Warring States Period
196576
222428985
2008-06-29T08:36:49Z
68.119.84.92
/* Partition of Jin */
{{ChineseText}}
{{redirect6|Warring States|the period in Japanese history of the 15th–17th centuries|Sengoku period|the Faction Paradox novel|Warring States (novel)}}
{{History of China|BC=1}}
{{Warring States}}
The '''Warring States Period''' ({{zh-tsp|t=戰國時代|s=战国时代|p=Zhànguó Shídài}}), also known as the Era of Warring States, covers the period from some time in the [[5th century BC]] to the unification of [[China]] by the [[Qin Dynasty]] in [[221 BC]]. It is nominally considered to be the second part of the [[Zhou Dynasty|Eastern Zhou Dynasty]], following the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], although the Zhou dynasty itself ended in [[256 BC]], 35 years earlier than the end of the Warring States period. As with the Spring and Autumn Period, the king of Zhou acted merely as a [[figurehead]]. The name ''Warring States Period'' was derived from the ''[[Record of the Warring States]]'', a work historically compiled early in the [[Han Dynasty]]. The date for the beginning of the Warring States Period is somewhat in dispute. While it is frequently cited as [[475 BC]] (following the Spring and Autumn Period), [[403 BC]] — the date of the tripartition of the [[Jin (state)|Jin]] — is also sometimes considered as the beginning of the period.
[[Image:China 2c.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Warring States period]]
The Warring States Period, in contrast to the Spring and Autumn Period, was a period when regional warlords annexed smaller states around them and consolidated their rule. The process began in the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], and by the [[3rd century BC]], seven major states had risen to prominence. These [[Seven Warring States]] (戰國七雄/战国七雄 Zhànguó Qīxióng, literally "Seven Hegemonial among the Warring States"), were the [[Qi (state)|Qi]] (齊/齐), the [[Chu (state)|Chu]] (楚), the [[Yan (state)|Yan]] (燕), the [[Han (state)|Han]] (韓/韩), the [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]] (趙/赵), the [[Wei (state)|Wei]] (魏) and the [[Qin (state)|Qin]] (秦). Another sign of this shift in power was a change in title: warlords still considered themselves dukes (公 ''gōng'') of the Zhou dynasty king; but now the warlords began to call themselves kings (王 ''wáng''), meaning they were equal to the Zhou king.
The Warring States Period saw the proliferation of [[Iron|iron working]] in [[China]], replacing [[bronze]] as the dominant metal used in warfare. Areas such as [[Shu (state)|Shu]] (modern [[Sichuan]]) and [[Yue (state)|Yue]] (modern [[Zhejiang]]) were also brought into the Chinese cultural sphere during this time. Different philosophies developed into the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]], including [[Confucianism]] (elaborated by [[Mencius]]), [[Taoism]] (elaborated by [[Lao Zi]] and to a lesser extent [[Zhuang Zi]], in that it is possible to see the philosophy espoused in the text of the Zhuang Zi as separate from what could be considered "classical Daoism"), [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]] (formulated by [[Han Feizi]]) and [[Mohism]] (formulated by [[Mozi]]). [[Trade]] also became important, and some merchants had considerable power in politics. Military tactics also changed. Unlike the Spring and Autumn Period, most armies in the Warring States Period made combined use of infantry and cavalry, and the use of chariots gradually fell into disfavor. Thus from this period on, the nobles in China remained a literate rather than warrior class, as the kingdoms competed by throwing masses of soldiers against each other. Arms of soldiers gradually changed from bronze to unified iron arms. Dagger-axes were an extremely popular weapon in various kingdoms, especially for the Qin who produced eighteen-foot long pikes.
This was also around the time the legendary military strategist [[Sun Tzu]] (Sun Zi) wrote ''[[The Art of War]]'' which is recognized today as the most influential, and oldest known military strategy guide. Along with this are other military writings that make up the [[Seven Military Classics]] of ancient China: [[Jiang Ziya|T'ai Kung]]'s [[Six Secret Teachings]], [[The Methods of the Sima]], [[Sun Bin]]'s [[Art of War]], [[Wu Qi]], [[Wei Liaozi]], [[Three strategies of Huang Shigong]], and [[The Questions and Replies of Tang Taizong and Li Weigong]] (the last being made ±800 years after this era ended). Once China was unified, these seven military classics were locked away and access was restricted due to their tendency to promote revolution.
