante Spiritu]], the Vulgate was the source text used for many translations of the Bible into vernacular languages. In English, the interlinear translation of the [[Lindisfarne Gospels]] as well as other [[Old English Bible translations]], the [[Wyclif's Bible|translation]] of [[John Wycliffe]], the [[Douay-Rheims Bible]], the [[Confraternity Bible]], and [[Ronald Knox]]'s [[Knox's Translation of the Vulgate|translation]] were all made from the Vulgate.
===Influence on the English language===
The Vulgate had a large influence on the development of the English language, especially in matters of religion and the [[Bible]]. Many Latin words were taken from the Vulgate into English nearly unchanged in meaning or spelling: ''[[wiktionary:creation|creatio]]'' (e.g. [[Genesis]] 1:1, Heb 9:11), ''[[wiktionary:salvation|salvatio]]'' (e.g. Is 37:32, Eph 2:5), ''[[wiktionary:justification|justificatio]]'' (e.g. Rom 4:25, Heb 9:1), ''[[wiktionary:testament|testamentum]]'' (e.g. Mt 26:28), ''[[wiktionary:sanctifiy|sanctificatio]]'' (1 Ptr 1:2, 1 Cor 1:30), ''[[wiktionary:regenerate|regeneratio]]'' (Mt 19:28), and ''[[wiktionary:rapture|raptura]]'' (from a noun form of the verb ''rapiemur'' in 1 Thes 4:17). The word "[[publican]]" comes from the Latin ''publicanus'' (e.g., Mt 10:3), and the phrase "far be it" is a translation of the Latin expression ''absit'' (e.g., Mt 16:22 in the [[King James Bible]]). Other examples include ''[[wiktionary:apostle|apostolus]]'', ''[[wiktionary:church|ecclesia]]'', ''[[wiktionary:gospel|evangelium]]'', ''[[Passover|Pascha]]'', and ''[[wiktionary:angel|angelus]]''.
==See also==
* [[Books of the Latin Vulgate]]
* [[Codex Amiatinus]]
* [[Codex Fuldensis]]
* [[Codex Gigas]]
* [[Gutenberg Bible]]
* [[Jerome]]
* [[List of New Testament Latin manuscripts]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
{{wikisourcelang|la|Vetus Testamentum|Old Testament, Stuttgart Vulgate}}
{{wikisourcelang|la|Novum Testamentum|New Testament, Stuttgart Vulgate}}
* [http://vulsearch.sourceforge.net/html/index.html The Clementine Vulgate, searchable] - 2005 Edition. Michael Tweedale, et alia. No apocrypha.
* [http://www.LatinVulgate.com Biblia Vulgata Stuttgart edition], flanked by Douay-Rheims and King James Versions
* [http://www.drbo.org/lvb/ Stuttgart Vulgate], with Douay-Rheims Version, Gallican Psalter and complete Daniel
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0060 Stuttgart Vulgate with Apocrypha], but missing ''Psalm 151'' and ''Laodiceans''
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/bible/nova_vulgata/documents/nova-vulgata_index_lt.html Nova Vulgata], from the Vatican
* [http://www.fourthcentury.com/old/Jerome/jeromebibletranslations.htm Timeline of Jerome's translations]
* [http://www.bl.uk/treasures/gutenberg/homepage.html Treasures in Full: Gutenberg Bible] Complete digitized texts of the two Gutenberg bibles in the British Library
*[http://kb.se/codex-gigas/eng/ Codex Gigas] — Official Codex Gigas site at the National Library of Sweden. Complete digitized manuscript.
* [http://dubitando.no.sapo.pt/qevcon.htm Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia] - The Latin harmony of the Gospels (1)
* [http://dubitando.no.sapo.pt/qevconn.htm Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia] - The Latin harmony of the Gospels (2)
* [http://librivox.org/biblia-sacra-vulgata-psalmi-xxii/ Free audio recording] of [[Psalm 23|Psalm 22(23)]] from the [[Latin Psalters#Versio juxta Hebraicum|juxta Hebraicum]] psalter by [http://www.librivox.org Librivox]
* [http://vulgate.org Latin Vulgate Project] with Douay-Rheims version
* [http://vulgate.net Biblia Sacra Vulgata] - Novum Testamentum Latine (Latin)
* [http://www.learnlangs.com/biblelatin Learn Bible Latin] reading the Vulgate from lesson 1
* [http://www.sacredbible.org/ SacredBible.org] the Clementine Vulgate in the 1861 Vercellone, 1914 Hetzenauer, and 1822 Leander van Ess editions.
* [http://www.greeklatinaudio.com/ Greek Latin Audio] downloadable audio files of almost the entire New Testatment Vulgate
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