== Partition of Jin ==
[[Image:Bianzhong.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Bronze Music Bell Set ''([[bianzhong]])'' [[Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng|Zenghouyi]] (曾侯乙) dated Warring States, 433 BC,with a total weight of 4.4 tons.]]
In the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], the [[State of Jin]] (晉) was arguably the most powerful state in China. However, near the end of the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], the power of the ruling family weakened, and [[State of Jin|Jin]] gradually came under the control of six ministers belonging to six different families (六卿). By the beginning of the Warring States Period, after numerous power struggles, there were four families left: the Zhi (智) family, the Wei (魏) family, the Zhao (趙) family, and the Han (韓) family, with the Zhi family being the dominant power in [[State of Jin|Jin]]. Zhi Yao (智瑶), the last head of the Zhi family, attempted a coalition with the Wei family and the Han family to destroy the Zhao family. However, because of Zhi Yao's arrogance and disrespect towards the other families, the Wei family and Han family secretly allied with the Zhao family, and the three families launched a surprise attack at [[Jinyang]], which was besieged by Zhi Yao at the time, and annihilated the Zhi.
In [[403 BC]], the three major families of [[State of Jin|Jin]], with the approval of the Zhou king, partitioned Jin into three states, which was historically known as 'The Partition of Jin of the Three Families' (三家分晉). The new states were: the [[State of Han]], the [[State of Zhao]], and the [[State of Wei]]. The three family heads were given the title of Marquis (侯), and because the three states were originally part of [[State of Jin|Jin]], they are also referred to as the Three Jins (三晉). The [[State of Jin]] continued to exist with a tiny piece of territory until [[376 BC]] when the rest of the territory was partitioned by the Three Jins.
== Change of government in Qi ==
In [[389 BC]], the Tian (田) family seized control of the [[State of Qi]], and was given the title of Duke. The old Jiang (姜) family's [[State of Qi]] continued to exist with a small piece of territory until [[379 BC]], when it was finally absorbed into Tian family's [[State of Qi]].
== Early strife in the Three Jins, Qi, and Qin ==
[[Image:Jade dragon.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[jade]]-carved [[Chinese dragon|dragon]] garment ornament from the Warring States period.]]
In [[371 BC]], [[Marquess Wu of Wei]] died without specifying a successor, causing [[State of Wei|Wei]] to fall into an internal war of succession. After three years of civil war, [[State of Zhao|Zhao]] and [[State of Han|Han]], sensing an opportunity, invaded [[State of Wei|Wei]]. On the verge of conquering [[State of Wei|Wei]], the leaders of [[State of Zhao|Zhao]] and [[State of Han|Han]] fell into disagreement on what to do with [[State of Wei|Wei]] and both armies mysteriously retreated. As a result, [[King Hui of Wei]] (still a Marquess at the time) was able to jump onto the throne of [[State of Wei|Wei]].
In [[354 BC]], [[King Hui of Wei]] initiated a large scale attack at [[State of Zhao|Zhao]], which some historians believe was to avenge the earlier near destruction of [[State of Wei|Wei]]. By [[353 BC]], [[State of Zhao|Zhao]] was losing the war badly, and one of their major cities — [[Handan]] (邯鄲/邯郸), a city that would eventually become [[State of Zhao|Zhao]]'s capital — was being besieged. As a result, the neighbouring [[State of Qi]] decided to help [[State of Zhao|Zhao]]. The strategy [[State of Qi|Qi]] used, suggested by the famous tactician [[Sun Bin]] (孫臏/孙膑), a descendant of Sun Tzu, who at the time was the [[State of Qi|Qi]] army advisor, was to attack [[State of Wei|Wei]]'s territory while the main [[State of Wei|Wei]] army is busy sieging [[State of Zhao|Zhao]], forcing [[State of Wei|Wei]] to retreat. The strategy was a success; the [[State of Wei|Wei]] army hastily retreated, and encountered the [[State of Qi|Qi]] midway, culminating into the [[Battle of Guiling]] (Pinyin: guì líng) (桂陵之戰/桂陵之战) where [[State of Wei|Wei]] was decisively defeated. The event spawned the idiom "圍魏救趙/围魏救赵", meaning ''"Surrounding [[State of Wei|Wei]] to save [[State of Zhao|Zhao]]"'', which is still used in modern Chinese to refer to attacking an enemy's vulnerable spots in order to relieve pressure being applied by that enemy upon an ally.
In [[341 BC]], [[State of Wei|Wei]] attacked [[State of Han|Han]], and [[State of Qi|Qi]] interfered again. The two generals from the previous [[Battle of Guiling]] met again, and due to the brilliant strategy of [[Sun Bin]], [[State of Wei|Wei]] was again decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Maling]] (馬陵之戰/马陵之战).
The situation for [[State of Wei|Wei]] took an even worse turn when [[State of Qin|Qin]], taking advantage of [[State of Wei|Wei]] series of defeats by [[State of Qi|Qi]], attacked [[State of Wei|Wei]] in [[340 BC]] under the advice of famous Qin reformer [[Shang Yang]] (商鞅). [[State of Wei|Wei]] was devastatingly defeated and was forced to cede a large portion of its territory to achieve a truce. This left their capital [[Anyi]] vulnerable, so [[State of Wei|Wei]] was also forced to move their capital to [[Daliang]].
After these series of events, [[State of Wei|Wei]] became severely weakened, and the [[State of Qi|Qi]] and [[State of Qin|Qin]] states became the two dominant states in China.
== Shang Yang's reforms in Qin ==
{{main|Shang Yang}}
[[Image:Huang with two dragon heads.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A jade-carved huang with two dragon heads, Warring States, [[Shanghai Museum]].]]
Around [[359 BC]], [[Shang Yang]] (商鞅), a minister of the [[State of Qin]], initiated a series of reforms based on the political doctrine of [[Legalism]] that transformed [[State of Qin|Qin]] from a backward state into one that surpasses the other six states. It is generally regarded that this is the point where [[State of Qin|Qin]] started to become the most dominant state in China.
== Ascension of the Kingdoms ==
In [[334 BC]], the rulers of [[State of Wei|Wei]] and [[State of Qi|Qi]] agreed to recognize each other as Kings (王), formalizing the independence of the states and the powerlessness of the Zhou throne since the beginning of the [[Zhou Dynasty|Eastern Zhou Dynasty]]. The King of [[State of Wei|Wei]] and the King of [[State of Qi|Qi]] joined the ranks of the King of [[State of Chu|Chu]], whose predecessors had been Kings since the [[Spring and Autumn Period]]. From this point on, all the other states eventually declare their Kingship, signifying the beginning of the end of the [[Zhou Dynasty]].
In [[325 BC]], the ruler of [[State of Qin|Qin]] declared himself as King.
In [[323 BC]], the rulers of [[State of Han|Han]] and [[State of Yan|Yan]] declared themselves as King.
In [[318 BC]], the ruler of [[State of Song|Song]], a relatively minor state, declared himself as King.
The ruler of [[State of Zhao|Zhao]] held out until around [[299 BC]], and was the last to declare himself as King.
== Chu expansion and defeats ==
[[Image:Chu State Lacquer Coffin.JPG|thumb|left|200px|A [[lacquer]] [[coffin]] decorated with birds and dragons, from the [[State of Chu]], 4th century BC.]]
Early in the Warring States Period, [[State of Chu|Chu]] was one of the strongest states in China. The state rose to a new level of power around [[389 BC]] when the King of [[State of Chu|Chu]] named the famous reformer [[Wu Qi]] (吳起) to be his prime minister.
[[State of Chu|Chu]] rose to its peak in [[334 BC]], when it gained vast amounts of territory. The series of events leading up to this began when [[State of Yue|Yue]] (越) prepared to attack [[State of Qi|Qi]]. The King of [[State of Qi|Qi]] sent an emissary who persuaded the King of [[State of Yue|Yue]] to attack [[State of Chu|Chu]] instead. [[State of Yue|Yue]] initiated a large scale attack at [[State of Chu|Chu]], but was devastatingly defeated by [[State of Chu|Chu]]'s counter-attack. Chu then proceeded to conquer the [[State of Yue]]. This campaign expanded the Chu's borders to the coasts of the [[Pacific Ocean]].
== The Domination of Qin and the resulting Grand Strategies ==
[[Image:Goujian s sword.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Sword of Goujian|King Goujian's bronze sword]], about 500 BC. Goujian was the king of the [[Yue (state)|Yue State]] in the late [[Spring and Autumn Period]].]]
Towards the end of the Warring States Period, the [[State of Qin]] became disproportionately powerful compared to the other six states. As a result, the policies of the six states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing with the Qin threat, with two opposing schools of thought: [[Hezong]] (合縱/合纵 [[pinyin]]: hézòng, "vertically linked"), or alliance with each other to repel Qin [[expansionism]]; and [[Lianheng]] (連橫/连横 [[pinyin]]: liánhéng, "horizontally linked"), or alliance with Qin to participate in its ascendancy. There were some initial successes in Hezong, though it eventually broke down. Qin repeatedly exploited the Lianheng strategy to defeat the states one by one. During this period, many philosophers and tacticians travelled around the states recommending the rulers to put their respective ideas into use. These "lobbyists" were famous for their tact and intellect, and were collectively known as Zonghengjia (縱橫家), taking its name from the two main schools of thought.
In [[316 BC]], [[State of Qin|Qin]] conquered the Shu area.
Around [[300 BC]], Qi was almost totally annihilated by a coalition of five states led by [[Yue Yi]] of Yan (Qin were among those five). Although under [[General Tian Dan]] Qi managed to recover their lost territories, it would never be a great power again. Yan was also too exhausted afterwards to be of much importance in international affairs after this campaign.
In [[293 BC]] the [[Battle of Yique]] against Wei and Han resulted in victory for Qin. This effectively removed Wei and Han threat to further Qin aspirations.
In [[278 BC]], Qin attacked Chu and managed to capture their capital city, [[Ying]], forcing the Chu king to move eastwards to [[Shouchun]]. This campaign virtually destroyed Chu's military might, although they recovered sufficiently to mount serious resistance against Qin 50 years later.
In [[260 BC]], the [[Battle of Changping]] was fought between Qin and Zhao, resulting in a catastrophic defeat for the latter. Although both sides were utterly exhausted after the titanic clash, Zhao, unlike Qin, could not recover after the event.
In about 50 years Qin superiority was secure, thanks to its powerful military and, in part, constant feuding between the other states.
== Military developments ==
The Warring States Period saw the introduction of many new innovations to the art of warfare in China, such as the use of iron and cavalry.
The various states fielded massive armies of infantry, cavalry and chariots. Complex logistical systems maintained by efficient government bureaucracy, was needed to supply, train, and control such large forces. The size of the armies ranged from tens of thousands to several hundred thousand men.
Iron became more widespread and began to replace bronze. Most armour and weapons of this period were made from iron.
The first official native Chinese cavalry unit was formed in 307 BC by [[King Wuling of Zhao]].
But the war chariot still retained its prestige and importance, despite the tactical superiority of cavalry.
Crossbow was the preferred long range weapon of this period due to many reasons. The crossbow could be mass-produced easily, and mass training of crossbowmen was possible. These qualities made it a powerful weapon against the enemy.
Infantrymen deployed a varieties of weapons, but the most popular was the dagger-axe. The dagger-axe came in various length from 9–18 ft, the weapon comprising a thrusting spear with a slashing blade appended to it.
== Zhao's military reforms ==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
In 307 BC, [[King Wuling of Zhao]] adopted superior non-Chinese horse-riding clothing ([[trousers]]) to better facilitate cavalry fighting tactics (胡服騎射).
== Qin's conquest of China ==
In [[230 BC]], the [[State of Qin]] conquers the [[State of Han]] when it, being the weakest state of the total seven [[Warring States]] and also being one of the neighbours to the much more stronger Qin and was being continuously assaulted by Qin in earlier years during Warring states period. This went on until Emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]] sent the famed general [[Wang Jian]] to attack the state of Zhao. King An of Han (韓廢王), frightened by the possibility that the State of Qin was going to target them right after Zhao, immediately sent diplomats to the state of Qin to surrender the entire kingdom without a fight. Although Qin had conquered Han without a fight, it also saved a lot of people from the potential devastation if the State of Han was to resist its massive invasions.
In [[225 BC]], [[State of Qin|Qin]] conquers [[State of Wei|Wei]]. The Qin army led a direct invasion into the state of Wei by besieging its capital [[Kaifeng]] (大梁) but soon the Qin army realized that the city walls were too tough to break into and so they devised a new strategy in which they utilized the power of a local river which was linked to the [[Yellow River]]. The river was then used to flood the city's walls, causing massive devastation to the city. Upon realizing the situation, King Jia of Wei (王假) hurriedly came out of the city and surrendered its city to the Qin army in order to avoid further bloodshed of his people.
In [[223 BC]], [[State of Qin|Qin]] conquers [[State of Chu|Chu]]. The King of Qin, Ying Zheng, decided to first defeat the strongest state, Chu. However, the first invasion was doomed to utter disaster when northern style Qin troops were defeated by 500,000 Chu troops in the unfamiliar territory of Huaiyang, modern-day northern Jiangsu and Anhui provinces. The Qin general was Li Xing, who was inexperienced.
In 224 BC., the famed conqueror of the state of Zhao, Wang Jian, was recalled to lead a second invasion with 600,000 men. Chu's morale was greatly increased after their success in defeating the seemingly invincible army of Qin the year before. The Chu forces were content to sit back and defend and believed it was Qin's intention to besiege Chu. However, Wang Jian tricked the Chu army by appearing to be idle in his fortifications whilst secretly training his troops to fight in Chu territory. After a year, Chu decided to disband due to inaction. Wang Jian invaded at the best moment with full force to overrun Huaiyang and the remaining Chu forces. Chu lost the initiative and could only sustain local guerrilla-style resistance until it too was fully conquered in 223 BCE. During their peak sizes, both armies of Chu and Qin combined numbered over 1,000,000 troops, more than the massive battle of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years before but which the Qin was able to conquer the state of Chu at last.
In [[222 BC]], [[State of Qin|Qin]] conquers [[State of Yan|Yan]] and [[State of Zhao|Zhao]]. After the conquest of Zhao the Qin army then turned its attention towards the state of Yan. Realizing the danger & gravity of this situation, [[Yan Prince Dan]] had sent an assassin [[Jing Ke]] to kill the Qin emperor but this failure only helped to fuel the rage & determination of Qin Shi Huang and he increased the number of troops to conquer the state of Yan.
In [[221 BC]], [[State of Qin|Qin]] conquers [[State of Qi|Qi]]. Qi previously did not contribute or helped other states when Qin was conquering the other states and as soon as Qin was aiming for its final target the Qi quickly made the same decision as the Han did some nine years earlier and surrendered all its cites to Qin, completing the [[unification of China]], and ushering in the [[Qin Dynasty]].
{{Commons|Warring States Period}}
==References==
*Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). ''East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History''. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company.
[[Category:5th century BC conflicts]]
[[Category:4th century BC conflicts]]
[[Category:3rd century BC conflicts]]
[[Category:Zhou Dynasty]]
[[Category:Ancient Chinese states]]
[[Category:History of Ancient China]]
[[ca:Període dels Regnes Combatents (Xina)]]
[[cs:Období válčících států]]
[[de:Zeit der Streitenden Reiche]]
[[et:Zhanguo]]
[[es:Reinos Combatientes]]
[[fr:Royaumes combattants]]
[[zh-classical:戰國]]
[[ko:전국 시대]]
[[id:Zaman Negara-Negara Berperang]]
[[it:Periodo dei regni combattenti]]
[[he:תקופת המדינות הלוחמות]]
[[nl:Periode van de Strijdende Staten]]
[[ja:戦国時代 (中国)]]
[[no:De stridende staters tid]]
[[pl:Okres Walczących Królestw]]
[[pt:Período dos Reinos Combatentes]]
[[ru:Период Сражающихся царств]]
[[fi:Taistelevat läänitysvaltiot]]
[[sv:De krigande staterna]]
[[vi:Chiến Quốc]]
[[zh:戰國]]